Five Models of Staff Development

Sparks, Dennis and Loucks-Horsley, Susan(1989). Five Models of Staff Development. Journal of

Staff Development. 10 1-26.

Five Models of Staff Development

Individually-guided staff development

Observation/assessment

Involvement in a development/improvement process

Training

Inquiry

Individually-guided

“I have come to feel that the only learning which significantly influences behavior is self-discovered, self-appropriated learning.”

Rogers, 1969, p. 153

Individually-guided - Defined

A process through which teachers plan for and pursue activities they believe will promote their own learning.

Designed by the teacher

Teacher defined goals and activities

Individually-guided - Underlying Assumptions

Individuals can judge their own needs and that they are capable of self direction and self-initiated learning.

Adults learn most efficiently when they initiate and plan their learning rather than spend their time in irrelevant activities of little interest.

Most motivated when they select their own leaning goals based on their personal of their needs.

Individually-guided - Theoretical and Research Underpinnings

Adult learning theory Kidd (1973) and Knowles (1980)

Increasingly self-directed Stimulated by real life tasks and problems

Stage Theory Levine (1989)

Different stages of development have different needs

Individually-guided - Theoretical and Research Underpinnings

Learning styles researchers Dunn & Dunn (1978); Gregorc (1979)

Individuals differ in the way they process information and in the manner they learn

Concerns-based Adoption Model (CBAM) Hall & Loucks (1978)

As individuals learn new behaviors and change their practice, they experience different concerns that in turn requires different types of responses from staff developers

Individually-guided - Phases of Activity

Identification of need or interest

Develop a plan to meet the need or interest

The learning activity

Assessment of whether the learning meets the identified need or interest.

Observation/Assessment

“Feedback is the breakfast of champions”

Blanchard & Johnson

The One Minute Manager

Observation/Assessment

Many teachers receive little or no feedback and in some cases they only observed once every three years.

May be a powerful staff development model but is perceived by teachers as evaluation.

In reality other forms such as peer coaching and clinical supervision fall into this category

Observation/Assessment - Underlying Assumptions

“Reflection and analysis are central means of professional growth”. Loucks-Horsley (1987, p. 61)

Reflection by an individual on his or her own practice can be enhanced by another’s observation.

Observation and assessment of classroom teachers can benefit both parties – the observer and the observed

When teachers see positive results from their efforts to change they are more apt to engage in improvement

Observation/Assessment theoretical and research underpinnings

Teacher Evaluation McGreal (1982)

Classroom observation plays a key role Concern about reliability Two ways to increase reliability

Narrow the range of what to look for (Madeline Hunter) Use a pre-conference to increase the knowledge of the observer

prior to the observation

Observation/Assessment - Theoretical and Research Underpinnings

Clinical Supervision Glatthorn (1984)

Recommends clinical supervisors (or coaches) alternate unfocused observations with focused observations Unfocused – observer usually takes verbatim notes on all

significant behaviors Data gathered is used to identify strengths and potential

problems that are discussed in a problem-solving feedback conference

Focused – observer gathers data related to identified problem

Observation/Assessment - Theoretical and Research Underpinnings

Clinical supervision Glickman (1986)

Suggest that feedback be to provided teachers based on cognitive levels. “low-abstract” receive direct conferences ( problem identification

and solution comes from the coach) “moderate-abstract” receive collaborative conferences (an exchange

of perceptions about problems and negotiated solutions) “high-abstract” receive nondirective approach (coach or supervisor

helps the teacher clarify problems and choose a course of action)

Observation/Assessment - Phases of Activity

Pre-observation conference

Observation

Analysis of data

Post-observation conference

In some cases, analysis of the observation/assessment process

Involvement in a Development/ Improvement Process

Teachers are asked to:Develop or adapt curriculumDesign programsEngage in a systematic school improvement

Any or all of these with the focus of improving classroom instruction and/or curriculum.

Successful completion requires the teacher to gain additional knowledge to complete the task.

This model focuses on the combination of learnings that result from the involvement of teacher in the process.

Involvement in a Development/ Improvement Process - Underlying

Assumptions

Adults learn more easily when they have a need to know or a problem to solve (Knowles, 1980).

People working closest to the job best understand what is required to improve their performance.

Teachers acquire important knowledge or skills through their involvement in school improvement or curriculum development processes.

Involvement in a Development/ Improvement Process - Theoretical and Research Underpinnings

Curriculum Development Joyce and Showers (1988)

“It has been well established that curriculum implementation is demanding of staff development – essentially, without strong staff development programs that are appropriately designed a very low level of implementation occurs” (p. 44).

Glickman (1987)Three ways teachers can modify a district’s curriculum guide

Taking lists of objectives and recommended teaching methods and turning them into a set of usable instructional guides

Adapt the guide to students’ special needs Enhance the guide by developing optional enrichment units.

Involvement in a Development/ Improvement Process - Theoretical and Research Underpinnings

Curriculum Development Glatthorn

Activities should be done in groups thus teachers will become more cohesive and will share ideas about teaching and learning in general, as well as, on the development task at hand.

School Improvement Loucks-Horsley and Hergert (1985)

Described seven action steps in a school improvement process that are based in research on implementation of new practices in schools

Cohen (1981) Research on effective schools underpins an approach to school

improvement through staff development

Curriculum Development and School Improvement - Phases of Activity

Identification of a problem or need by an individual, a group of teachers, a school faculty, or a district administrator.

Response is formulatedMay be formal or informal

Response may be immediate or may require brainstorming sessionsMay require consultation with a larger group (i.e., whole faculty)

Specific knowledge or skills may be required

Implement or produce the product

Training

… the purpose of providing training in any practice is not simply to generate the external visible teaching “moves” that bring that practice to bear in the instructional setting but to generate the conditions that enable the practice to be selected and used appropriately and integratively …a major, perhaps the major, dimension of teaching skill is cognitive in nature

Showers, Joyce, and Bennett (1987, p. 85-86)

Training

Many educators equate training with staff development

Training session is conducted with a clear set of objectives or learner outcomes that may include Awareness or knowledge Skill development

Training - Underlying Assumptions

There are behaviors and techniques that are worthy of replication by teachers in the classroom

That teachers can change their behaviors and learn to replicate behaviors in the classroom that were not previously in their repertoire

Training - Theoretical and Research Underpinnings

Training Model Joyce and Showers (1988)

Depending on the desired outcomes, training might include: Exploration of theory Demonstration or modeling of a skill Practice of a skill under simulated conditions Feedback about performance Coaching in the workplace

Combination of components is necessary if the outcome is skill development

Training - Theoretical and Research Underpinnings

Training ModelSparks

Discussion and peer observation are important as training activities

Loucks-Horsley et al. (1987); Sparks (1983)Training sessions spaced one or more weeks apart in order to

allow for improved comprehension and so teachers have opportunities for classroom practice and peer coaching are shown to be more effective than “one-shot” sessions

Sparks (1983); Wu (1987) and Wood and Kleine (1987) Point out the value of teachers as trainers of their peers

Training - Phases of activity

Involve participants in the planning

Allow for interaction in the training session among peers

After training, in-classroom assistance in the form of peer observation and coaching is critical to the transfer of more complex teaching skills

Inquiry

“the most effective avenue for professional development is cooperative study by teachers themselves into a problem and issues arising from their attempts to make practice consistent with their educational values…[The approach] aims to give greater control over what is to count as valid educational knowledge to teachers.”

(Ingvarson, 1987, p. 15.17)

Inquiry

Teacher inquiry may be a solitary activity, be done in small groups, or be conducted by school faculty.

May be formal or informal

May occur in the classroom, at a teacher center, or results from a university class

Research is an important activity in which teachers should be engaged, although they rarely participate in it other than as “subjects.”

Inquiry - Underlying Assumptions

Teachers are intelligent, inquiring individuals with legitimate expertise and important experience.

Teachers are inclined to search for data to answer pressing questions and to reflect on the data to formulate solutions.

Teachers will develop new understanding as they formulate their questions and collect their own data to answer them. (Loucks-Horsley et al., 1987)

Inquiry - Theoretical and Research Underpinnings

Inquiry-oriented teachers Dewey (1933)

Need for teachers to take a “reflective action.”

Zeichner (1983) Advocacy for “teachers as action researchers,” “teacher scholars.”

“teacher innovators,” “self-monitoring teachers,” and “teachers as participant observers.”

Inquiry - Theoretical and Research Underpinnings

Interactive research Tikunoff (1983)

Interactive research and development promotes inquiry into the questions they are asking through close work with researchers (who help with methodology) and staff developers (who help with the creation of ways of sharing their results with others).

Lieberman (1986) Teachers server on collaborative teams pursuing answers to

schoolwide rather than classroom problems Watts (1985)

Role of collaborative research, classroom action research, and teacher support groups in encouraging teacher inquiry.

Sparks (1985) Use of action research to help teachers better relate research on

teaching to their unique classrooms.

Inquiry - Theoretical and Research Underpinnings

Action ResearchGlickman (1986)

Advocates action research in the form of quality circles, problem-solving groups, and school improvement projects as a means to develop teacher thought.

Cross (1987)Proposed classroom research as a means to evaluate their own

teaching

Glatthorn (1987)Action research by teams of teachers as a peer-centered option

for promoting professional growth.

Inquiry - Phases of Activity

Identify a problem

Explore ways of collecting data that may range from existing theoretical and research literature to gathering original classroom or school data

Analyze and interpret these data

Changes are made and new data are gathered to determine the effects of the intervention