folio chemistry 2010 (2)

8/3/2019 FOLIO CHEMISTRY 2010 (2)

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Name Mathiarasi Bernabas

Class 4 Amanah

Title

Manufactured Substances in Industry

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Content Page

(A) Sulphuric acid

Manufacture of sulphuric acid 1 3

Properties of sulphuric acid 4

The uses of sulphuric acid 5 7

Sulphur dioxide and environmental pollution 8 9

(B) Ammonia and its salt

Manufacture of ammonia 10 11

Properties of ammonia 12

The uses and preparation of ammonia 13

(C) Alloys

Arrangement of atoms in metals 14

What are alloys? 15 Composition,properties and uses of alloys 16

(D) Synthetic polymers

What are polymers? 17

Properties of polymers 18

Monomer in synthetic polymer 19

Example and uses of synthetic polymers 20

(E) Glass and ceramics

Glass-Component and properties of glass 21

Example and uses of glass 22

Ceramics-Component and properties of ceramics 23 Example and uses of ceramics 24

(F) Composite materials

What are composite materials 25

Example and their uses 26

Conclusion of topic 27

Acknowledgement 28

References 29

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(A) Sulphuric acid

Manufacture of sulphuric acid

Contact process produces more than 90% of the world sulphuric acid.

Raw materials used for the manufacture of sulphuric acid :-

(i) sulphur

(ii) air(iii) water.

Contact process consists of 3 stages:

~ Production of sulphur dioxide

~ Conversion of sulphur dioxide is sulphur trioxide.~ Production of sulphuric acid

Stage I: Production of sulphur dioxide

(a)Sulphur is burnt in air to produce sulphur dioxide.

S(s) + O2(g) SO2(g)

(b)Burning of metal sulphides such as zinc sulphide and lead sulphide also produces sulphur

dioxide.

2ZnS(s) + 3O2(g) 2SO2(g) + 2ZnO(s)

2PbS(s) + 3O2(g) 2SO2(g) + 2PbO(s)

(c)The sulphur dioxide is then mixed with excess air.The mixture is dried and purified to removeimpurities such as arsenic compounds.

(d)Arsenic compounds found in sulphur will poison the catalyst in the converter, making the

catalyst ineffective.

Stage II: Conversion of sulphur dioxide to sulphur trioxide

(a)The mixture of sulphur dioxide and excess oxygen is passed through a converter.The sulphur

dioxide is oxidised to sulphur trioxide.

2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g)

(b)Optimum conditions used are as follows.

(i) Temperature : 450C

(ii) Pressure : 1 atmosphere

(iii) Catalyst : Vanadium(V) oxide,V2O5

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(c)About 97% conversion occurs under these optimum conditions.

Stage III : Production of sulphuric acid

(a) The sulphur trioxide is first dissolved in concentrated sulphuric acid to form a productcalled oleum, H2S2O7

SO3(g) + H2SO4(aq) H2S2O7(l)

(b) Sulphur trioxide is not dissolved in water to form sulphuric acid.This is because reaction

between sulphur trioxide and water is very vigorous and produces a large amount of

heat.The reaction causes the production of a large cloud of sulphuric acid mist.The mist iscorrosive, pollutes the air and is difficult to condense.

(c) The oleum is then diluted with water to produce concentrated sulphuric acid of about98%.

H2S2O7(l) + H2O(l) 2H2SO4(aq)

Flow chart of Contact process.

burns in air

O2V2O5,450C, 1 atm

concentrated H2SO4

water

water

Figure 1 : The manufacture of sulphuric acid through the Contact process

5

Sulphuric acid, H2SO4 Oleum, H2S2O7

Sulphur trioxide, SO3

Sulphur dioxide,SO2

Sulphur

Sulphur dioxide, SO2

Sulphuric acid, H2SO4

Oleum,H2S2O7


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The manufacture of sulphuric acid, H2SO4 in the Contact Process

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9

Oily

liquid

Highlycorrosive

Non-

volatile

acid

Viscouscolourless

liquid

Dense

Soluble inwater

Density

1.83g cm-3

Diprotic

acid

Boilingpoint

340oC

Melting

point

10oC

Molar

mass

98 g mol-1

ChemicalFormula:

H2SO4

Propertiesof

sulphuricacid
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Uses of sulphuric acid

There are many fertilizers that can be made of sulphuric acid. Some of them are:

a) Calcium hydrogen phosphate (superphosphate)

b) Ammonium sulphate

c) Potassium sulphate

Sulphuric acid is used as:

to manufacture fertilisers

to manufacture paint pigment

to manufacture detergents

to manufacture synthetic fibre

to clean metals

to manufacture plastics

as an electrolyte in car batteries

to manufacture other chemicals

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2 H2SO4

(aq) + Ca3(PO

4)

2(s)

Ca(H

2PO

4)

2(aq)+ 2CaSO

4(s)

sulphuric acid + tricalcium phosphate calcium hydrogen phosphate

H2SO4(aq) +2NH

3(aq) (NH

4)

2SO

4(aq)

sulphuric acid + aqueous ammonia ammonium sulphate

H2SO4(aq) +2KOH

(aq) K2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

sulphuric acid + potassium hydroxide solution Potassium sulphate
http://www.answers.com/topic/hydrogenhttp://www.answers.com/topic/sulfurhttp://www.answers.com/topic/oxygenhttp://www.answers.com/topic/hydrogenhttp://www.answers.com/topic/sulfurhttp://www.answers.com/topic/oxygenhttp://www.answers.com/topic/hydrogenhttp://www.answers.com/topic/sulfurhttp://www.answers.com/topic/oxygenhttp://www.answers.com/topic/oxygenhttp://www.answers.com/topic/sulfurhttp://www.answers.com/topic/hydrogenhttp://www.answers.com/topic/oxygenhttp://www.answers.com/topic/sulfurhttp://www.answers.com/topic/hydrogenhttp://www.answers.com/topic/oxygenhttp://www.answers.com/topic/sulfurhttp://www.answers.com/topic/hydrogen


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1) To manufacture paint pigments

The white pigment in paint is usually barium sulphate, BaSO4. The neutralization of

sulphuric acid and barium hydroxide produces barium sulphate.

2) To manufacture detergents

Sulphuric acid reacts with by-products of oil refining to form sulphonic acid.Neutralising the sulphonic acid with an alkali produces detergents.

3) To manufacture synthetic fibres

Synthetic fibres are polymers ( long chain molecules). Rayon is an example of a synthetic

fibre that is produced by the reaction of sulphuric acid eith cellulose threads soaked inalkaline solution.

4) Cleaning metals

Before electroplating,sulphuric acid is used for cleaning metals to remove the surface

oxides.

5) Other chemicals

Sulphuric acid is used as other chemicals like pharmaceuticals,insectides, tartaric acidand explosive.

6) The uses of sulphuric acid in school laboratories are:

a. As a strong acid

b. As a drying or dehydrating agent

c. As an oxidizing agent

d. As a sulphonating agent

e. As a catalyst

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H2SO4(aq) + Ba(OH)2

(aq) BaSO4(s) + 2H2O(l)

sulphuric acid + barium hydroxide solution Barium sulphate + water
http://www.answers.com/topic/hydrogenhttp://www.answers.com/topic/sulfurhttp://www.answers.com/topic/oxygenhttp://www.answers.com/topic/oxygenhttp://www.answers.com/topic/sulfurhttp://www.answers.com/topic/hydrogen


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Manufacture of car batteries Manufacture of detergents Manufacture of fertilisers

Manufacture of paints Manufacture of plastic items Manufacture of pesticides

Figure 2 : Uses of sulphuric acid

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Metallurgy

Fertilisers

Paint pigment

Detergents

Synthetic

Fibre

Plastics

Electrolytes


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Sulphur dioxide and environmental pollution

1) Sulphur dioxide is released through:-

(a) Burning of sulphur during Contact process(b) Extraction of some metals from their sulphides ores

(c) Burning of coals or fuels with high sulphur content

2) Acid rain occurs when there is sulphurous acid,sulphuric acid and nitric acid in the rain.

These strong acids will cause the pH of rain to fall between 2.4 and 5.0

3) Sulphur dioxide accounts for most of the acid rain problems.

(a) When sulphur dioxide dissolves in rainwater,sulphurous acid is formed

SO2(g) + H2O (l) H2SO3(aq)(b) Sulphur dioxide can react with oxygen and water to form sulphuric acid

2SO2(g) + O2(g) + 2H2O(l) 2H2SO4(aq)

Ways to control and reduce the effects of acid rain:

Use low-sulphur fuels

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Add calcium oxide(lime), CaO; calcium hydroxide,Ca(OH)2 and powdered llimestone

CaCO3 into the acidic lake or river to neutralize the acids present

CaO(s) + 2H (aq) Ca (aq) +H2O(l)

Ca(OH)2(s) + 2H (aq) Ca (aq) + 2H2O(l)

CaCO3(s) + 2H (aq) Ca (aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

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Environmental problems cause by acid rain

corrodes buildings,monuments and statues

calcium carbonate in the marble reacts with H2SO4

from the rain toform calcium sulphate.CaCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) CaSO4(s) + CO2(g) +

H2O(l)

corrodes metallic structureThe iron from the steel bridges reacts with sulphuric

acid to form iron(II) sulphate.

Fe(s) + H2SO4(aq) FeSO4(aq) + H2(g)

increase the acidity of water

Acid rain disturbs the ecosystem

Fish and other aquatic organisms which cannot live in

acidic water may die.

increase the acidity of the soil

plants cannot grow well in acidic soilreaction of sulphuric acid with aluminium compounds

in the soil forms aluminium sulphate which can

damage the roots of trees.

leaches minerals and nutrients in the soil.

acid react with minerals in the soil to form double

salts.dissolved salts carried by the rainwater to river.

plants lack of essential nutrients for growth.

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(B) Ammonia and its salts

Manufacture of ammonia in industry

Ammonia is manufactured in industries through Haber process.

Raw materials for the Haber process are(i)hydrogen

(ii)nitrogen

Nitrogen gas is obtained from the fractional distillation of liquid air.

Hydrogen gas is obtained by:(i)Reaction between methane from natural gas and steam

CH4(g) + 2H2O(l) 4H2(g) + CO2(g)

(ii)The reaction between heated coke and steam

C(s) + H2O(l) H2(g) + CO(g)

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The manufacture of ammonia,NH3 through the Haber Process.

Nitrogen and hydrogen are mixed according to the ratio 1 mole N2 : 3 moles H2.

The mixture is compressed to 200 atm and heated to a temperature of about 450C

The mixture is then passed through layers of heated iron catalyst in a reactor.Ammonia is

produced.

N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)The reaction is reversible and the production of ammonia gives out heat.The high pressure

and iron catalyst speed up the rate of reaction.

The ammonia gas produced is liquefied ans separated to get a better yield.

The unreacted nitrogen and hydrogen are recycled and passed back into the reactor togetherwith the new source of nitrogen and hydrogen.About 98% of nitrogen and hydrogen are

converted into ammonia.

Ammonium fertilisers

Plants need nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and calcium to grow.

Nitrogen-make proteins in stalks and leaves

Nitrogen is absorbed by plants in the form of soluble nitrate ions, NO3-

Ammonium fertilisers contain ammonium ions.In the soil, the ammonium ions are converted

to nitrate ions by bacteria

Examples of ammonium fertilisers:

(a) Ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3

(b) Ammonium sulphate, (NH4)2SO4

(c) Ammonium phosphate, (NH4)2HPO4

(d) Urea,CO(NH2)2

Fertilisers that contain a high percentage of nitrogen are more effective.

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Ammonium fertilisers can be prepared by reactions between ammonia solution and acids.

Properties of ammonia

alkaline gas

very soluble in

water

less dense than

air

pungent smell

colourless gas

Physical

properties ofammonia

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Chemical reaction of ammonia:(a) Reacting as a base

Ammonia ionises partially in water and therefore is a weak base.

NH3(g) + H2O(l) NH4 (aq) + OH (aq)

Ammonia undergoes neutralisation with acids to form ammonium salts.

Ammonia + acid ammonium salt

(b) Reacting with aqueous metal ions

Ammonia solution can precipitate some metal hydroxides from their aqueous salt

solutions.The metal ions combine with the hydroxide ions from aqueous ammonia to

produce insoluble metal hydroxides : Mn (aq) + nOH (aq) M(OH)n(s)

Uses of ammonia

To make fertilisers

- provide plants the nitrogen they need to grow

- these fertilisers are ammonium salts obtained from the neutralization of ammonia with

different acids. Examples:(a) Ammonium phosphate

- reaction of ammonia with phosphoric acid produces ammonium phosphatesNH3(aq) + H3PO(aq) NH4H2PO4(aq)

2 NH3(aq) + H3PO(aq) (NH4)2HPO4(aq)

- good fertilisers because they provide two important nutrients,phosphorus and

nitrogen.

(b) Ammonium nitrate

- ammonia is neutralised by nitric acid,ammonium nitrate is formed

NH3(aq) + HNO3(aq) NH4NO3(aq)

(c) Ammonium sulphate

- ammonia is neutralised by sulphuric acid2NH3(aq) + H2SO4(aq) (NH4)2SO4(aq)

(d) Urea

- At a temperature of 200C and a high pressure of 200 atm, ammonia reacts with

carbon dioxide to produce urea.

2NH3(g) + CO2(g) CO(NH2)2(s) + H2O(l)

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- used as a raw material for the manufacture of nitric acid in the Ostwad process.

- Liquid ammonia used as cooling agent- used as an alkali to prevent the coagulation of latex

- Ammonia salts is used as smelling salts to revive people who have fainted

Preparation of ammonia

The chief commercial method of producing ammonia is by theHaber-Bosch process, whichinvolves the direct reaction of elemental hydrogen and elemental nitrogen.N2 + 3H2 2NH3This reaction requires the use of a catalyst, highpressure (1001,000 atmospheres), and elevated

temperature (400550 C [7501020 F]). Actually, the equilibrium between the elements and

ammonia favours the formation of ammonia at low temperature, but high temperature is requiredto achieve a satisfactory rate of ammonia formation. Several different catalysts can be utilized.

Normally the catalyst isiron containing iron oxide. However, both magnesium oxide on

aluminum oxide that has been activated byalkali metal oxides andruthenium on carbon havebeen employed as catalysts. In the laboratory, ammonia is best synthesized by the hydrolysis of a

metal nitride.Mg3N2 + 6H2O 2NH3 + 3Mg(OH)2

(C) Alloys

Arrangement of atoms in metals

Pure metals

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Pure metal is made up of one type of atoms,thus all atoms are of the same size.

In solid state ,the atoms in a pure metal are orderly arranged

and closely packed together.Thus,pure metals have highdensities.

Although the forces of attraction between the metal atoms are strong,they are not

rigid.Therefore when a force is applied,the layers of atoms can slide over one another.Thus

metals are ductile or can be stretched.

Ductile

Malleable

Goodconductors of

heat and

electricity

High melting

& boilingpoints

High density

Physical

properties of

pure metals

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Force

Layers of atoms slide over one another

Figure 3 : Metals are ductile

The arrangement of atoms in pure metals are not perfect.There are some empty spaces inbetween the atoms.When a metal is knocked or pressed,groups of atoms may slide and then

settle into new position.So,metals are malleable.

Force

Figure 4 : Metals are malleable

Pure metals are weak and soft due to their ductility and malleability

What are alloys?

An alloy is a mixture of two or more elements with a certain fixed composition in which themajor component is a metal.

Pure metals are normally soft and easily oxidised.This is the reason why monuments orstatues are made of bronze(an alloy) and not copper(a pure metal).

Alloy are stronger,harder,resistant to corrosion,have a better finish and lustrous.

Why make alloys?

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The aim of making alloy is:

(a) to increase the strength and hardness of a pure metal

(b) to increase the resistance to corrosion of a pure metal(c) to improve the appearance of a pure metal

Figure 5 : Making alloy

Composition, properties and uses of alloys

Alloy Composition Properties Uses

Bronze 90% copper,

10% tin

Hard,strong,does not corrode

easily,shiny surface

Medals,statues,monuments,art

objects

Brass 70% copper

30% zinc

Harder than copper Musical instruments,

kitchenware, door knobs,bulletcases,electric parts,ornaments

Cupro-nickel 75% copper25% nickel

Beautifulsurface,shiny,hard,does not corrode easily

Coins

Steel 99% iron

1% carbon

Hard,strong Buildings,bridges,body of cars,

railway tracks

Stainless steel 74% iron,

8% carbon18%chronium

Shiny,strong,does not rust Cutlery,surgical

instruments,sinks,pipes

Duralumin 93%aluminium3% copper

3%magnesium

1%manganese

Light,strong Body of aircraft and bullet trains

Pewter 96% tin

3% copper

1% antimony

Shiny, strong,does not

corrode

Art objects,souvenirs

9-carat gold 37.5% gold

11% silver51.5 % copper

Shiny, strong,does not

corrode

Jewellery

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(D) Synthetic Polymer

What are polymers?

Polymers are large long-chain molecules formed by joining together many identical repeating

sub-units called monomers.

Polymerisation is a process by which the monomers are joined together into chain-like

molecule called polymer.

Formation of polymer

Polymers can be divided into 2 types.

Natural Polymers

NATURAL POLYMER MONOMER

Rubber Isoprene

Cellulose Glucose

Starch Glucose

Protein Amino acid

Fat Fatty acid and glycerol

Polymers

Natural Polymers

Exist in living things in nature

Ex:Protein,cellulose,wool,silk,

starch,natural rubber & DNA

Synthetic Polymers

They are man-made in laboratory through

chemical processes.

Ex: Plastics, nylon

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Nucleic acid Nucleotides

Examples of natural polymers and their monomers

i) Natural polymers and their uses

NATURAL POLYMER USE

Rubber Tyres, eraser, condom, electric insulation, elastic bands

and belts.

Cellulose Paper, textiles, pharmaceuticals, and explosives

Starch To stiffen cloth (as in laundering), used in cooking to

thicken foods, manufactured ofadhesives,paper,textiles

and as a mold in the manufacture of sweets.Protein Essential in the diet of animals for the growth and repair of tissue,

Fat Maintaining healthy skinand hair, insulating body organsagainst shock, promoting healthy cell function and serve

as energy stores for the body

Synthetic Polymer

Synthetic polymers are prepared through 2 types of polymerisation processes:

(a)Addition polymerisation(b)Condensation polymerisation

Addition polymerisation

- involves monomers with double bonds between the carbon atoms.- During addition polymerisation, the double bonds between pairs of carbon atoms break

and the carbon atoms pf adjacent ethene molecules join together to form a molecule of

poly or polythene.

Condensation polymerisation

- involves the joining up of monomers with the formation of other smaller and simple

molecules.

Plastics

Plastics are the largest group of synthethic polymers with the following properties:

(a)Can be easily moulded

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(b)Low density

(c)Strong

(d)Inert to chemicals(e)Insulator of heat and electricity

(f)Can be coloured

Name of polymer Equation forpolymerisation

Properties Uses

Polyethylene(polythene)

H H H H n C=C CC

H H H H n

Ethene Polythene

Durable,light,impermeable,Inert to chemicals,easily

melted,insulator

Shopping bags,Plastic cups and

plates,toys

Polypropylene(polypropene)

H CH3 H CH3 n C=C CC

H H H Hn

Propene Polypropene

Durable,light,impermeable,Inert to chemicals,easily

melted,insulator,can be

moulded and coloured

Bottles,furniture,battery casing,

pipes,toys

Teflon F F F F n C=C CC

F F F F n

Tetrafluo- Teflon

roethene

Durable,non-stick,

Chemically inert,strong,

impermeable

Coating for non-

stick pans,

electrical

insulators

Synthetic fibre

Synthetic fibre are long-chain polymers which are not easily stretched and have highstrength.

Polynamides and polyester are two groups of synthetic polymers used as fibres for makingtekstil.

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Example of polynamide polymers is nylon.

Example of polyester polymers is terylene.

Nylon and terylene are produced through condensation polymerisation.

TYPE OF POLYMER USE

Polythene a) Make buckets

b) Make plastic bags

c) Make raincoats

d) Make filmse) Make rubbish bins

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) a) Make water pipes

b) Make electric cablesc) Make mats

d) Make vinyl recordse) Make clothes hangers

Polypropene a) Make ropesb) Make bottles

c) Make chairs

d) Make drink cans

e) Make carpets

Perspex a) Make car windows

b) Make plane windows

c) Make spectacle lenses (optical instruments)Nylon a) Make ropesb) Make curtains

c) Make stockings

d) Make clothes

Polystyrene a) Make packing boxes

b) Make buttons

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c) Make noticeboards

Terylene a) Make textile items such as clothes and cloths

Disposal of synthetic polymers has caused environmental pollution problems:

(a) Synthetic polymers are not easily biodegradable,thus their waste will block or clog up thedrainage system,thereby causing flash flood.

(b) Waste plastics pollute the lake and river,making the water not suitable for aquaticorganisms to live in

Ways to solve the problems caused by the use of synthetic polymers:

(a) Reuse(b) Recycle

(c) Use biodegradable synthetic polymer

(d) Dispose of unwanted synthetic polymers in a proper manner.

(E) Glass and ceramics

Glass

The major component of glass is silica or silicon dioxide,SiO2 which can be found in sand.

Glass can made by heating a mixture of silicon dioxide and metal carbonates to a temperature

above 1500C.

Figure 6 : Structure of silicon dioxide

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Type of glass Composition Properties Uses

Fused glass Silicon dioxide High melting

point

High temperature

and chemical

durability

Resistant tothermal shock

transparent to

ultraviolet andinfrared light

Laboratory

glassware

Arc tubes in

lamps

Lenses

Telescope mirrors

Optical fibres

Soda-lime glass silicon dioxide

Sodium oxide

Low meltingpoint

Containers suchas bottles,jars.

Chemically

inert

Electricalinsulator

Heat insulator

Impermeableto liquid

Hard but

brittle

Transparent

Physical

properties of

glass

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Calcium oxide High thermalexpansion

coefficient

Does not

withstand heat

Cracks easily withsudden change in

temperature

Good chemical

durability

Easy to mouldand shape

Transparent to

visible light

Flat glass

Windowpanes

Mirrors

Light bulbs

Industrial and art

objects.

Borosilicate glass Silicon dioxide

Boron oxide

Sodium oxide Calcium oxide

Transparent to

visible light

resistant tochemicals

Lower thermalexpansion

coefficient

Resistant to

thermal shock

Can withstand

wide range of

temperaturechanges

Cookware

Laboratory

glassware Automobile

headlights

glass pipelines

Electrical tubes

Lead crystal glass Silicon dioxide

Lead(II) oxide

Sodium oxide

Soft,easy to melt

Transparent to

visible light

High density

High reactive

index

Tableware

Art objects

Crystals

Prisms

Lenses

Ceramics

Ceramics are made from clay such as kaolin.Kaolin is rich in kaolinite(hydrated

aluminosilicate,Al2O3.2SiO2.2H2O)

Examples of ceramics are bricks,tile,mugs and clay pots.

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Resist

compression

Very high

melting point

Good insulator

of electricityand heat

Chemically

inert and does

not corrode

Brittle

Very hard and

strong

Properties ofceramics

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3 main differences between glass and ceramic:

Glass can be heated until molten repeatedly but not ceramics

Glass is usually transparent whereas ceramics are not

Glass has a lower melting point than ceramics.

Property Uses Examples

Hard and strong Building materials Tiles,bricks,roofs,cement,abrasive for grinding

Attractive,easily moulded andglazed

Decorative pieces andhousehold items

Vases,porcelain ware,sinks,bathtubs

Chemically inert and non-corrosive

Kitchenware Cooking pots,plates,bowls

Very high melting point and

good insulator of heat

Insulation Lining of furnace, engine

parts

Electrical insulators Insulating parts in electrical

appliances

Spark plugs,insulators in

ovens and electrical cables

Inert and non-compressible Medical and dental apparatus Artificial teeth and bones

Do notcorrode

Inert to

chemicals

Good heatinsulators

Good

electricalinsulators

Brittle

strong under

compression

Hard and do

not bend

Commonproperties of

glass andceramics

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`(F) Composite materials

A composite material is a structural material that is formed by combining two or more

different materials such as metals,alloys,glass,ceramics and polymers.

Some common composite materials are:a. Reinforced concrete

b.Superconductor

c. Fibre opticd.Fibre glass

e. Photochromic glass

Reinforced concrete

Reinforced concrete is formed when concrete is reinforced with steel wire netting or steelrods.

Essential for the construction of large structures like high-rise buildings,bridges and oil

platforms.

Has a greater strength than ordinary concrete and has higher resistance to impact.

Superconductors

capable of conducting electricity without any electrical resistance when they are cooled to anextremely low temperature.

most of them are alloys of metal compounds or ceramics of metal oxides

Superconductors also used in :

(a) magnetic energy-storage system

(b) magnetically levitated train(c) generators

(d) transformers

(e) computer parts(f) very sensitive devices for measuring magnetic fields, voltage or current.

Fibre Optic

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consists of a bundle of glass or plastic threads that are surrounded by a glass cladding.

used to replace copper wire in long distance telephones lines,in mobile phones,video camerasand to link computers within local area networks.

used in instruments for examining internal parts of the body or inspecting the interior ofmanufactured structural products.

Fibre glass

produced when glass fibres are embedded in plastic resins to produce glass fibre reinforced

plastics.

has high tensile strength,can be easily coloured,moulded and shaped,inert to chemicals and islow in density.

Photochromic glass

changes from transparent to coloured when it is exposed to ultraviolet light, and reverts to

transparency when the light is dimmed or blocked.

can be produced by embedding photochromic substances like fine silver chloride.

photochromic glass helps to:(a) protect our eyes from harmful ultraviolet rays and glare from the sun(b) control the amount of light that passes through it automatically

(c) reduce refraction of light

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Sulphuric Acid

Manufactured by Contact process

Temperature:450C

Pressure: 1 atm

Catalyst : V2O5

Uses:To make

fertilizers,detergents,

electrolyte, and synthetic fibre

Synthetic Polymer

Manufactured by

polymerization.

Examples and uses:

Polyethylene:Shopping bags

Polyvinyl chloride:Pipes

polystyrene:Packaging

materials

Perspex:Lenses

Nylon:Ropes,textile

Ammonia

Manufactured by Haber

process

Temperature:450C

Pressure: 200 atm

Catalyst : Fe

Uses:To make fertilizers,

nitric acid,cooling agent,

explosives

Manufactured Substances in

Industry

Glass

Made from sand,SiO2

Types & uses:Fused glass:Lenses

Soda-lime glass:mirror

Borosilicate glass:Beaker

Lead crystal glass: Glass

crystals

Composite materials

Made by combining two or more

materials.Examples:

Reinforce concrete

Superconductors

Fibre opticFibreglass

Photochromic glass

Alloys

Made from metal and

other elements.Examples

and composition:

Bronze:Copper & tinBrass:Copper & zinc

Steel:Iron & carbon

Pewter:Tin,Copper &

Antimony

Stainless Steel:

Iron,carbon &

chronium

Ceramic

Made from clay,

kaolinite,Al2O3.2SiO2.

2H2O

Properties and uses:

Hard & strong:Tiles,

bricks

Attractive:vases,

sinks

Non-corrosive:

Kitchenware

High melting point:

FurnaceInert: Medical &

dental apparatus

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First of all,I would like to thank the God for giving me blessings to complete this

folio just in time.Even I faced a lot of difficulties when doing this project,I managed to

overcome it by the Gods blessing .

Then, thanks to my chemistry teacher Mrs.Ng Phek Lan for being such a goodguider while doing this project.She had given us appropriate information about this

project in order to make us understand more about this project.

Also a great thanks to my friends and family members who tried their best to givetheir support for me, either by giving me a lot of encouragement while doing this project

or helping me to gather the data required for the project.

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B.S.Mathiarasi

Eng Nguan Hong,Lim Eng Wah,Lim Yean Ching., 2009. Focus Ace SPM Chemistry.,

Penerbitan Pelnagi Sdn. Bhd., (page 261 287)

http://www.ravensdown.co.nz/Resources/Education/Properties+of+Sulphuric+Acid.htm

http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/20940/ammonia/277712/Preparation-of-

ammonia

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass

http://www.tutorvista.com/content/chemistry/chemistry-ii/metals/metalsindex.php
http://www.ravensdown.co.nz/Resources/Education/Properties+of+Sulphuric+Acid.htmhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/20940/ammonia/277712/Preparation-of-ammoniahttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/20940/ammonia/277712/Preparation-of-ammoniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasshttp://www.tutorvista.com/content/chemistry/chemistry-ii/metals/metalsindex.phphttp://www.ravensdown.co.nz/Resources/Education/Properties+of+Sulphuric+Acid.htmhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/20940/ammonia/277712/Preparation-of-ammoniahttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/20940/ammonia/277712/Preparation-of-ammoniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasshttp://www.tutorvista.com/content/chemistry/chemistry-ii/metals/metalsindex.php

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