forest practice guidelines for...

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THE UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEEAGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE

PB1523

Forest Practice Guidelines

for Tennessee

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Table of Contents

Acknowledgements

Purpose

Forests of Tennessee

Forest Values

Forest Practices and SilvicultureSilvicultureSilvicultural SystemHarvest and Regeneration MethodsThinning versus RegenerationEven-age SystemsUneven-age SystemsImportance of Forest Site

Timber Harvesting GuidelinesForest Health & ProtectionBMPs for Forestry Activities in Tennessee

Silvicultural Practices for Major Forest Types in TennesseeOak-Hickory

Type DescriptionHarvesting, Regeneration and Cultural Methods

Oak-PineType DescriptionHarvesting, Regeneration and Cultural Methods

Bottomland HardwoodsType DescriptionHarvesting, Regeneration and Cultural Methods

Cove HardwoodsType DescriptionHarvesting, Regeneration and Cultural Methods

PineType EstablishmentHarvesting, Regeneration and Cultural MethodsStand Conversion

Marketing of Forest ResourcesSources of Assistance for Landowners

AppendixAgencies Assisting LandownersGlossary

AcknowledgementsThe Forest Practice Guide-

lines for Tennessee publication is a col-laborative effort of The University of Ten-nessee Agricultural Extension Service,the Tennessee Forestry Association, theTennessee Division of Forestry and theTennessee Valley Authority. This docu-ment is a revision of the 1976 editionedited by Gary Schneider and JackBarrett of The University of TennesseeDepartment of Forestry, Wildlife and Fish-eries.

The authors appreciate thehelpful reviews of Jim Hill (Bowater), RayRozier (private consultant), Tom Jewell(Westvaco), Kerry Schell (The Universityof Tennessee-retired), Gene McGee(U.S. Forest Service -retired), Tim Young(Georgia Pacific), George Weaver (TheUniversity of Tennessee-deceased),John Wood (Westvaco) and Tim McCall(J.M. Huber). Additionally, final manu-script reviewers were John Gregory(TWRA), Allan Houston (UT), LarryHamner (TVA), Dennis Miles (TDF) andWanda Richart (UT).

Tennessee has been blessedwith a beautiful bounty of forestresources. We trust these “Guidelines”will improve forest practices inTennessee and enhance the quality oflife for all Tennesseans.

George M. HopperProfessor & HeadEditor

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Cover photo by George M. Hopper


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Forest Practice Guidelines

for Tennessee

Forest Types in Tennessee

Oak-pine12%

1,591,500 acres

Pine10%

1,333,800 acres

Bottomland Hwd.5%

682,300 acres

Oak Hickory73%

9,593,600

George M. Hopper, Editor Professor & Head

Department of Forestry, Wildlife and Fisheries The University of Tennessee

Hart Applegate Assistant State Forester

Tennessee Division of Forestry

Greg Dale Area Superintendent

Westvaco Corporation

Richard Winslow Lands Manager

Tennessee Consolidated Coal

PurposeThose involved in managing

Tennessee forests have felt the needfor a concise statement about forestpractices in Tennessee. Althoughseveral sources provide informationabout Tennessee’s forests andappropriate forest practices, search-ing for information takes considerabletime, and in some instances thesources are not readily available.These guidelines provide a ready,authoritative reference. This publica-tion identifies appropriate forestmanagement practices and informsthe Tennessee forest landownerabout making wise policy decisionsand establishing long-range goals.

However, many land man-agement decisions are complex andcan not be explained here. In mostcases, forest management requiresthe services of a professional for-ester. A professional forester hasreceived at a minimum a four-yearcollege degree in forest managementfrom an accredited forestry program,and keeps current about the latestforest management practices.


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Forests of TennesseeForests are an integral part of the Tennessee environment. When the first European settlers reached the territory

that was to become Tennessee, forests covered more than 85 percent of the land area. With these settlers came logging,land clearing and frequent fires. Historical records indicate native American people burned the forests routinely to createimproved grazing for wildlife. Some accounts suggest that there were savannah-like conditions in many areas of the state.

The most recent statistics from 1989 Tennessee forest survey show 13,265,000 acres, or 50 percent of the totalland area, is still in forest cover.

Private forest landowners, the vast majority non-industrial, decide the fate and management on 11,756,400 acresof the state’s forest land. This represents 88 percent of the total forest resource (Table 1).

Differences in climate, soils and physiography make the forests of Tennessee as complex as any found in thetemperate regions of the world. More than 200 species of trees grow in Tennessee, 60 of which have commercial value.

Table 1. Distribution of Forest Ownership in Tennessee

(from Forest Statistics for Tennessee Counties-1989 USDA-FS SD-148)

FOREST LAND

Owner Acre % of Total

Private

Industrial 1,143,900 8.62

Non-industrial 10,612,500 80.00

Public

Federal 1,027,400 7.74

State 422,200 3.18

City/County 59,400 0.44

Total forest land 13,265,400 —


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Non-Industry 80%

Industry 8.6%

Federal 7.7%

State 3.1%


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Unlike most of its neighborsto the south, Tennessee’s forests aremostly hardwoods, with oaks domi-nating significant portions of theforest landscape. This publication willdiscuss five major forest types inTennessee: oak-hickory, oak-pine,bottomland hardwoods, cove hard-woods and pine.

Forest stands composed ofvarious oaks and hickories cover 73percent of the commercial forestareas (9.6 million acres). The oak-hickory forest type includes a mixtureof species, ranging from very valu-able black walnut, yellow-poplar andhigh-grade red and white oaks, to theeconomically low-value post andblackjack oaks. Pine and oak-pinetypes occur on 22 percent of thecommercial forest area, and typicallydevelop on relatively dry upland sites.

The east and plateau regionsof Tennessee contain pine, oak-pineand oak-hickory forest types. Uplandhardwood sites generally are concen-trated in the central and west-centralregions. Bottomland hardwood sitesare primarily located in the westregion.

Mismanagement and uncon-trolled fires have caused seriousdamage to forest resources ofTennessee. For many years, loggingoperations that cut only the besttrees, a practice referred to as “high-grading,” has reduced forest produc-tivity. High-grading results in a forestof defective and commercially unde-sirable trees left to occupy andregenerate the forest. Although thepractice of high-grading continues,significant improvements have beenmade in forest protection, e.g.,wildfire suppression. Also, reforesta-tion programs have established morethan a million acres of trees oneroded fields.

Although analyses of forestconditions in Tennessee show thatthe quality of our hardwoods isdeclining, timber growth is increasing.Statistics from 1950 to 1989 showthat the sawtimber volumes increased

from 16.2 to 53.6 million board feet.Moreover, desirable commercialspecies now cover a higher propor-tion of our forest land, but there is stillmuch to be done to improve andprotect the forest. The TennesseeDivision of Forestry, The University ofTennessee Agricultural ExtensionService, the Tennessee ValleyAuthority, the U.S. Forest Service, theTennessee Forestry Association,concerned individual landowners andforest industries are contributing tothis improvement.

Forest ValuesTennessee’s forests are one

of our state’s most valuable naturalresources. Forests furnish a variety ofproducts and benefits to the state’seconomy and its citizens. The timberindustry probably predates the stateitself, yielding raw materials forconstruction of homes and buildingsand many other basic products suchas furniture, crossties and paper.Additionally, trees yield chemicalsused in hundreds of products pro-duced in plastics and chemicalmanufacturing.

Wood-using industries inTennessee manufactured productswhich had a shipment value of $4billion in 1992. Forest-related indus-tries in Tennessee employ more than50,000 workers and pay $1 of every$8 of manufacturing-based wages.Tennessee is the nation’s leadingproducer of log homes and hardwoodflooring, and annually ranks amongthe top three states in hardwoodlumber production.

Tennessee’s forest lands alsocreate habitat for forest wildlife,providing food and shelter for manygame and non-game species. Hunt-ing, fishing and other outdoor activi-ties contribute greatly to the quality oflife in Tennessee. The success ofTennessee’s outdoor recreation andtourism industry is due in no smallpart to the beauty of the state’sforest-covered landscape. Protection

from soil erosion and reduction ofnoise and air pollution are among themany environmental benefits forestsprovide.

ForestPracticesandSilvicultureSilviculture

Silviculture is the art andscience of tending a forest. Silvicul-ture includes the establishment,improvement and harvest of a forestto meet the owner’s objectives.Silviculture is based on an under-standing of natural resource pro-cesses, such as disturbance, succes-sion, competition, nutrient cycles,hydrology, tree biology, soils andassociated ecological phenomena.Manipulation and control of thenatural processes using scientificallybased silvicultural techniques cancreate forests suited to the goal ofownership in less time than wouldoccur naturally.

Partial Harvests VersusRegeneration Harvests

Forest management gener-ally includes harvesting trees. Treesthat are harvested and processed intoproducts continue to benefit peopleby providing useful wood products.

Silvicultureis the art andscience oftendinga forest.


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When a forest owner decidesto harvest trees, the decision is oftenbased on personal economics.However, a timber harvest results in along-term impact on the forestenvironment. Because of this, thelandowner should have a plan beforethe harvest that addresses long-termgoals.

What does it mean to regen-erate? To a forester, regenerationmeans to produce a new, vigorous,healthy, well-stocked stand of trees; itrefers to starting the stand of treesover (as opposed to converting forestland to some other land use). How-ever, not every stand is in need of aregeneration cut; rather, some requireonly a partial cut.

Forest rotation is the timerequired to grow a timber crop toeconomic or natural maturity. Oneway to think about rotation is “thebeginning and the end.” A corn cropbegins with a clearcut, followed byplanting, weed control and finalharvest. For corn, rotation may be sixmonths. For oak, rotation may be 30years or 150 years depending on thesite, desired product and landownerobjectives. A forest manager canshorten the rotation length by control-ling stand density and matchingspecies with appropriate sites.Whatever the time period, the finalharvest completes the rotation.

At the end of rotation, treesare harvested and the forest isregenerated. Forest regenerationsystems are effective when properlyapplied. Artificial regeneration in-volves planting seeds or seedlings.Advantages of this method are bettercontrol of species composition andgenetic improvement. Natural regen-eration methods include seed tree,shelterwood, clearcut, group selectionand single tree selection. Each ofthese methods produces a new forestand is designed for use in specificforest types.

Whatever regenerationmethod used, the final harvest, at the

end of rotation, should produce anew, young, healthy forest.Partial cuts

Cultural treatments that occurduring the rotation affect yield, rate ofgrowth and quality of timber. Silvicul-tural partial cuts during stand devel-opment are generally referred to asthinning. Some people see a thinningas a selection for regeneration.However, in a managed forest,thinning reduces stand density tobenefit the crop trees left. Crop treesare chosen, released and grown tothe end of the rotation. By thinningthe stand, the crop trees grow fasterand reach a larger size sooner.

In his text on SilviculturalPractices, D.M. Smith had this to sayabout thinning: “The essential gener-alities about thinning have beenburied in the flood of qualificationsthat must inevitably enter into anydiscussion. The most important factto be noted is that the total cubicvolume of wood, which can beproduced by a stand in a given lengthof time, tends to be fixed and immu-table. However, by skillful control ofthe growing stock the forester canmarshal production to capture thehighest net return possible under theeconomic circumstances.”

“The trees that are cutrepresent a salvageable surplus notneeded to ensure full utilization of thegrowing space; they are, therefore,available for harvest. In the act ofremoving them, it becomes possibleto build more crown surface onselected individuals so they will attainlarger diameter, become morevaluable and be less vulnerable todamage.”

“The positive action ofchoosing the kind and number oftrees to remain for future growthshould be emphasized much more

than the selection of trees to cut forimmediate use.”Silvicultural Systems andRegeneration Methods

In the life of every timberstand the time eventually arriveswhen it is mature. Once mature,some or all the trees can be har-vested and the stand regeneratedthrough artificial or natural regenera-tion. The method chosen for harvestand regeneration depends on forestconditions and landowner’s goals.There are two types of silviculturalsystems a forest landowner maydevelop with various harvestingplans: 1) even-age systems (seepage 9) or 2) uneven-age systems(see page 10). Foresters use bothmanagement systems successfully inTennessee. Remember, each systemattempts to carry out a specificpurpose and is based on tree biology(silvics). The manager of the forestmust consider the unique silviculturalcharacteristics of each species.

An important biologicalprinciple of tree growth is that of“tolerance.” Tolerance in forest treesrefers to a species’ ability to compete.The ability to perform in competitionwith other trees and to tolerate shadedetermines a species’ tolerance level.For example, beech regenerates verywell in shade and is considered ashade-tolerant species. On the otherhand, black cherry needs full sun toregenerate and to grow. Therefore,cherry is an intolerant species. Table2 gives shade tolerance levels forseveral important species.

Tolerance in foresttrees refers to a

species ability to com-pete. The ability to perform in competition withother trees and to toler-ate shade determines aspecies tolerance level.


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commercial species.

INTOLERANT OF SHADE INTERMEDIATE IN TOLERANT OF SHADETOLERANCE TO SHADE

Northern Red Oak White oak spp. Red MapleBlack Walnut Persimmon Sugar MapleBlack Cherry Baldcypress HornbeamSassafras Black Gum BeechAsh Hickory MagnoliaLocust MulberryYellow-Poplar DogwoodSweetgum Eastern White PineCherrybark Oak HemlockHackberryCottonwoodWillowBirchLoblolly PineVirginia PineShortleaf Pine

TABLE 2:Tolerance of trees to shade is important in choosing a silviculture system for natural regeneration.

The listing below shows the relative shade tolerance for several


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method is useful to regenerateintolerant species (Table 2). Regen-eration from clearcuts normallydepends on stump sprouts, seeds inplace or planted seedlings. Regen-eration harvest provides specificallyfor the production of new trees, eitherthrough natural regeneration, fromsprouts or germination of seeds orplanting seedlings. Sprouts (calledcoppice) grow faster than seedlings.The existing root systems of sproutsuse the site better than seedlings byproviding more water and nutrients tothe plant. Although sprout originstands grow faster, they generallydecline after several successiveharvests. This decline in a coppiceforest is due to decreasing vigor ofthe aged root system. Estimatesshow 60-70 percent of Tennessee’scurrent hardwood forests are ofsprout or coppice origin. Regenera-tion densities as high as 30,000seedlings per acre have been pro-duced in hardwood clearcuts de-signed for natural hardwood regen-eration.

Clearcuts may range greatlyin size. Preferably, clearcuts shouldbe no larger than 50 acres, and ofirregular shape, depending on terrain,age of adjacent stands and nearnessto streams.

Silvicultural systems arebased on age, either even-age (lessthan two distinct age classes) oruneven-age (three or more distinctage classes). Tree diameters andheights in a stand cancharacterize the agedistribution.

The five majormethods to regulate theage structure of the forestfor even-age systems: 1)the clearcut method, 2)the shelterwood method,or 3) the seed treemethod; and for uneven-age systems: 4) the singletree selection method,and 5) the group selectionmethod.

Caution: Thepopular practice ofselecting trees basedsolely on diameter orquality is “high-grading,” apractice that leaves a highproportion of culls andless desirable species tooccupy the forest. Diam-eter-limit cutting is not arecommended silviculturalpractice. The harvesting of only thebest trees continues to cause consid-erable damage to Tennessee’sforests.

Tree planting has been usedto restore a forest and to improvecompetition, stocking and desiredgenetics.

A common mistake in forestregeneration is to plant trees on poor,cut-over sites, with inappropriatespecies and without control of com-peting brush and weeds. Selectingsuitable sites, getting good plantingstock of improved genetic quality andcontrolling competition are criticalfactors that determine plantationsuccess.

Hardwoods have not beenplanted as widely as pine. Hardwoodsusually demand better sites and arenot well-suited for many marginal old

fields. However, research continueson how to plant hardwoods for timberand wildlife, especially in wetlandreclamation. Of particular importancein planting hardwoods are siteselection, seedling quality, improved

genetic sourcesand competitioncontrol, during theearly years.

Even-AgeSystems

A stand iseven-age if theage differencebetween theyoungest andoldest trees isless than 20percent of thelength of therotation. Forexample, aneven-age standmanaged on a50-year rotationcan have no treesmore than 10years younger

than the oldest trees. The uppercanopy of the forest is continuous ineven-age stands, since trees aremostly of similar heights. Treediameters will differ within the stand,since competition among trees affectsdiameter. However, diameter distribu-tion of these stands has a normal bellshape curve (Figure 1), with manytrees close to average diameter, andfew trees of larger or smaller diam-eters. Existing forest stands mayexhibit even-age conditions from theirdiameter distribution and pattern ofthe forest canopy.

Methods used to produceeven-age forest stands includeclearcuts, shelterwood cuts and seedtree cuts.

Clearcuts — All trees 1-inchdiameter at breast height (DBH) andgreater are cut or deadened. This

Caution: The popularpractice of selectingtrees based solely ondiameter or quality is“high-grading,” apractice that leaves ahigh proportion ofculls and less desir-able species tooccupy the forest.Diameter-limit cuttingis not a recom-mended silviculturalpractice. The harvest-ing of only the besttrees continues tocause considerabledamage toTennessee’s forests.

Regeneration densities as highas 30,000 seedlingsper acre have beenproduced in hardwoodclearcuts designed fornatural hardwoodregeneration.


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Shelterwood cuts — aredesigned to provide shelter for theregeneration. In the shelterwoodmethod, all but 20 to 50 trees peracre in the initial harvest are re-moved. The number of trees leftdepends on advance regenerationalready present, species desired andsize of trees left as the shelter.

A shelterwood cut requires asecond harvest after the new standhas been established. The secondharvest removes shelter trees andreleases the newly established stand,creating an even-age stand. Speciesthat regenerate well in a shelterwoodgenerally are intermediate in shadetolerance (Table 2).

Seed tree cuts — Regenera-tion with a seed tree cut requires themanager to leave six to 15 evenly-spaced trees per acre. These “seedtrees” produce seed and regeneratethe new stand. After establishment ofthe new stand, the seed trees mustbe removed or deadened. Thismethod is useful to regenerate light-seeded species that are intolerant toshade, such as yellow poplar andpine.

Uneven-Age SystemsUneven-age silvicultural

systems, sometimes referred to asselection systems, originally devel-oped in Switzerland as a way torehabilitate hardwood stands that hadbeen harvested too heavily. Similarly,many hardwood forests in the East-ern United States have been heavilycut. Although many of Tennessee’s

forests have been cut on a diameteror “size-selection” limit where only thelargest and best trees are removed,diameter-limit cuts are not an ap-proved forest management practices.Diameter-limit cuts usually aredestructive, and should be avoided inhardwood forests. “High-graded”stands must be either brought backinto the manageable units slowly withuneven-age silviculture, or completelyregenerated with even-age silvicul-ture.

An uneven-age forest is aforest of high diversity. An uneven-age forest managed under selectionsilviculture will eventually have treesof many ages, species and sizes. Anuneven-age forest is relatively stable,with small likelihood of forest stressand disease eliminating the entirestand. Uneven-age forests producean upper canopy that is irregular, withtrees of significant height differences(Figure 1). Tree diameters also willdiffer greatly, so the stand will containmany trees of very small diametersand fewer trees of the larger diam-eters. The diameter distribution foruneven-age stands illustrated inFigure 1 is a guideline for creatingand maintaining a forest of all ageclasses.

Conceptually, uneven-agesilviculture is a highly desirablemethod of forest management, as itcould provide a sustained yield ofwood from a small forest tract.However, the intense recordkeepingand periodic harvests required tomaintain the desired diameter distri-

bution make the method difficult toadminister and practice.

There are two uneven-agesilviculture methods used to regulatea forest, 1) single tree selection and2) group selection.

Single tree selection removestrees from all diameter classes.Single tree selection silvicultureproduces a stand with many smalltrees and a decreasing number oftrees in each larger diameter class.This process requires periodicharvests and requires detailedrecordkeeping and patience. Mosthardwood species can be managedunder this method, but those treestolerant to shade will tend to beregenerated in the understory (Table2).

Group selection produces aforest of many small stands. Groupselection develops a matrix of even-age groups scattered throughout theforest. In group selection, harvestedareas of groups of trees create 0.1- to1.5-acre openings. The diameters ofindividual openings should not bemore than two to three times theheights of adjoining trees. Theseopenings, or groups, regenerate tointolerant species, producing a forestof many different-age stands. Groupselection relies on maintaining anuneven-age forest by creating manysmall even-age stands.

There are pros and cons touneven-age selection silviculture.Table 3 lists the advantages anddisadvantages of producing anuneven-age forest.


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TABLE 3:Selection silviculture for uneven-age management has advantages and disadvantages.

Listed below are a few items to consider.

Item Advantages Disadvantages

Structure Crowns of all sized trees, Shade prevents regeneration of intolerant speciesof many ages produce a such as oak, ash, cherry, walnut, and poplar.layered canopy goodfor wildlife.

Regeneration Maintains high level of young Prevents growth and regeneration of hardwoodstrees at all times. that are more valuable for lumber.

Volume Spreads wood production Must be regulated on a volume basis alone.to trees of all sizes.

Size of tract Suited for small hardwood Difficult to regulate on hardwood tracts greaterwoodlot management less than 50 acres.than 50 acres.

Quality of timber Produces greater variety Reduces annual production of high quality saw-timber, increases volume of small trees that maynot be salable.

Sustained harvest Allows owners to select Requires detailed inventory of all trees moretrees for harvest more than 2 inches in diameter.frequently.

Record keeping Accurate records for Requires detailed inventory of all trees more thanappraisal and future decision 2 inches in diameter.making always available.

Composition Produces communities Leads to eventual change in forest compositiondesirable for a wide variety to tolerant trees that are less commerciallyof wildlife species. valuable in terms of timber.

Age distribution Develops stands with trees Difficult to judge annual growth rates andof many ages. production of many ages.

Diversity Selection produces stands Produces stands that are more complex, andwith more species, ages, so more difficult to harvest and maintain.tree sizes and canopy levels.

Economics Spreads cash income on a Not considered economical for hardwood man-more continuous cycle. agement because of difficulty in record keeping

and significant losses in high value sawtimbervolumes.


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Importance of Forest SiteA forest site includes the soil and thelandscape it occupies, the vegetationit supports and the atmosphere. Thesuccess of any forestry activity isheavily dependent on site conditions.Forest soils of Tennessee range fromvery productive to problem soilsincapable of producing commercialtimber. Consequently, every forestactivity planned for a given area mustbe geared to the capability of the site.This is essential in making wisemanagement decisions.Forest soils provide trees withnutrients, oxygen (for root growth),water and physical support. Thecapability of a soil to produce acommercially valuable forest dimin-ishes when one or more of theseitems becomes limiting. Soil seriesrefers to various types of soils. It ishelpful to know in which series a soilbelongs. However, forest productivityby tree species often varies within aseries. Your local Soil ConservationService officer or your county Exten-sion agent can help identify theparticular soil series for a given area.An “ideal” soil for growing trees inTennessee might be:

Deep - At least 4 feet to bedrockFertile - Contains ample quanti-

ties of organic matter, nitrogen,phosphorus, potassium, calcium andother essential elements

Well-drained - Not having awater table within the root zone atany time during the growing seasonand never for more than a few daysduring the dormant season.

Friable - Nearly equal portions ofsand, silt and clay in loose aggrega-tions with good tilth.

Most soils in Tennessee havesome qualities of an “ideal” soil.There are many tree species thatthrive in Tennessee soils, with eachspecies having its own special soilrequirements. Variable soil types also

result in different mixtures of hard-woods occurring on a ridge versusthose found in bottomlands.

However, soil is only one ingredi-ent of a forest site. When makingmanagement decisions such aschoice of species, method of regen-eration, use of herbicides or sitepreparation, each characteristic of thesite should be considered. Someother important characteristics are:

Aspect - The direction a slopefaces affects soil moisture andtemperature. Aspect plays a key rolein site productivity.

Slope position - Slope positionaffects the degree of exposure to thesun and the quality of the soil.Steeper slopes are more prone toerode and require special care duringroad building and harvesting. Soilmoisture concentrates at lower slopepositions.

Elevation - Tree species some-times grow within a range of eleva-tions. Some species will not growabove certain elevations, while otherspecies may thrive there.

Climate - This is the result ofgeographic location and helps todetermine the natural range of aspecies. It is usually not wise to planta species too far out of its naturalrange.

In addition to the soil and theabove-ground environment, a studyof the past land use plays an impor-tant part in forest site evaluations. Ifthe area was once in agriculture, thenone might consider the effects offarming on the site. The erosion ofmany abandoned old fields may havepartially depleted the nutrients in thesoil. Planted trees, especially mosthardwoods, often grow poorly undersuch conditions. Recently abandonedfields may support a heavy sod coverthat can prevent the rapid develop-ment of planted trees.

Yet, past land use also can

be helpful for forestry. For example,terraces, cover crops, fertilizer andliming residues improve a poor soil,increasing site capability for growinghigh-quality trees.

TimberHarvestingGuidelines

Careful planning of timberharvesting operations can helpassure timber regeneration andgrowth, enhance wildlife habitat,protect the soil from erosion, preservevisual values and reduce manage-ment costs. When possible, enlist thehelp of a professional forester who isexperienced in forest managementand conducting timber sales. Con-sider the following factors beforeconducting a timber sale:

Assure timber regenerationand growth: When regeneration oftimber is necessary, choose a har-vesting system that will createconditions necessary for regeneratingdesired species. A preharvest assess-ment is necessary to design aregeneration method that will ad-equately reforest the site and meetlandowner management objectives.

With proper planning, timberharvests can create excellent “new”wildlife habitat. Distribution of cutsmay also reduce the visual impact ofharvesting operations. Trees can beharvested and regenerated fromsome areas, while leaving some ofthe forest land area undisturbed.

Enhance wildlife habitat:Manipulation of forest vegetation is akey to regulating and enhancingforest wildlife habitat. The basiccomponents of wildlife habitat - food,cover, water and space - must bemade available if favored species areto flourish, and must be provided


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during every season. Habitat diversitycan be achieved by creating stands ofseveral age classes, ranging fromseedlings and sprouts to maturetrees. Therefore, unproductivewoodlands can be transformed intoproductive wildlife habitat by conduct-ing timber harvesting at regularintervals.

Openings created by regen-eration cuttings furnish browse,forage and breeding areas for deer,while nesting areas, seed-producingplants, soft mast and insects areprovided for turkey, quail, smallmammals, many songbirds and othernon-game species.

Small groups of trees may beleft uncut in opened areas to providecover and food for wildlife which usethe area. Snags and live trees mayalso be left standing as perches forhawks and for use by cavity-nestingbirds. Leaving large woody debris atsome locations provides additionalhabitat for both large and small fauna.Pole-size timber affords escape andprotective cover, as well as nestinghabitat for many bird species.

Mature timber not onlyprovides cover for forest wildlife andsongbirds, but also produces most ofthe high-energy foods found in theforest. These include acorns, hickorynuts, walnuts and other hard mastthat feed deer, turkey, squirrels andmany other animals during the winter.

Water holes or ponds shouldbe provided every one-quarter milefor use by wildlife if water is notalready available in streams, pondsor lakes.

BMPsPrevent soil erosion and

water pollution: If improperly con-ducted, logging operations maydegrade forest sites through erosionand cause sedimentation of streamsand lakes. However, just cutting treesdoes not cause erosion in the forest.Most erosion is caused by activitiesassociated with removing timber fromthe woods. These include suchactivities as construction and use ofaccess roads, skid trails and loglandings. Such activities remove theprotective organic litter layer from thesurface and loosen soil, making itvulnerable to erosion.

Best management practices(BMPs) were developed to reduce orprevent erosion caused by forestryoperations. Conscientious use offorestry BMPs can prevent mosterosion and nonpoint source pollutionof streams and lakes caused byforestry activities in the woods.BMPs, for protection of water quality,should be incorporated in timber salecontracts and implemented duringand after harvest operations.

Preserve visual values: Manylandowners avoid managing theirforest land because they fear theresults will “look bad.” In many cases,forestry operations sometimes dolook bad due to poor planning orthoughtless timber harvesting.Although cutting even one tree looks“bad” to some people, there are manyactions that can be taken to reducethe visual impact of cutting trees and

still achieve landowners’ timber,wildlife and other forest managementobjectives.

Tennessee’s predominantlyhardwood forests have a surprisinglynatural ability to regenerate them-selves rapidly. Areas completelycleared of trees in spring will becovered with green plants by fall. Infive years, the same area will beblanketed with trees 10-20 feet tall.Therefore, although recently-har-vested, wooded areas are changed inappearance, rapid regrowth beginssoftening and improving the visualquality of such areas almost immedi-ately. Such areas will produce abeautiful and vigorous new forestwithin the space of a few years.

Preservation of visual values,like every other aspect of forestmanagement, requires carefulplanning. The following examples ofvisual management can be employedto ensure that landowners preservethe beauty of their wooded acres,while practicing sound timber andwildlife management.Examples inclide: • limit and vary the size of timber

harvest areas, • shape harvest areas to conform to

natural landform, • disperse harvest areas throughout

the forest area, • leave a 1/10 to one-acre patch of

trees in open areas for wildlifecover and food and to soften theappearance of harvest areas,

• establish visual buffer zones50-100 feet wide between harvest


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areas and roads or field edges,selectively harvest mature indi-vidual trees within visual bufferzones,

• when thinning stands visible fromroads or field edges, fell treesaway from visible areas, or cut upvisible logging debris to reducevisibility and speed-up

decomposition.

Forest Health and ProtectionOverall forest health is largely

dependent upon the type of manage-ment and protection applied. Forestvigor can be maintained by goodplanning and timely application ofmanagement practices. Overall forestprotection is most economicallyachieved through prevention of poorforest practices.

Forest health: When consid-ering which trees to grow, selectspecies which are well suited forgrowth on available sites. Otherwise,the lack or abundance of water,nutrients and other factors may resultin unacceptable growth and develop-ment, premature decline and in-creased vulnerability to insect anddisease attack.

As trees grow, their crownsexpand and additional food is manu-factured. Thus, to maintain vigor andprevent stagnation and decline,overstocked stands should bethinned. Thinning will removeslow-growing, poorly-formed trees toprovide adequate growing space forwell-formed trees of desirable spe-

cies.As do all organisms, trees

grow to maturity and then decline ingrowth and vigor before dying. Somespecies, such as black locust andVirginia pine, reach maturity at arelatively early age, usually less than100 years. White oak, bald cypressand beech, on the other hand, arerelatively long-lived species and maylive for up to three or four centuries.The death of older trees usuallyoccurs as a result of increasedvulnerability to such factors ascompetition from other trees, insect ordisease attack, or ice and windstorms. Therefore, when income fromtimber production is the goal, treesshould be harvested when they reachfinancial maturity, but before theybegin to decline and die from naturalcauses.

Growing trees on suitablesites, maintaining the growth andvigor of stands and harvesting timberwhen it matures are the basic man-agement principles that contribute tooverall forest health. These principlesare always implied in recommenda-tions contained in a forest manage-ment plan. In addition, periodicinspections of woodlands should beconducted to detect pest infestations,storm and fire damage and anyabnormal condition of stands, as wellas instances of boundary and timbertrespass.

Forest protection: Managedforests require protection fromuncontrolled fire, destructive insects,

Thus, to maintain vigor and preventstagnation and de-cline, overstockedstands should bethinned. Thinning willremove slow-growing,poorly-formed treesto provide adequategrowing space forwell-formed trees ofdesirable species.


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diseases, animal pests and thepotential effects of the weather.

When managing southernpines, fire may be used as an effec-tive and economical tool for reducingthe hazard of dangerous wildfires,clearing land for reforestation andimproving wildlife habitat. Whenmanaging hardwoods and white pine,however, fire cannot be used as amanagement tool. Due to the thinbark of these species, fire causesdamage and degrade to standingtrees through stains, rots and insectpests.

The Tennessee Division ofForestry furnishes effective wildfiredetection and control throughout thestate. However, forest landownersshould assess the potential hazardsfor wildfire on their property and takesteps to prevent them. Such mea-sures may include building fire lanesnext to roads and railroads, maintain-ing favorable relations with neighborsand exercising care when burningtrash and brush.

Other measures landownersshould take to protect woodlandsfrom damage and prevent timber lossinclude: • inspecting woodlands at least oncea year for evidence of damage byinsects, diseases, animals, wildfire orstorms • salvaging damaged or infestedtimber promptly to reduce losses andprevent infestation or spread ofdisease or insect pests • taking prompt action to controldestructive animals, such as beavers,to prevent additional damage to treesby girdling and flooding. • thinning stands to reduce the risk ofinsect and disease infestation anddamage caused by ice, snow or windstorms.

Best Management Practices (BMPs)for Forestry Activities in Tennessee

Practice: Forest Access Roads1. Locate roads as high above and away from streams and lakes as possible. When

possible, locate roads near the crests of ridges on the side slopes to assure properdrainage.

2. Establish streamside management zones at least 25 feet wide between roads andwater courses, to protect stream banks and to trap sediment and other materialsthat may enter streams.

3. Avoid stream crossings. When necessary, cross at right angles to minimizedisturbance to stream banks and channels.

4. Construct roads on gradients ranging from 3-10 percent.5. Drain water off roads as soon as possible, using outsloping, crowning, ditching,

water bars, rolling dips and culverts as may be appropriate and practical.6. Avoid or minimize use of roads during wet weather.7. Revegetate cuts, fills and road surfaces as soon as practical to stabilize disturbed

areas.8. When logging activity has ceased, retire roads by reshaping and restoring all

drainage structures. Revegetate disturbed areas. Close roads to traffic, especiallyduring wet weather.

Practice: Forest Products Harvesting1. Locate log landings on level ground well away from streams or major drains.2. Skid trail gradients should not exceed 10 percent except for short distances.3. Never use drains or stream courses as skid trails.4. Establish streamside management zones at least 25 feet wide next to streams and

major drains. Do not allow skidders and other equipment to operate inside stream-side management zones.

5. Construct water bars on skid trails, and revegetate disturbed areas as soon aspossible after logging operations cease.

Practice: Mechanical Site Preparation for Reforestation1. Choose a site preparation method that will expose and disturb as little bare soil as

possible.2. Establish streamside management zones between site prepared areas and stream

courses to prevent disturbance of stream banks and to prevent sediment andorganic debris from reaching streams.

3. Operate site preparation equipment along the contour of the land to reduce soilmovement.

4. Locate windrows well away from drains and along the contour of the land.

Practice: Pesticide Use1. Choose pesticides suitable for use on target species and registered for intended

use.2. Before using a chemical, be sure that atmospheric conditions allow a maximum

amount of chemical to reach the target species.3. Never apply pesticides directly to water.4. Maintain buffer strips to avoid drift or accidental application of chemicals.

Practice: Livestock Exclusion1. Exclude livestock from woodlands to prevent erosion and to protect site productiv-

ity and timber growth.2. Fence off small areas of shade along the woodland for animals to use as shelter.

Plant groves of trees for livestock shelter on flat or gently sloping land.


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Silvicultural Practices for MajorForest Types in Tennessee

OAK - HICKORY

Type descriptionEvery physiographic region

and nearly every county in the statehas oak-hickory type forests. Nearlythree-fourths of Tennessee’s forestsconsist of oak-hickory stands. There-fore, management of this forest typeis a matter of concern to a largenumber of the state’s 250,000landowners.

Some species of oak, particu-larly white, northern red and black,are prevalent throughout the state.These species become predominantand attain peak development onmoist sites. Such areas include thelower mountain slopes and coves inthe east and the bottoms and riverterraces in the middle and westernportions of the state. In the mountain-ous eastern areas, chestnut andscarlet oaks are more common inmixtures with those mentioned above.They are the principal species onpoorer sites—dry upper slopes, ridgetops and dry upland flats. In the west,post, blackjack and southern red oaksare more likely to occupy the poorersites.

Hickories are a consistentpart of the oak-hickory type, althoughnot to the same extent as oaks.Principal species are shagbark,pignut, mockernut and bitternut.Depending upon site quality, topogra-phy and climate, one may also findash, blackgum, yellow-poplar, elmand various maples scatteredthroughout these stands. Sassafras,black cherry, black locust, blackwalnut, persimmon and a variety ofother hardwoods grow here as well.

Oak-hickory forests arepresent today primarily because ofpast land use practices, the incidenceof chestnut blight and fire protection.

From the 1850s to the early 1900s,heavy logging, grazing and wild firessignificantly disturbed Tennessee’sforests. These practices promoted aforest understory of vigorous sprout-ing species. In the 1930s, the chest-nut blight eliminated the Americanchestnut from the Tennessee forests.This tragic event allowed for oaks andhickories to further develop. Oaksand hickories have somewhat thickerbark and were able to survive someof the ravages of the wild fires. Whenintensive fire control programs beganin the 1950s, the surviving oaks andhickories thrived. These species wereable to mature and grow into ourcurrent forests.

Harvesting, Regenerationand Cultural Methods

Factors that contributed tothe prominence of the oak-hickoryforest (wildfire, grazing, heavylogging) have been reduced inmodern times. This reduction, plus asuccessional process that favorsmore shade-tolerant species, haveleft the forest manager with a difficultchallenge in regenerating oaks andhickories.

Harvesting in an oak-hickoryforest and consequent regenerationare inseparably linked. There arecertain species characteristics andsite requirements that must be metbefore such a stand successfullyregenerates and perpetuates itself asan oak-hickory type.

Most commercially valuablespecies that generally occur in theoak-hickory forest are intolerant ormoderately tolerant of shade. Thesespecies require nearly full sunlight forsuccessful regeneration and survivalnecessary to establish a new stand.On the other hand, less valuablespecies such as maple, blackgum,

elm, beech, hickory, dogwood,hornbeam and sourwood; as well asmany shrubs, are much more tolerantof shade. These species not onlyreproduce readily under shade, eitherfrom seed or seedling sprouts, but willexist for long periods under a rela-tively dense canopy. When released,they grow rapidly and may occupy aconsiderable proportion of the newstand. These commercially lessdesirable species must be controlledbefore the stand can be successfullyregenerated to desirable species.This may be very expensive. Controlmethods available include the use ofprescribed fire, mechanical girdling orcomplete stem removal. Chemicalcontrol via stem injection or groundspot treatments is also an effectivemethod.

Oaks and hickories aresporadic seed producers. Unlessconditions are ideal, very few oakseedlings will become establishedunder a dense forest canopy. Inad-equate light and moisture conditionsretard the growth of new seedlings.Following overstory removal, seed-lings that do survive have difficultycompeting with less desirable butmore rapidly growing seedlings andsprouts of other species. Oak-hickoryseedlings must stay in a dominantposition in the understory if they areto survive. Recent studies haveshown that by eliminating the mid-story, some oaks—especially whiteoaks—will become established andachieve a dominant position in theunderstory, thus preparing them-selves as advanced regeneration.

Disturbances in the forest,such as fire, drought and harvesting,create opportunities for oak regenera-tion to advance. Such disturbancesmay kill or reduce other competingvegetation and allow more light into


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the understory. These disturbancesare usually not fatal to oaks, but topdieback followed by resprouting of theseedlings may occur.

Stump sprouts survive ingreater numbers than do seedlings. Amature root system from a formertree nurtures the young succulentsprout. This makes the sprout ahearty competitor and places it in amuch better position to become adominant member of the new forest.Stump sprouts generally are morevigorous than seedlings. Through thesprouting process, reproduction ofthese desirable species graduallyincreases in number and size, evenunder moderate canopies. Advancereproduction should be at least 4 feettall and 1/2-inch in diameter at theroot collar at the time of overstoryharvest. This enables it, or sproutsstarting from it, to compete success-fully with other regeneration. Thus,oak-hickory stands begin the regen-eration process before, not after, thefinal harvest cut. Efforts to harvestand regenerate such stands withoutadequate advance regenerationshould not be attempted.

In much of the area occupiedby oak-hickory forests, shade-toleranthardwoods are climax types. Sitequality, location, other speciespresent and the response of thesespecies to conditions created bycultural operations all affect therapidity with which tolerant speciesreplace the oaks and hickories. If themanagement goal is to perpetuate

the oak-hickory forest, these speciesbest reproduce and grow as even-age groups or stands.

Single-tree selection has notbeen used successfully as a silvicul-tural system for maintaining oaks.Some oak regeneration will becomeestablished and persist for longperiods under selection cutting.However, it will not develop satisfac-torily under a uniform canopy, even ata one-third stocking level. The resultwill be the change of the oak-hickorystand into one dominated by shade-tolerant and usually less commer-cially valuable species, such asbeech and maple.

Group selection is a satisfac-tory method of cutting for the propa-gation of light-demanding and moder-ately tolerant species such as oak.The small, well-dispersed openingsthus created leave the forest with thegeneral appearance of having a fullcanopy. The size of the group cuttinghas little effect on either the densityor composition of the regeneration.Resulting seedlings or sprouts willgrow more slowly toward the edges ofthe opening as a result of competitionfrom the adjoining canopy. Diameterof openings should be no more thantwo to three times the heights ofadjoining trees. The disadvantage ofthis harvesting method is largelyadministrative and economic. Thecreation of many small stands ofvarying age classes makes themdifficult to identify and treat in latercultural and harvesting operations.

When making a regenerationopening in the forest, attention shouldbe given to the amount and type ofvegetation left standing. Remove orkill all non-merchantable overstorytrees and undesirable understoryplants greater than 2 inches indiameter. Undesirable untreatedplants will impede regenerationgrowth and could occupy a main partof the new forest.

Where sufficient advancereproduction of oaks is absent,clearcutting precludes oaks andhickories from the stand. On mediumto poor sites, sprouts from the stumpsof cut trees may provide an oakcomponent in the new stand.Clearcutting on good sites withoutadequate advance oak regenerationmay result in the conversion of thestand to more shade- intolerantspecies such as yellow-poplar,sweetgum or black cherry. This maybe desirable if is consistent with long-term goals and the soil is sufficientlyfertile.

If advanced oak and hickoryregeneration is lacking, delay the finalharvest cut. Manipulate the standthrough light cutting to promote newgrowth. Control of the mid-storyallows the oak reproduction anopportunity to become established.Once this growth has reachedsufficient size and numbers, harvestthe tract.

Shelterwood cuttings may beuseful in encouraging advanced oakreproduction. Conduct at least two


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cuttings over a five to 10-year intervalto establish a new stand of oak. Agood seed production year andproper balance of light is important inestablishing advanced oak reproduc-tion under the shelterwood method.Control of tolerant midstory canopiesinsures proper oak-hickory regenera-tion and growth. A good method ofcontrol is treatment with herbicides.The shelterwood system may haveutility where aesthetics are of primeimportance, but it has no advantageover clearcutting when adequate oakregeneration exists prior to harvest.

The seed-tree cutting methodhas little value in regenerating oakstands. The heavy seeds are poorlydistributed, and the slow-growingseedlings are rapidly over-topped byother vegetation. Additionally, oakshave very sporadic acorn production.Seed trees might reduce the aes-thetic impact of heavy cuttings andprovide some mast for wildlife. Tobetter achieve these goals, restrictthe size and alter the shape ofclearcut areas, and retain stands ofmast-producing species along theborders of adjacent stands.

Regardless of the harvestingmethod used, and the time betweenthe regeneration of a stand and itslater harvest, periodic intermediatecuts should be made. Intermediate

harvests depend upon the age andcondition of the stand. Utilize thecultural practices of weeding, clean-ing, release, salvage, thinning andtimber stand improvement. Thesepractices allow reduction of competi-tion, improved stand vigor, improvedcomposition, control of tree spacingand maintenance or improvement ofgrowth rate. Thinning throughout therotation also increases crown diam-eter, which may result in greater mastproduction for wildlife food.

Insects and diseases havelittle effect upon the choice of silvicul-tural systems for use in the oak-hickory forest. No practical controlmeasures exist for either defoliatinginsects or oak fungal pathogens.However, because healthy, vigorousstands are less susceptible to infesta-tion, you can lessen insect anddisease outbreaks through judiciouslyapplied improvement cuttings andsalvage of infested material.

Cattle and hardwood forestsare not compatible. Cattle eat,trample and otherwise destroyadvance regeneration that is essen-tial to the propagation of oak-hickoryforests. Soils become compacted. Ifcattle need forest stands for shelter, asmall area should be fenced off fortheir use.


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OAK - PINE

Type DescriptionThe oak-pine forest is the

second most extensive forest type inTennessee. It is largely a mountaintype, mostly found from theCumberland Plateau eastward.

These forests are transitionalin nature, falling somewhere betweenthe pioneer southern pine types andthe climax upland-hardwoods or oak-hickory type on the successionalscale. More than half of the trees inthe oak-pine forests are hardwoods,principally upland oaks, with variousupland yellow pines—loblolly, short-leaf and Virginia—accounting forbetween 25 and 49 percent of thetotal number of stems. The principaloaks are white, northern red, scarlet,black, chestnut and southern red,depending upon location and site.Associated hardwoods might behickory, yellow-poplar, sweet or blackgum, maples and ashes, combinedwith such understory species asdogwood, redbud and sourwood.


The silvicultural system andharvesting method used in themanagement of oak-pine forestsdepend largely upon site quality and

ownership desires within the limits ofsite capability. These forests, due totheir transitory nature, are seldommanaged to perpetuate the type.Rather, they are usually managedeither to hasten their transition into aclimax hardwood forest, or to reversenormal trends and re-establish pinesas the dominant species.

On moderate-to-poor sites,generally ridge tops, upland flats withshallow soils, and south and westslopes, the objective of managementin oak-pine stand is generally toincrease pine at the expense of thehardwood component. Pine is usuallyfavored over hardwood here becauseit generally produces greater yieldsand faster rates of growth. Pine willgrow satisfactorily and will produceprofitable volumes even on shallow oreroded soils.

Most upland yellow pines areshade intolerant, and thereforerequire an even-age managementsystem for successful regeneration.Also, more valuable hardwoods in theoak-pine type, such as yellow-poplarand northern red oak, are relativelyintolerant, and regenerate best undersilvicultural systems that produceeven-age stands. To obtain maximumstocking of commercially valuablespecies in future stands, harvestcuttings must be followed by vigorousmethods of species control, such asprescribed fire, use of herbicides or

mechanical site preparation.Most even-age systems of

regeneration—clear cutting,shelterwood and seed tree—havebeen used successfully. However, themost effective method of re-establish-ing pine has been clear cutting withintensive hardwood control, and sitepreparation followed by planting ordirect seeding of the desired species.This method allows the landowner tocontrol both species composition anddensity. It also provides the opportu-nity of replacing a species with amore desirable one in particularproblem areas, e.g., the replacementof natural shortleaf pine with loblollypine in areas of disease susceptibility,or the substitution of shortleaf pinewith loblolly pine in the northernsectors of the range where ice andsnow damage is prevalent.Clearcutting and planting will prob-ably become more economicallyfeasible as genetically-improvedstrains of pine and hardwoods, withgreater growth potential and moreresistance to insects and disease,become more readily available.

Natural pine regenerationmay sometimes be obtained undereven-age management withoutplanting or seeding. These tech-niques will generally result in theregeneration of another oak-pinestand, which may or may not be in


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harmony with ownership goals andoptimum land use. Natural pineregeneration will depend largely uponthe number of seed-producing stemsin the existing stand, the timing of thecut, site preparation and hardwoodcontrol. If the cut can be timed tocoincide with a good seed crop, andadequate site preparation is carriedout, sufficient natural regenerationmay be obtained to maintain theexisting pine/hardwood ratio, or evenincrease the pine component. Howmuch of this regeneration will surviveand establish itself in the new stand isdirectly related to the amount ofhardwood competition control exer-cised early in stand development.Without this control on good soil, newpine seedlings will be rapidly over-topped by fast-growing hardwoodseedlings and sprouts. On poor ridgetops, loblolly will outgrow hardwoodseedling/sprouts without any treat-ment.

An oak-pine stand, if undis-turbed, naturally develops into anoak-hickory, upland hardwood orcove hardwood stand. Losses ofpines due to storms, insects, dis-eases or fire will create openings inthe forest canopy. These openingsare quickly occupied by oaks andother hardwoods already present inthe understory. This natural processmay be accelerated by applyingsilvicultural techniques which dis-criminate against the pines and favorhardwoods. This is particularly

desirable on the better sites—bottomlands, coves and moist slopeswith a north and east exposure—where site quality permits rapidgrowth of higher value hardwoodspecies.

The method of accomplishingthis transition is simple. By cuttingmature pines heavily and hardwoodslightly, and exercising little or nohardwood control, the stand will betransformed into an all-hardwoodstand on good sites. The advanceregeneration present in the standprior to the cut will determine, to alarge extent, the species compositionof emerging stands.

Before converting an oak-pine stand to pine, even on thepoorest site, the landowner shouldconsider the effects such a step willhave on surrounding areas andwildlife. If the landowner is largelyinterested in maintaining or increas-ing wildlife populations versuscommercial timber production,existing oak-pine stands may provemore valuable for wildlife habitat thanwould pure pine stands.

It is recommended, however,that many upland drainages andstreamside management zones notbe cleared and planted to pine, but beeither lightly cut or left undisturbed.These “natural” areas will add diver-sity to the site and create numerousedges or transition zones, enhancingwildlife habitat.


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BOTTOMLANDHARDWOODS

Bottomland hardwood forestsare wetlands. These sites require themost sensitive silvicultural treatments.Because of the high productivity ofthese lands, forest management inbottomland hardwood offers a widearray of options to the forest landowner.

Type DescriptionBottomland hardwood types

occur on alluvial soils which are oftensubject to flooding and overflow. Overthe years, flood-prone areas continueto change soil texture and landelevation due to siltation and soildeposition from flooding.

Bottomland hardwood tractssupport some of the best wildlifehabitat and produce some of the mostvaluable veneer and sawlogs inTennessee. The major river bottomsof the state contain the largest andmore productive bottomland tracts.

Pioneer bottomland hard-wood types are cottonwood and blackwillow, and both occur in pure, even-

age stands. Cottonwood usuallyseeds in on the higher areas of barand island formations, usually theupstream and streamfront areas withlighter, coarser-textured soils. Willowtends to regenerate on the back sideand downstream toe of islands andbars.

Cottonwood stands willreduce stocking naturally in the earlyyears without stagnation. In mixedstands, cottonwood usually domi-nates in eight or 10 years. Cotton-wood matures in about 45 years,while willow stands begin to declineafter 35 or 40 years.

Cottonwood is usuallysucceeded by a mixture of sycamore,sweetgum, sweet pecan, hackberry,elm and other riverfront hardwoodspecies. Intolerant species likesweetgum occur in large openings.Willow breaks which are higher andbetter drained eventually give way toa combination of hackberry, soft elm,green ash, Nuttall oak, silver maple,honeylocust and river birch. On wideopen sites, sweetgum and pin oakoften take over as the secondarytype. As soils build, age and becomemore acid, sweetgum and the redoaks such as water, willow, Shumardand cherrybark will predominate. Theolder types of the bottomland forestusually include various red and whiteoaks with sweet pecan and hickories.

Old river channels, which donot completely fill with sediment, willseed with bald cypress or tupelo gum.Establishment of these channelstakes a long time because seed andwater conditions must be just right forseeding to occur.


Bottomland hardwoodmanagement and regenerationdepend upon the timber types, ageand state of succession, past cuttingpractices, size and type of ownershipand the owner’s goals. One of themajor considerations in managingbottomland hardwoods is to avoiddisruption of the natural water flowpattern. Fortunately, forestry practicesbest suited in maintaining hydrologiccycles also produce abundant wildlifehabitat.

Bottomland hard wood tractssupport some of thebest wildlife habitatand produce some ofthe most valuableveneer and sawlogsin Tennessee.

One of the majorconsider-ations inmanagingbottomlandhardwoods isto avoid dis-ruption of thenatural waterflow pattern.


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Adequate hardwood regen-eration usually will not occur wheresoil water tables have been alteredand where soil degradation hasoccurred. Water tables raised bycatch basins, hydrologic dams andblocked or altered stream channelsare usually associated with roadconstruction, beaver dams or care-less logging. Lowered water tablescaused by stream channelization mayalso affect species composition,regeneration and growth. Alteredwater tables can cause reversion of abottomland site to a less desirabletimber type or to a nontimber vegeta-tion.

Stand conditions downstreamfrom major water impoundmentsgenerally show decline, butt rot ofmature timber and wind throw.Uniform stream flow and prolongedflooding which maintain a high watertable may result in decline of thestand. This situation differs from thenatural ebb and flow of water fromstreams without impeded drainagepatterns.

Managing mixed hardwoodforests is complicated. Before choos-ing a harvesting plan, landownersshould perform a comprehensivesurvey of the site conditions andstand composition. Research andexperience have shown that bottom-land hardwood stands with less than20, 40 and 60 square feet per acre ofbasal area of wood, at ages 20, 30and 40 years respectively, arepotential candidates for a regenera-tion-type harvest. The informationneeded for regeneration for eachstand includes: 1) condition and size -distribution of the overstory trees foreach species, 2) quantity of allunderstory tree species, 3) amountand type of competing vegetation,and 4) seed crop and seed bedconditions.

Silviculture of mixed bottom-land hardwoods favors certainspecies over others for sawlogproduction because of form, quality,value and rate of growth. Preferred

species for sawlog production in-clude: cottonwood, sycamore,sweetgum, sweet pecan, green ash,cherrybark oak, Nuttall oak, willowoak, white oak, cow oak, blackwalnut, yellow-poplar and baldcypress.

The landowner shouldconsider the existing competition priorto harvest of a bottomland hardwoodforest. A jungle of undesirable treespecies, vines, briars and annualsoften results after the harvest of abottomland forest. However, injudging the success of a regenerationcut, one must show patience. After 10to 15 years, intolerant species beginto express dominance. In alluvialbottoms these intolerant speciesinclude green ash, cherrybark oak,yellow-poplar, sycamore, river birchand eastern cottonwood. For muckswamps, the preferred speciesinclude swamp black gum, tupelogum, bald cypress and green ash.

Growth in many existingunmanaged natural bottomlandstands may only be 40 board feet peracre or more per year. Managedhardwood stands should develop andmaintain a base volume of 4000board feet per acre. A 7 to 8 percentannual growth (280 board feet peracre per year) is possible in well-stocked, managed stands.

Research shows largeresponses in growth in bottomlandhardwoods when stocking levels areadjusted early in stand development.

Releasing a young standshould be adequate to allow treecrowns enough room to developduring the cutting cycle. On goodsites, stands should be cut back toabout 80 square feet of basal areaper acre.

Scarification caused bynormal logging operations in open-ings is usually helpful in bottomlandhardwood regeneration. As seedlingsdevelop in the openings, they mustbe released by removing trees inother areas.

G rowth in many existing unmanaged

natural bottomland standsmay only be 40 board feetper acre or more per year.Managed hardwoodstands should developand maintain a base vol-ume of 4000 board feetper acre. A 7 to 8 percentannual growth (280 boardfeet per acre per year) ispossible in well-stocked,managed stands.


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This publication considerswell-stocked and well-managedstands. However, throughout manyTennessee river bottoms, woodlandshave been exploited and misman-aged, becoming fully stocked withsaplings and poles of undesirablespecies. Many bottomlands areliterally a jungle of weeds and vines,with a scattered overstory of over-mature cull trees. If there are ad-equate numbers of saplings or smallpoles of preferred species in thestand to produce future crop trees(30-40 per acre), thenremoval of undesir-able trees should bethe first correctivestep. If crop trees aresparse, later selectioncuts may be delayedor widely spaced intime. If adequatenumbers of potentialcrop trees are notpresent, and timberproduction is the primary goal ofownership, then clearcutting may benecessary. Remove all trees greaterthan 2 inches in diameter. If a seedtree of a preferred species is avail-able in the area and seeded condi-tions can be created by exposure ofmineral soil, an excellent stand maybe obtained. However, newly estab-lished regeneration obtained mustcompete with vines and weeds, andtherefore is often slow to emerge as avisible stand.

Landowners may reforestbottomland hardwood sites success-fully by artificial regeneration. Bothplanting seedlings and direct seedingare options for reforestation work.

One key to planting hard-woods is matching the species to thesite. Landowners should evaluate thedrainage patterns, flood hazards andsoil types before planting a hardwoodspecies.

Cattle and hog grazing arenot compatible with growth andregeneration of mixed hardwoods.

Landowners should alsoprevent livestock grazingfrom damaging hard-wood timberlands.Bottomland sites are notconducive to excessivesoil erosion. However,extensive areas ofhardwood forest havesustained damage andheavy mortality fromblocked drainages and

silt deposits from upland sites.Landowners should take

precautions to prevent blockages inthe natural drains of bottomland soils.Keep clearings for log loading sitesas small as possible. Where planta-tions are established on river banks,maintain uncut strips of timber on theriver bank. Leave filter strips alongsloughs and bayous when clearing forplantations. Keep permanentriverbank log-loading sites in groundcover when not in use. Remove

Trapping is the bestway to controlbeaver popula-tions.

temporary fills for haul roads acrossdry drains and sloughs when nolonger in use. Culverts and bridgesshould be used in water-filled sloughsand bayous to prevent blockeddrainage. Drains and sloughs blockedby natural siltation during overflowshould be kept open, if possible, toprevent water-killed timber. Ditchingmay require government permits todispose of dredged material.

Control beaver populationswhere they cause or contribute toflooding and timber mortality. Trap-ping is the best way to control beaverpopulations. Continuous trapping maybe necessary to control populations.

Wildlife managers ratebottomland forests as prime habitat.Bottomland hardwoods have a higherdeer-carrying capacity than any otherforest type in the South and perhapsin the nation. Research has showncarrying capacity of one deer per 10-12 acres in many bottomlands. Thiscompares with one deer per 18-20acres in upland mixed hardwoods,and one deer per 25-30 acres in theoak-pine type. Similarly, turkey,squirrel and rabbit habitat in bottom-land hardwoods is equal to or supe-rior to other forest types in Tennes-see.

Finally, bottomlands make agreat contribution to the welfare ofwaterfowl, especially mallards andwood ducks. Both species are acornfeeders, and thus find the frequently


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flooded bottomlands with abundantoak species perfectly suited to theirneeds. In these environs, waterfowlalso feed on invertebrates found onthe underside of dead leaves forneeded protein. The importance ofbottomland woodlands to the overallwaterfowl picture is clear from studyof both the Atlantic and Mississippiflyways. In both flyways the mallardand wood duck rank first and second,respectively, in the total duck harvest.

Other less tangible benefitsare the aesthetic, recreational andecological roles that bottomlandforests play. Forests along thedrainages slow and hold water in timeof flooding, acting as a giant funnelreleasing water slowly when needed.Also, the forest has a profound effecton the ground water supply bymodifying and slowing any abruptchanges. Still unknown is the com-plete role of the bottomland forest inaffecting local rainfall, humidity andrelated weather patterns.

These intrinsic and ecologicalvalues of the forested wetlands ofTennessee affect and improve thequality of life for all Tennesseans.

COVE HARDWOODS

Type DescriptionCove hardwoods occur most

frequently in the Plateau and Easternregions of Tennessee betweenelevations of 500 and 4,000 feet.


They are typically found on northerlyand easterly aspects, lower andmiddle slopes, coves and ravines,and valley floors. Stands are charac-terized by a large number of domi-nant and sub-dominant trees and bya great diversity of species. Speciespresent in the stand and their propor-tions vary considerably due to pasttreatment, natural stand disturbancesand sites of different quality, aspect,elevation and latitude.

Cove hardwoods are highlyproductive and typically occupy good-to-excellent sites. Soils are fairlydeep, medium-textured and well-drained. Annual precipitation is welldistributed and ample, ranging from40 to 55 or more inches. On theserich sites, major species are longlived and attain very large sizes.

A single species, such asnorthern red oak or yellow poplar,occasionally dominate a stand, buttypically 25 or more species will bepresent. Important components areyellow-poplar, northern red and whiteoak, sugar and red maple, Americanbeech, white ash, American bass-wood, black cherry, cucumbertree,sweet and yellow birches, hickories,yellow buckeye and black locust.Other species occur occasionally,including a few conifers such aseastern white pine and easternhemlock. On good sites at higherelevations, the type merges in manyplaces with northern hardwood-blackcherry mixtures. On drier situationswith shallow soils, the type gives wayto oak-hickory.

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Stand condition is probablythe most significant consideration indetermining silvicultural needs, andstands should be classified as a firstmanagement step. These classifica-tions should reflect factors of dam-age, quality, density and age. Thefollowing are offered as examples ofcondition classes: damagedpoletimber, damaged sawtimber,sparse poletimber, sparse sawtimber,low quality pole-timber, low-qualitysawtimber, mature poletimber, maturesawtimber, immature poletimber,immature sawtimber, and seedlingsand saplings.

Stand management in covehardwoods is complicated by thewide range of conditions present. Themany species associated with thistype range from intolerant to moder-ately shade tolerant. There also maybe wide variations in site index.

Recommended managementactivities for cove hardwoods willgenerally fall into one of two catego-ries: intermediate cutting or thinning,and harvest cuts for regeneration.

Cove hardwoods generallyrequire intermediate cuts to producelarge, high-quality trees. These cutswill usually consist of either a clean-ing or commercial thinning operation.Cleaning takes place in seedling andsapling stands less than 20 years oldduring the period of rapid growthwhen crown class differentiation isoccurring and mortality is high.Cleaning should include the followingconsiderations:

1. The goal is to selectpreferred species, improve stemquality, shorten the rotation andenhance wildlife habitat.

2. Timing is critical forsuccess. If done too early, cleaningwill encourage sprouting, which mayovertop selected trees. If cleaning isdelayed, the opportunity for exerting alasting influence on the stand may be

lost. Depending on site, existingconditions and objectives, the propertime for cleaning is when the stand isabout 10 years old.

3. The intensity will vary withconditions, but should follow the ruleof doing as little as possible to meetthe desired goal. Attention should befocused on selected crop trees andremoving their competition. Over-topped stems should be ignored.

4. A well-spaced stand of 100crop trees per acre, free-to-grow, isgenerally accepted as a desirablegoal.

The principal cove hardwoodspecies respond favorably to thinning,although response varies withspecies, sites, residual density, treesize, vigor and age.

Yellow-poplar is among thefastest growing species in covestands, but others such as northernred oak and black oak do comparablywell. Intermediate in rate of growthare red maple, basswood and ash.White oak, chestnut oak, sweet birchand the hickories are among theslow-growing species.

If the landowner’s objectivesinclude maximum production ofsawtimber, management shouldstress diameter and board footgrowth of individual trees rather thantotal cubic foot growth within thestand. Cubic-foot growth, unlikediameter growth, increases with thenumber of trees per acre. Thinning toencourage growth of individual stemsmay reduce to some extent thiscubic-foot volume growth, but diam-eters of individual crop trees andboard foot volume growth of the standwill be enhanced. Most unmanagedstands in Tennessee are over-stocked for optimum diameter growthof individual stems and board-footgrowth of the stand.

Thinning eliminates poor-quality trees and less desirablespecies, thus concentrating growth oncrop trees. There is, however, apotential danger of epicormic sprout-

Yellow-poplar is among the fastest growing

species in covestands, but otherssuch as northern redoak and black oak docomparably well.

I f the landowner’s objectives include maximum produc-tion of sawtimber,management shouldstress diameter andboard foot growth ofindividual treesrather than totalcubic foot growthwithin the stand.


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ing, a natural reaction of many treesexposed to increased sunlight ontheir boles, typically occurring follow-ing logging where the remaining treesare exposed to increased sunlight.Many small branches develop belowthe crown, reducing the ability of thetree to produce grade lumber. In covehardwood stands, susceptibility toepicormic sprouting varies withspecies, but is most prevalent ontrees under stress and low vigor. Theamount of sprouting also depends onintensity of thinning, and is related toindividual tree genetic characteristics.The risk of epicormic sprouting isgreater on poor sites and mostcommonly occurs on the southerlyfaces of exposed tree boles.

The timing of intermediatecuts can be quite flexible, and for thisreason, economic considerationsoften influence scheduling. Becausecove hardwoods are commonlycomposed of many species withvarying growth potentials and differ-ent age classes, cove hardwoods donot stagnate. Depending on thesituation, the option exists for eitherlight-but-frequent thinnings, orrelatively heavy thinnings at longerintervals.

Cove hardwoods are socomplex that no one silviculturalsystem can be considered best for allconditions. All hardwoods sproutvigorously when small, and seeds ofsome species such as ash, yellow-poplar and black cherry are producedin abundance annually and remainviable in the forest liter or duff forseveral years. Natural hardwoodreproduction usually occurs followingany type of harvest cutting.

The silvicultural system andits associated harvest cutting methodgreatly influence species composi-tion, due to the wide variety ofspecies and their varying degrees oftolerance to shade.

Uneven-age managementwith selection cutting causes the leastdisturbance in the forest canopy. It

tends to encourage shade-tolerantspecies such as sugar maple, beechand hemlock. Thus, this systemfavors the economically less valuable,slower-growing tolerant species anddiscriminates against more light-demanding species.

Group selection or patchcutting of small areas, one-half to oneacre in size, permits the establish-ment of light-demanding species suchas yellow-poplar and black cherry.But management costs are high andthere is a loss of quality in bordertrees around the openings due toepicormic sprouting. As stated earlier,this system does not lend itself tointensive forestry when timberproduction may be the principalobjective.

Shelterwood cuttings appearto be a promising method for regener-ating species with intermediate shadetolerance. When advance regenera-tion is lacking, this method has someadvantage in establishing oaks,hickories and other mid-tolerantspecies. However, it also favors thosethat are more tolerant. Theshelterwood method may have itsbest utilization where aesthetics areimportant.

The seed-tree method is oflittle value in the regeneration of covehardwoods. The heavy seeds of covehardwoods, such as oak, are poorlydistributed, while the light seeds ofyellow poplar, ash and black cherryand certain other species are usuallyalready sufficiently available in theforest floor.

Clearcutting is a highly usefultool for the regeneration of fast-growing intolerant species such asyellow poplar and black cherry.Where adequate advance reproduc-tion is present, it also encouragesdevelopment of oaks, hickories andother mid-tolerant species.Clearcutting may well be the mosteconomical and preferable methodwhen wood production is the primaryobjective. However, in scenically

sensitive locations, aesthetic objec-tions may limit clearcuts to smallareas.

Although it is important tofollow Best Management Practices(BMPs) when planning harvestactivities on all forest types, it may bemost critical in cove hardwoods. Covesites are characterized by deep soilsand slopes that are often steep, withan increased risk of soil erosion. Awell-planned harvest including theimplementation of BMPs will minimizesoil loss, while allowing the land-owner to meet his or her forestmanagement objectives.


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PINE

Type EstablishmentTraditionally, Tennessee is

considered a hardwood state. Hard-woods will grow in all regions andthere is significant establishedindustry to utilize this resource.However, pine is increasing inimportance. About 20 percent of thestate’s forest lands consist of pine orpine-hardwood types. Pine offers thelandowner the advantage of higherper acre yields on poor sites. Siteswhich might be suitable for plantingpine include old fields, ridgetops,eroded hillsides and poor southwestslopes. Although pine will grow wellon almost any site, it does respond assite quality improves. Elevation, soils,aspect, moisture and winter tempera-ture all impact where a pine specieswill grow. On good sites, hardwoodsmust be controlled to insure adequatepine survival and growth.

There are several species ofpine that grow well in the state. Eachspecies has special needs andrequirements for survival and someare more commercially valuable thanothers.

Loblolly pine is fast growingand produces many valuable prod-ucts including pulpwood, lumber,plywood and poles. One drawback ofloblolly pine is that it is not a nativespecies to many counties of the state.Cold winter temperatures plus heavysnows and ice storms may inhibitloblolly from maturing.

Tree improvement programs

in Tennessee have been partiallysuccessful in breeding trees that canperform well in Tennessee and resistcold and ice damage. Virginia pine ispreferred on poorer sites and athigher elevations. It is an excellenttree for erosion control or for sitereclamation following mining. Due toits shorter needles and steeperbranch angles, Virginia pine is muchmore resistant to snow and icedamage than is loblolly. Virginia pinedoes not grow as rapidly as loblollyand yields fewer economic productsat maturity.

Shortleaf pine occurs natu-rally in many areas of the state,usually on good sites. It is alsoplanted primarily for sawtimberproduction. Although it will makeexcellent pulpwood, it will take muchlonger to mature than loblolly orVirginia pine.

Eastern white pine grows

naturally in eastern Tennessee andprefers a good site with adequatemoisture. In the past few years,eastern white pine has been widelyplanted for Christmas trees and forornamental transplant stock. Largeeastern white pines are valuable forlumber used in pattern making for thefurniture industry. Currently, timbersales are generally for sawlogs andlogs for log homes.Harvesting, Regenerationand Cultural Methods

Harvesting methods for pinebasically consist of group selectionsand clearcuts. Single tree selection isnot preferred because pines are

shade intolerant and must be estab-lished under even-age conditions. Amodified shelterwood method or aseed tree harvest can be utilized ifnatural regeneration is planned.

After harvesting is complete,the site should be prepared forregeneration. The method of regen-eration will largely dictate the type ofsite preparation necessary. Less-intensive forms of regenerationrequire less-intensive forms of sitepreparation. A more detailed discus-sion follows in the section titled“Stand Conversion.”

Pines can be regenerated bynatural seeding, direct seeding or byplanting seedlings. The methodsdiffer both in cost and effectiveness.The landowner must fully understandthe ramifications of each methodbeforehand.

A modified shelterwoodharvest or a seed tree cut can providefor natural pine regeneration. Thistechnique requires the harvesting ofall trees, except for those mature,cone-bearing trees left behind toprovide seed. As seed drops andgerminates, the new stand starts to fillin below. Once sufficient regenerationis present, harvest the seed trees andcomplete the operation.

Seed tree regeneration offersthe most cost-effective means ofregenerating pine. It does have somesignificant limitations, however. First,the landowner must regenerate to thesame species that was growingbefore. A tract that was forested withshortleaf will come back to shortleaf.This negates any opportunities to


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work with genetically improvedmaterials and the enhanced growthcharacteristics that come with suchstock. Second, stocking can be a hit-or-miss proposition. In years of goodseed production, adequately-stockedto over-stocked stands are common.Similarly, in poor years of seedproduction, under-stocked standsmay occur. Third, removal of seedtrees frequently causes damage tothe regeneration. And finally, seedtrees are subject to lightning strikes,wind throw and ice damage.

Direct seeding is a variationof natural seeding. Following a groupselection or clearcut, pine seed isbroadcast on the harvest area byairplane, helicopter or ground equip-ment. Positive attributes associatedwith this method include moderatecost, the opportunity to switch fromone species of pine to another andthe use of genetically improved seed.As with natural seeding, the maindrawback to direct seeding is theamount of seed that actually germi-nates. Frequently, too many seedgerminate and stands with too manytrees clumped in an area may result.

Planting nursery grownseedlings is the most commonmethod of regenerating pine. It is alsothe most expensive means. Successrates are high if proper proceduresand techniques are used. Advice from

a professional forester can help thelandowner achieve a good plantingjob.

A forester can help thelandowner locate proper species, finda good seed source, and locatequality seedlings. Most nurseriesgrow two types of seedlings—woods-run and genetically improved. Be-cause woods-run seed is collectedfrom a variety of trees, the seedlingsproduced exhibit great variety in size,shape, growth, etc. This variationresults in a plantation that may notgrow at an optimum and uniform rate.

Genetically-improved seed-lings are produced from seed col-lected from preferred seed sources orseed orchard. Each tree in theorchard has certain superior charac-teristics. As the superior trees pro-duce seed, their offspring receivetheir genetic traits. This results in aforest more genetically equipped tohandle the harsh realities of the localenvironment. For example, geneti-cally-improved loblolly pines grownfor Tennessee landowners have traitsthat enable them to survive freezingwinter temperatures. If available, thelandowner should use genetically-improved planting stock, even thoughit is slightly more expensive thanwoods-run stock. Seedlings shouldbe ordered in the summer prior to theplanting season, which runs between

December and April.Availability of labor and

equipment, along with local siteconditions, determine the decision tohand- or machine-plant. If the site issteep or rocky, hand-planting may bethe only alternative. On well-preparedsites, survival and growth are usuallysuperior when seedlings are ma-chine-planted. Tractors (crawler orfarm type) in the 50-75 horsepowerrange are ideal for pulling a plantingmachine.

The spacing of trees in aplantation is determined by theobjectives of the landowner. Widerspacings produce salable treesearlier. An 8 x 8, 7 x 9, 7 x 8 or 6 x10-foot spacing is recommended.This gives each tree about 56 to 64square feet of growing space andmakes thinnings possible in 12 to 18years. With a wider spacing, there arereduced planting costs, minimummortality before thinning and in-creased growth rates.

After pine is successfullyregenerated, either by seeding orplanting, intermediate treatments maybe required. Hardwoods must becontrolled during the early years ofthe plantation to achieve maximumpine growth. Failure to do so probablywill produce a mixed pine/hardwoodforest.


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1. Foliage application of herbicides Recommendations for specific herbicides cannot be made with any reliability since their authorized use is

subject to rapid change. Only herbicides approved by the Environmental Protection Agency can be used.Consult a professional forester before the use of such chemicals and follow the manufacturer’s label. Foliarapplications of herbicides are done most efficiently and safely using a helicopter equipped with a drift-controlsystem. Ground applications are also possible using tractor-mounted sprayers or hand crews.

2. Stem application of herbicides This can be done by applying EPA-approved chemicals to an axe-made frill around the tree, or with tree injec-

tors at the base of the tree. This treatment is most effective during the growing season. Some new herbicidescan be sprayed directly to the stem and absorbed into the tree through the bark. This technique is called a basalspray treatment.

3. Girdling Girdling involves the use of an axe or hatchet to remove a ring of bark around the tree. Some species have a

tendency to “bridge” the girdle and live. For a more effective treatment, apply EPA-approved herbicide to thegirdle, as in stem application.

4. Prescribed burning: Fire can be used to reduce fuel and brush in older pine stands. Stands must be 15 to 18 feet tall and have

stems diameters at 4 to 6 inches. Used under the right fuel moisture and weather conditions, and properlysupervised, fire is a useful tool for pine management. It can have disastrous results, however, if improperlyused. A state burning permit is required. Consult with a professional forester before any prescribed burn.

If overstocked (such as from direct seeding), pre-commercial thinnings may be needed during the first five yearsif the stand is to achieve any reasonable growth. Pre-commercial thinning can be achieved by removing pines instrips with bush hogging, discing or applying herbicides.

If one of the landowner’s goals is to grow sawtimber, a first commercial thinning may be necessary at ages 12to 18. Two thinning systems are in general use today: (1) free thinning, leaving the best trees in the stand forthe final harvest cut, and (2) row thinning, removing every second or third row of trees.

The number of trees left after thinning depends upon the carrying capacity of the land. As the stand ages, for agiven site the fewer the trees per acre that can be maintained. There are several factors to consider whendetermining how many trees to remove in a thinning from a pure pine stand, such as, stand density, growth,site, crown age, the vigor, etc. Consult a professional forester prior to determining which trees and how manytrees to remove in a thinning.

Finally, protect pine stand from insects, disease and wildfire. A landowner must periodically check the trees. Ifthe area has a history of wildfire problems, firelines may be needed around the perimeter of the pines. Diseaseand insect outbreaks can be partially controlled through salvage harvesting operations.

Wildlife habitat value of the pine stands depend on many factors, including the species composition of theunder- and mid-story. Stands with honeysuckle as the primary species covering the forest floor have highcarrying capacities for deer and turkey. A dogwood mid-story, with stems 2 inches DBH and over, provides softmast (pulpy fruit) in the fall. Sapling- and pole-size mid-story provides cover for deer and grouse. Log-road re-vegetation after a cut can provides useful amounts of forage.

Possible methods of removing hardwood competition are:

1. Foliar application of herbicides Recommendations for specific herbicides cannot be made with any reliability since their authorized use is

subject to rapid change. Only herbicides approved by the Environmental Protection Agency can be used.Consult a professional forester before the use of such chemicals and follow the manufacturer’s label. Foliarapplications of herbicides are done most efficiently and safely using a helicopter equipped with a drift-controlsystem. Ground applications are also possible using tractor-mounted sprayers or hand crews.

2. Stem application of herbicides This can be done by applying EPA-approved chemicals to an axe-made frill around the tree, or with tree injec-

tors at the base of the tree. This treatment is most effective during the growing season. Some new herbicidescan be sprayed directly to the stem and absorbed into the tree through the bark. This technique is called a basalspray treatment.

3. Girdling Girdling involves the use of an axe or hatchet to remove a ring of bark around the tree. Some species have a

tendency to “bridge” the girdle and live. For a more effective treatment, apply EPA-approved herbicide to thegirdle, as in stem application.

4. Prescribed burning: Fire can be used to reduce fuel and brush in older pine stands. Stands must be 15 to 18 feet tall and have

stems diameters at 4 to 6 inches. Used under the right fuel moisture and weather conditions, and properlysupervised, fire is a useful tool for pine management. It can have disastrous results, however, if improperlyused. A state burning permit is required. Consult with a professional forester before any prescribed burn.

If overstocked (such as from direct seeding), pre-commercial thinnings may be needed during the first five yearsif the stand is to achieve any reasonable growth. Pre-commercial thinning can be achieved by removing pines instrips with bush hogging, discing or applying herbicides.

If one of the landowner’s goals is to grow sawtimber, a first commercial thinning may be necessary at ages 12to 18. Two thinning systems are in general use today: (1) free thinning, leaving the best trees in the stand forthe final harvest cut, and (2) row thinning, removing every second or third row of trees.

The number of trees left after thinning depends upon the carrying capacity of the land. As the stand ages, for agiven site the fewer the trees per acre that can be maintained. There are several factors to consider whendetermining how many trees to remove in a thinning from a pure pine stand, such as, stand density, growth,site, crown age, the vigor, etc. Consult a professional forester prior to determining which trees and how manytrees to remove in a thinning.

Finally, protect pine stand from insects, disease and wildfire. A landowner must periodically check the trees. Ifthe area has a history of wildfire problems, firelines may be needed around the perimeter of the pines. Diseaseand insect outbreaks can be partially controlled through salvage harvesting operations.

Wildlife habitat value of the pine stands depend on many factors, including the species composition of theunder- and mid-story. Stands with honeysuckle as the primary species covering the forest floor have highcarrying capacities for deer and turkey. A dogwood mid-story, with stems 2 inches DBH and over, provides softmast (pulpy fruit) in the fall. Sapling- and pole-size mid-story provides cover for deer and grouse. Log-road re-


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vegetation after a cut can providesuseful amounts of forage.

Stand ConversionConverting hardwood stands

to pine is a management option thatsome landowners may wish toconsider. Extremely poor hardwoodsites generally are more economicallyproductive if reforested in pine. Standconversion is only recommendedfollowing a clearcut. Methods ofconversion include:(1) Clearing. On flat ground and onmoderate slopes, land clearing is anexcellent conversion technique. Thisis the most expensive method, but isgenerally also the most successful.The clearing process usually involvesshearing the remaining brush and culltrees from the ground with a crawlertractor-mounted blade, piling thebrush in windrows, burning and singleor double discing with a heavy offsettandem disc.(2) Use of herbicides. Stand conver-sion with herbicides commonlyconsists of foliar spray applied byhelicopter equipped with a driftcontrol system. Mist-blower applica-tions, except inside large acreages,tend to drift. The amount and speciesof brush on the land determines theactual formulation of spray mixture.After full leaf development, sprayareas, control burn in late August orSeptember and then plant or seedwith the desired species during thewinter.(3) Use of fire. Following a clearcut, acontrolled burn is often adequate toremove undesirable brush andsuitably prepare the area for planting.Use of fire is dependent on weatherconditions, but it is a valuable andrelatively inexpensive site preparationtool.

Erosion associated withstand conversion may result fromland clearing or plowed fire lines.However, erosion can be limited byclearing only slopes of less than 25percent, piling windrows continuouslyon the contour, discing on the contour

and planting on the contour. Buildingwaterbars on firelanes will alsoreduce erosion. Normally, after thefirst growing season, there is anadequate cover of grass and weedsto prevent any significant amount ofsoil movement.

Marketing ofForestResources

Many marketing opportunitiesexist for the Tennessee forest land-owner. These range from the sale oftimber to the sale of access forhunting. With this great diversity offorest products, it is almost impos-sible to specify any one set of possi-bilities as being “the best” for aparticular owner. Since the primeproducer of income to the forestlandowner is the sale of timber andwood products, this aspect of thelandowner marketing possibilities willbe stressed. Because of the com-plexities associated with the sale oftimber, the landowner should seekassistance from a professionalforester (private consultant, stateservice forester, Extension forester orindustrial forester) as early as pos-sible. Given the landowner’s objec-tives, the forester can assist with thedesign of a sale to best meet thosegoals. In many cases, harvesting toachieve financial goals is consistentwith the achievement of other goals.Regardless of the objectives of thetimber harvest, consideration must begiven to the re-establishment of thestand. Again, the professional forestercan help the landowner decide on aregeneration plan that fits his or hergoals.

There are several ways todesignate harvestable trees. Thesehave already been discussed inconnection with appropriate silvicul-tural practices for each forest type. Inany selective harvest, trees should be

marked to be cut on both the bole aswell as the stump.

Before making a sale,determine the volume of the trees tobe sold. Such a volume determinationwill usually involve an assessment ofquality and species identification. Theonly reliable method is to estimate thevolume of all trees to be cut withassistance from a professionalforester. The volume will give thelandowner an inventory of the forestproducts he or she intends to sell.

Volume determination canalso be achieved by measuring orscaling the products after they havebeen harvested. This can take placeat the harvesting site or at the millthat purchased the products. Thismethod of inventory doesn’t give thelandowner any prior information aboutthe sale and could result in a poormarketing decision.

After specifying which treesto cut and determining stand volume,a selling price must be established.The landowner can simply determinethe stumpage price of each species,size and quality tree, and multiply bythe volume to determine the totalprice for the sale. The local stateservice forester or other landownerswho have recently made sales aregood sources of price information.

The best way to sell timber isto solicit sealed bids. Research hasproven that sealed bids are the bestway to receive the highest price fortimber. By inviting sealed bids,landowners 1) exploit the total marketfor timber, 2) develop competitionamong all the buyers, 3) notify thebuyers of condition of sale, 4) may beassured that at least a minimumacceptable price will be reached, and5) may prevent collusion amongbuyers.

An alternative is to advertiseor auction the standing timber.Advertise sales by mail, in tradejournals, local papers and by word ofmouth. The key to successful timbermarketing is to be patient. Since


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timber is not a liquid asset, and thewood markets tend to be volatile andcyclic, it may require six to 18 monthsto receive fair market value forstanding timber. Be patient.

Timber sales which containhigh value products like veneer logsand cooperage bolts should beconsidered differently. Landownerswill likely receive a greater monetarygain by selling these products sepa-rately. In some cases pulpwood andsawtimber may be effectively mar-keted separately. Prices may differ-ent enough between products towarrant special consideration.

A timber sale contract shouldbe constructed early in the marketingprocess so that potential buyers willcompletely understand the terms andconditions of the sale prior to submit-ting bids. Seek competent legal aidduring this process. A contractprovides for methods of measure-ment, prices, termination dates,access, liabilities for damage andother aspects that may be of impor-tance to a particular landowner.Sellers should include as part of theircontract that Tennessee Best Man-agement Practices be followed in thetimber harvest. The seller shouldinspect the sale area during and aftercompletion of the harvest to assurecompliance with the contract.

Forest landowners havemany non-timber products that canbe marketed. Gravel, stone, and sandare always in high demand. Vegeta-tive materials like ginseng root arereadily sold to herb buyers. Thecommercial and ornamental nurseryindustry buys numerous young treesand saplings from growers. They alsobuy mulch in the form of tree bark,sawdust and pine straw. All theseproducts are derived from the forestand can be sold for the benefit of thelandowner.

Hunting access representsanother readily marketable commod-ity for the forest landowner. Ascompetition for public hunting prop-

erty increases, hunters continue tovie for private property for a exclusiveplace to hunt. Lease arrangements ora day use fee system are the mostcommon agreements reachedbetween landowners and hunters.

Sources of Assistance forLandowners

There are many sources ofinformation for landowners on howthey may better manage their forestlands and where they may market theproducts.

The Tennessee Division ofForestry (TDF) provides services intimber management and to a limiteddegree in timber marketing. TDF isalso the public agency that approvesthe eligibility of landowners forgovernment cost share programs,such as the Forest StewardshipProgram. The Forest StewardshipProgram is designed for forestlandowners who have multiple useobjectives and intend to implementforestry stewardship practices ontheir land. Enrollment offers landown-ers opportunity to participate in theStewardship Incentive Program (SIP)for government cost share assistancefor such practices as wildlife habitatimprovements, road constructionimprovements, tree planting, fencingfor water quality improvements, etc.The state service forester can givethe landowner information with regardto these valuable subsidies.

The Extension forester of TheUniversity of Tennessee Departmentof Forestry, Wildlife and Fisheriesserves as a source of educationalassistance and technical informationfor landowners. This service isavailable through Agricultural Exten-sion Service county agents. Assis-tance is also available in certainareas from the Soil ConservationService, the Tennessee ValleyAuthority and Tennessee WildlifeResources Agency.

In addition to public sources

of information, private consultingforesters provide valuable landownerservices, particularly in the area oftimber sales administration andmarketing. A list of consulting forest-ers in Tennessee is available frommost Tennessee Division of Forestryoffices.

Landowners who are commit-ted to wise forest management areeligible to enroll at no cost in theAmerican Tree Farm program, whichis administered in Tennessee by theTennessee Forestry Association(TFA). Tree Farm foresters will helpthe landowner develop a manage-ment plan designed to meet his or hergoals, and will periodically inspect thetree farm at no charge. Many ofTennessee’s best-managed forestsdisplay the familiar green and white,diamond-shaped “Tree Farm” sign.

Several of Tennessee’s forestproducts companies provide a serviceto landowners who are interested inpracticing forestry. These companiesoffer agreements in which landown-ers receive professional assistanceand services in return for a commit-ment to practice intensive forestry. Alist of these programs is also avail-able from the Tennessee ForestryAssociation.

L andowners whoare committed towise forest man-

agement are eligible toenroll at no cost in theAmerican Tree Farmprogram, which is ad-ministered in Tennesseeby the Tennessee For-estry Association (TFA).


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Appendix

Agencies Assisting Landowners

State ForesterTennessee Division of ForestryP. O. Box 40727, Melrose StationNashville, TN 37204(615) 360-0724

Extension ForesterThe University of TennesseeAgricultural Extension ServiceP.O. Box 1071Knoxville, TN 37901-1071(615) 974-7346

State ConservationistSoil Conservation Service675 US Courthouse801 BroadwayNashville, TN 37203(615) 736-5471

Executive DirectorAssociation of Consulting Forestersof American, Inc.5400 Grosvenor Lane, Suite 300Bethesda, MD 20814-2198(301) 530-6759

Forestry LeaderTennessee Valley AuthorityForestry BuildingNorris, TN 37828(615) 494-9800

Executive DirectorTennessee Forestry AssociationP.O. Box 290693Nashville, TN 37229(615) 883-3832

GLOSSARY

alluvial soil A soil consisting of recently water-deposited sediment and showing practically no soil horizon development.

basal area The area of the cross-section of a tree stem including bark, generally at breast height (4.5 feet from theground).

Best Management Practices Harvesting and silvicultural guidelines developed to reduce the amount of soil erosionresulting from logging and other forestry-related activities.

carrying capacity The maximum number of a given species that can survive on an area without deterioration of theenvironment.

cleaning A cutting made in a stand not past the sapling stage. This releases the best trees by removing less desirableindividuals of the same age which overtop them.

climax forest The final stage in natural plant succession in a given environment. The plant community has reached ahighly stable condition, and will not change in composition unless there is a change in climate and/or soil.

commercial forestland Forest lands capable of growing merchantable forest products, and not being withdrawn fromsuch use.

cruise A survey to locate and estimate the quantity of wood on a given area according to species, size, quality andpossible products.

cutting cycle The planned interval of time between successive cuttings.


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DBH Diameter at breast height. The average stem diameter, outside bark, at 4 1/2 feet above ground.

dominance The influence that a species exerts, measured by the total cover or mass that it occupies within a community.

epicormic branching A branch that sprouts from a dormant bud on the stem of a woody plant.

even-age A silvicultural system wherein the age difference between the youngest and oldest trees is less than 20% ofthe length of the rotation.

forest stand A community of trees, sufficiently uniform in composition, age and spatial arrangement to make it distin-guishable from adjacent plant communities.

forest type A category of forest defined by its particular vegetative composition; i.e., the predominant species that occupythe area.

frilling Girdling by making a series of downward and overlapping incisions; usually done for the introduction of herbicides.

intermediate cutting Any type of tree removal from a stand which takes place between the time of its formation and thefinal harvest cutting.

pioneer species A plant capable of invading disturbed areas and persisting until replaced by successor species havingmore exacting environmental requirements.

pole Trees that are from 4-to-10 inches in DBH.

prescribed fire Controlled application of fire under carefully supervised conditions to achieve planned objectives.

release Freeing a tree(s) from competition by eliminating species that are interfering with optimum growth performance.

rotation The number of years between the regeneration of a forest stand and its final harvest cutting.

salvage cutting Utilization of trees that are dead, dying or deteriorating.Usually following a natural diaster like a wildfire,storm, or insect.

sanitation cutting The removal of dead, damaged or susceptible trees, to prevent the spread of insects and/or disease.

sapling Trees that are less than 4-inch DBH and more than 3 feet tall.

scarification Disturbance of the surface layer of soil that supports forest vegetation, thereby exposing the mineral soil andmaking it receptive for seed germination and plant growth.

site An area considered in terms of its environment, particularly as this determines the type and quality of the vegetationthe area can support.

site index A measure of the relative productive capacity of a site. The height of the dominant trees in a stand at a specificage for a single species.

site preparation Removal of unwanted vegetation, branchwood and other residue on the ground before the establish-ment and forest regeneration of an area.

soil series The basic unit of soil classification, consisting of soils that are alike in all major profile characteristics of thesurface layer.


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soil type A sub-category of a soil series, based mainly on the surface layer texture; i.e., percentage of sand, silt and clay.

stocking level Refers to stand density; i.e., the proportion of an area that is actually occupied by trees, and compared tothe desirable number for best growth.

stumpage The value of standing timber as it stands uncut.

succession The gradual replacement of one plant community by another, over time, brought about by environmentalchanges of the area. The final stage is termed climax.

thinning Cuttings made in immature stands in order to stimulate the growth of the remaining trees and to increase thetotal yield of useful products from the stand.

timber stand improvement (TSI) All intermediate cuttings intended to improve species composition, stand compositionand tree growth.

tolerance The ability of a plant to grow satisfactorily in the shade and competition of other trees.

uneven-age A silvicultural system wherein trees of at least three or more age classes are present. Usually resulting in aforest of trees of different sizes, species and heights.

weeding A cutting made in a stand to reduce competition from undesirable vegetation during the seedling stage of forestdevelopment.

A State Partner in the Cooperative Extension SystemThe Agricultural Extension Service offers its programs to all eligible persons regardless of race, color, age, national origin, sex or

disability and is an Equal Opportunity Employer.COOPERATIVE EXTENSION WORK IN AGRICULTURE AND HOME ECONOMICS The University of Tennessee Institute of Agriculture, U.S. Department of Agriculture,

and county governments cooperating in furtherance of Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914. Agricultural Extension Service

Billy G. Hicks, Dean

PB1523-30M-2/95R12-1041-08-001-95

forest practice guidelines for...

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