Foundations: c. 8000 B.C.E.–600 C.E.

Major Developments

Major Comparisons and Snapshots

1. Comparisons of the major religious and philosophical systems including some underlying similarities in cementing a social hierarchy, e.g., Hinduism contrasted with Confucianism

2. Role of women in different belief systems -- Buddhism, Christianity, Confucianism, and Hinduism

3. Understanding of how and why the collapse of empire was more severe in western Europe than it was in the eastern Mediterranean or in China

4. Compare the caste system to other systems of social inequality devised by early and classical civilizations, including slavery

5. Compare societies and cultures that include cities with pastoral and nomadic societies

6. Compare the development of traditions and institutions in major civilizations, e.g., Indian, Chinese, and Greek

7. Describe interregional trading systems, e.g., the Indian Ocean trade

Examples of What You Need to Know

Below are examples of the types of information you are expected to know contrasted with examples of those things you are not expected to know for the multiple-choice section.

1. Nature of the Neolithic revolution, but not characteristics of previous stone ages, e.g., Paleolithic and Mesolithic

2. Economic and social results of the agricultural revolution, but not specific date of the introduction of agriculture to specific societies

3. Nature of patriarchal systems, but not changes in family structure within a single region

4. Nature of early civilizations, but not necessarily specific knowledge of more than two

5. Importance of the introduction of bronze and iron, but not specific inventions or implements

6. Political heritage of classical China (emperor, bureaucracy), but not specific knowledge of dynastic transitions, e.g., from Qin to Han

7. Greek approaches to science and philosophy, including Aristotle, but not details about other specific philosophers

8. Diffusion of major religious systems, but not the specific regional forms of Buddhism or Aryan or Nestorian Christianity

Geography and climate: Interaction of geography and climate with the development of human society

• Five Themes of Geography

• Role of Climate – End of Ice Age 12000 BCE

• Geographical changes - 3000 BCE

Demography: Major population changes resulting from human and environmental factors

– 2 million people during Ice Age – allowed for growth» big game gone» more usable land available

– 50-100 million by 1000 CE– Regional changes altered skin color,

race type, quantity of body hair

Time

Stone Age – First period of prehistory - Tool use separates hominids from ancestors» Paleolithic – Old Stone Age – 10,000 to 2.5 million years

ago

» Crude tools

» Natural shelters – cave/canyons

» 1 million years ago – fire

» Warfare

» Families, clans, tribes

Neolithic – New Stone Age – 5,000-10,000 years ago

What are the issues involved in using "civilization" as an organizing principle in world history?

1. food producing w/ surplus2. increase in population3. specialization of labor4. social hierarchy5. growth of trade 6. centralization of religious/political authority7. monumental buildings8. written records9. technical innovation – the arts

World historians – more broad view – importance of human creativity

What is a civilization?

What is the most common source of change: connection or diffusion versus independent invention? Connection/diffusion – due to interaction vs. invented something

new or used it in a new way

• Diffusion – ironwork – Assyrians to Kushites• Invention – Nok people of Nigeria – smelting

iron• Farming of certain crops – diffusion – Middle

East > India > Europe > Nile• Others independent – sub-Saharan

Africa, Southeast Asia, China, Americas• After emergence, diffusion takes

over – exchange of techniques, seeds, crops

Developing agriculture and technology Agricultural, pastoral, and foraging societies, and

their demographic characteristics (Include Africa, the Americas, and Southeast Asia.)

Foraging societies – small groups of people traveled – climate/food availability

1. Bad - climate, disease, famine, natural disasters2. No permanent shelters3. Limit to how much land can feed4. Mammals, fished, gathered5. Organization6. Worshipped deities 7. Expression through art 8. Gender division of labor

– Emergence of agriculture and technological change • Neolithic Revolution/Agricultural Revolution –

8000-3000 BCE– Nomadic > agricultural > town > city– W/ good soil, water source + cultivate plants – could

build homes» Domesticated animals/simple tools

Was it a revolution?• Psychological Issues

• Food Surplus• Armies, towns, writing, art, experiment, technologies –

specialization• Government and religion • Domestication

• Basic features of early civilizations in different environments: culture, state, and social structure

Mesopotamia

Culture4000 BCE bronze, copper, Wheel, irrigation canals3500 Sumerians – cuneiform – first writing – stylus – objects > soundsNumber system Architecture First epic – Epic of Gilgamesh great traders

StateUnpredictable flooding – need for government – irrigationCity-states – controlled city + surrounding areaGeography – lack of natural barriers – invasion – defensive wallsConflicts over water/property rights Akkadians/Babylonians – spread Sumerian cultureCode of Hammurabi – first written law code

After 900 BCE –Assyrians and Persians ruledRuled by elite, rulers, priestsFarmed by slaves – could purchase freedomPatriarchal – men could sell wives/children to pay debts

1. 1600 BCE women wearing veils2. But…women could gain power courts, priestesses, scribes, small

business

Egypt Culture

3000 BCE – Nile Riverb. pharaoh – pyramids – tombs for self/familiespolytheists – afterlife > mummificationbronze tools weapons after Mesopotamia Kush – independent innovation iron – spread to Egyptsome trade w/ Kush and Mesopotamiahieroglyphics – from trade contacts Mesopotamiageography – protected – could create unique civilization365 day calendar, medicine, math, astronomy

StateNile overflowed annually – predictable irrigation led to organization/governmentagricultural villages engaged in tradepharaoh – king – powergeography – protected from invading peopleby 900 in control of foreign invaders – internal disorder, invasions

Social structureSocial classes, but commoners could enter government service – rise in social statusPatriarchal, but women had some privileges

1. Women sometimes acted as regents for young rulers, priestesses, scribes

2. managed household finances/education of children3. right to divorce husbands/alimony4. could own property5. Queen Hatshepsut

Indus – 2500 BCE Indus River - PakistanCulture

Streets laid out in precise grid – houses had running water/sewageHarappan writing not deciphered – much unclearactive trade w/ Indus valley and Sumer – ores from one place found

in othersblend of Aryans and Indus valley people affected future course of

historyquite large – size of France/urbanized

Stateunpredictable floodingHarappa and Mohenjo-DaroOvertaken by Indo-Europeans – Aryans (Already dying out)

Social Structurelittle known – Dravidians relatively egalitariannot as patriarchalAryans – based it on color – VarnaAryans eventually control politically, but Dravidians would win out

culturally

Shang – most isolated – Huange He valley – Yellow River – “China’s Sorrow”

CultureIsolated by deserts, mountains, and seas – unpredictable flooding

Shang Dynasty (1766-1122 left written records)Knowledge of bronze metallurgy – from Southwest Asia1000 BCE IronworkingWriting – oracle bones

StateDynastiesCentral rule to oversee irrigation/flood-control projectsWalled cities – center of cultural, military, economic – set precedent in

villages Zhou replaced Shang – “mandate of heaven” Tradition of central authorityBegan as small agricultural cities along Yellow River

Social StructureStratified – ruling elites, artisans, peasants, slavesPatriarchal – father needs to know children are hisAncestor worshipMatrilineal society before Shang

Mesoamerica and Andean South America Culture

lacked knowledge of wheelOlmecs/Maya – pyramids/templesPolytheistic Cultural diffusion – maize, terraced pyramids

1. Calendars2. Ball game on a court3. Quetzalcoatl – god who would return to rule world in peace

Mayan reached height in 300 CE1. system of writing – pictographs2. value of zero3. astronomy – predicted eclipses4. length of year within a few seconds

State1. small city-states – ruled by kings – fought against each other

a. Prisoners of war – slaves/sacrifices to gods2. lack of pack animals/geography prevented communication3. Inhabitants cooperated for irrigation systems4. Rugged terrain of Andes prevented central gov’t from organizing

Social structurea. Elite class of rulers/priests vs. commoners and slaves

Geography – not in valleys of major rivers1. smaller rivers/streams near oceans2. no large animals/beasts of burden – llama biggest animal – human labor

Classical civilizations - China, India, and the Mediterranean

Classical Civilizations – those with lasting influence over vast numbers

CHINA: Political Developments – Major themes

• Recurrent invasions from people from North• Flooding a problem – how to control river

Zhou – 1027-771 BCE Expanded territory – added southern rice

valley– further centralized gov’t– Feudal system– Emperors lived lives of luxury– Standardized language

Classical age– Longest lasting dynasty– Mandate of Heaven– Lasted until 500 BCE when internal conflict – Era of

Warring States

Qin – after Era of the Warring States – 221-202 BCE– Shi Huangdi – “First Emperor”

– Unified country

» Abolished feudalism

» Instituted centralized gov’t that would be model

– Major precedents

» Strong emperor

» Large Bureaucracy

» Expanded territory to Vietnam

– Defensive wall – Great Wall

» Shows empire well organized, centralized, brutal

– Weights, measures, coinage standardized

– Silk cloth encouraged

– Established uniform laws

– Legalism – state sponsored alternative to Confucianism/Taoism

– Rule cruel/autocratic

» Refused to tolerate any dissent

– Heavy taxes for peasants

» Overburdened peasants revolted and overthrew in 207 BCE

Han – 200 BCE – 220 CE– Governmental bureaucracy grew stronger

» Effective administration, postal service, tax-collecting– Territory expanded to Central Asia, Korea, Indochina– Chinese civil service exam– Time of peace settled across China– Government sponsored and maintained canals, irrigation– Reestablished Confucian philosophy– Internal struggles for power destabilized– Taxes grew too high

» Peasant uprising 184 BCE» Yellow Turbans – secret society – anti-Han support» Ended dynasty – led to Three Kingdoms

– Outside invaders made it tough to protect borders– Similarities between Han and Roman empires

» Large and powerful» Conquests plus effective administration

– Next 350 years state of chaos

INDIA: Political Developments – Major themes

• Difficult to unify• Religion provides sense of order & unity

Maurya Empire (321-185 BCE)– strong centralized– Promoted trade and communication– After brief period of rule Alexander the Great

» 330-321 BCE– Regional lord – Chandragupta Maurya– Powerful military– Greatest ruler – Ashoka– collapsed due to attacks from outsiders– large, efficient bureaucracy

» maintain order, collect taxes, build infrastructure

Gupta Empire (320 to 550 CE)– ruled through central gov’t allowed village gov’ts power– Advantageous alliances and military conquests– More decentralized/smaller – “golden age”– Firm supporters of Hinduism

» Brahmins restored to traditional role – advisors/gurus

– Control based on local lords» Paid tribute for local autonomy

– One of the more peaceful/prosperous eras– Around 450 CE Northern invaders brought Gupta

empire to slow end

Mediterranean: Political Developments – Major themes

• Multiple political forms• Concept of citizenship & individuality• Strong patriarchal systems

Greece – no single political system/city-states

Prevented from being united – terrain/islandsIndependent and competing

a. Needed to be militarily powerfulb. Civil wars plus expansion to new coloniesc. Constant conflict between self and outsiders

polis – city-state – politicsMost oligarchies – narrow, elite families

a. Transition to democracy gradual1. Monarchy > aristocracy > democracy

Key city-statesa. Athens – democracy – others dictatorship, oligarchy

1. Direct democracy – male citizens – lot – general assembly

a. Height under Pericles – 462-429even with restrictions, most representative government

in ancient world

Sparta – rigid, slave-holding dictatorshipmost effective/feared armyPersian Wars (492-479) led to Athenian dominanceFollowed by Peloponnesian WarLed to Greek weakeningOpen to Persian influenceInvasion from North – Macedon – Philip II

Philip II son – Alexander the Great

Roman Republic Senate from patrician class, two consuls, tribunes protect interestsMost positions by aristocrats

Roman EmpireBureaucrats – civil servants

a. Captured areas – provinces, but a bit of self-governmentb. Single Roman Law Code throughout

Major trading patterns within and among Classical civilizations; contacts with adjacent regions

– China• Qin

– silk cloth encouraged– Roads constructed

» Forced labor to build thousands of miles• Han

– Trade along Silk Roads increased» Economy strong – monopoly of silk production» Downturn in agricultural production hurt» Trade thrived» Helped spread Buddhism» Carried far more luxury items than culture

– Government sponsored and maintained canals, irrigation

India• Mauryans

– Promoted trade and communication– Ashoka creates roads with rest areas for travelers– Roads connected with the Silk Roads– Wealthy through trade

» Silk, cotton, elephants to Mesopotamia/Rome– Buddhist missionaries sent out

» Angered Brahmins

• Guptas– Traded ideas – “Arabic” number system

Mediterranean• Greece

– Gained wealth and power through trade/strong navy» Trade necessary because agriculture on large scale

impossible» Natural harbors, mild weather» Trade and cultural diffusion by boat» Had to develop sophisticated methods of

communication, transportation, governance to regulate trade

» Wine and olive products for grain» Replaced barter system with money system» Money invented by Lydians

– Alexander the Great» 20,000 miles – conquered Persian Empire» Opened traded to Hellenistic world

Arts, sciences, and technology

China• Zhou

– Iron Age

• Qin– Modernized army

» Iron weapons, crossbows, cavalry warfare

• Han– Paper– Accurate sundials/calendars– Broaden use of metals– Agriculture improves

» ox-drawn plow» collar to prevent choking

India• Aryans

– Vedas – part of Hindu scripture– First transmitted orally – later recorded in Sanskrit

» Sanskrit – elite language– Epic Age (1000-600 BCE)

» Ramayana» Mahabharata – greatest epic poem of India» Upanishads – collection of religious epic poems

• Mauryans• Guptas

– Classical Age of India– Supported Hinduism led to revival in Hindu art, literature, music– Great temples built– Fashioning iron for many uses/weapons– Guptas – enthusiastic patrons of Hindu culture– High towered temples– Lavish wall paintings – Caves of Ajanta– Growth of Sanskrit as language of educated– Inoculation of smallpox– Sterilization during surgery/cleaning wounds– Plastic surgery/setting of bones– Astronomy – eclipses – identification of planets– Classic Hindu temple – courtyards, paintings, sculptures– Scientific/mathematic breakthroughs

» Pi, zero, decimal system» numerical system – called “Arabic” due to traders

Mediterranean• Overview – celebration of life, human experience• Served as inspiration for Renaissance and Enlightenment• Greek – Golden Age – 500-350 BCE – “Periclean Age”• Philosophy

– Truth through rational thought and deliberate observation» Many findings proved erroneous» Process, not findings that are key

– Precedent – seeking knowledge for its own sake – pure science– Nature became focus – more orderly than gods

» Truth through human examination not religious ritual– Socrates, Plato, Aristotle

» Rational inquiry» Socrates – seek answers by asking questions» Plato – student of Socrates – wrote down his teachings» Aristotle – logic, observation, experimentation led to scientific method

• Sculpture/Architecture among ancient world’s finest– “Classical” architecture– Realistic human statues

• Math and science – Pythagoras– Built on knowledge of Babylonians/Egyptians– Hippocrates – diseases have only natural causes

» “Father of Medicine”• Literature

– Homer – West’s first literary masterpieces– Vernacular– Comedies and tragedies

Social and Gender RelationsChina

• Han– Traditions reinforced through strengthened patriarchal system– Society further stratified

» Elite class – educated governmental bureaucracy» Peasants» Artisans» Unskilled laborers, small number of slaves – mean people

• Themes– Confucius – five basic levels of relationships– harmony the result of right conduct– North – wheat, south – rice– Tenant farmers – bulk of rural population – for landlords– Power from court of emperor – implemented by scholar-gentry– Extended family

» Call on spirits of dead ancestors – advocates with gods– Patriarchal – voice of authority for family – to government

» Taoist – yin/yang» Assertive masculinity vs. gentle/submissive female» Women could get power in court» Favored concubine/wife» Daughters not valued as much – female infanticide» Sold as servants/slaves for debts

IndiaCaste system – introduced by Aryans – migrated 1500 BCE

3000 BCE – Varna – four classes – where is soul– outside class structureAssigned menial jobsBirth determines occupation, traditions, social strata for spouse

Tenets of Hinduism/caste maintained orderAryans

Village organization – patriarchal controlCustoms devalued role of women

Not allowed to own propertyBound them to fathers and husbandsSati – women killed selves on husband’s funeral pyresHonor and purity to wifeMore isolated/segregated Contact w/ family members only, no public

Used skin color to separate classesNew elites had darker skin than conquered peopleFirst three classes Aryans – final dark-skinnedDuring Epic Age – warriors and priests reversed authority

GuptasWomen saw rights diminished

Declared minors in need of supervision by maleDaughters neglected, infanticideCouldn’t participate in sacred rituals/study religionCouldn’t own propertyChild marriage became norm – girls six/sevenDue to property issues in urban area

Because of strict caste division, slavery not widespreadReturn of Guptas solidified caste system

MediterraneanSlavery

1000 CE Islamic East Coast – trans-Saharan slave trade

» children of slave could convert and be freed» female slave marries owner, freed» Muslims took slaves from conquered territory

Serfdom – Middle Ages – Western/eastern Europepeasant can use plot of land in exchange for protection

GreeceOverall – three groups

citizens – adult males engaged in commercefree people with no political rightsnon-citizens/slaves – had no rights 33%

Slavery common - excluded from political lifeenabled democracy

Greek citizens time to meet, vote, create works of art and philosophypotential to move upskilled jobs, partially owned businesses, maybe buy freedomwomen treated as inferior – excluded from political lifeIn Sparta, some girls received military training

Greatest female equality of all city-states, maybe nations (Athens) Married to men in their teensFather choose husband, power switched to new husVirginity prized until marriageChildbirth expected after weddingCould not own property, participate in political lifeDivorce only initiated by man

but…did have significant roles in religious festivals and rituals

Major belief systems – Basic features of major world belief

systems prior to 600 C.E. and where each belief system applied by 600 C.E.

• Polytheism• Hinduism• Buddhism• Judaism• Christianity• Philosophies (Taoism, Confucianism,

Legalism)

– Polytheism • Belief in many gods/goddesses• Early peoples – in awe of nature – blessing/curse

– Relationship with land/weather– Totemism – identification of self with various animal symbols– shamanism – identification with unseen spirit worlds– “dreamtime” – Aboriginals– Shinto – Japan

• Animism – belief that gods and goddesses inhabited natural features– Africa, islands of Polynesia

• Worship of ancestors and fertility– Fertility – soil/women

• Class of people emerged to oversee rituals/guide people– priests/shamans held important positions

• Space dedicated for early rituals – temples first buildings• Some regional, some transplanted• Nomadic as well as early river civilizations

– Greeks/Romans – represented natural human phenomenon, but appeared like humans– Pantheons

» elaborate groups – positions for each» Sumerian-Babylonian deities – set of rituals» Olympian deities» “celestial bureaucracy” – China» Aesir and Vanir – northern Europe

• Transition to Monotheism – Zoroastrianism– Polytheism faded as myth or legend– Zoroastrianism – partial commitment to monotheism

» Founded by priest Zoroaster in 500 B.C.» Based teaching on Avestas» Worship of one god Ahura Mazda – “wise lord”» Son Mithra venerated as well» Ahriman – god of darkness

– Belief that Ahura Mazda and Ahriman in cosmic struggle» Mazda’s followers go to heaven» Ahriman’s go to hell

– Not monotheism – dual gods of equal power– Flourished in Persia until 600s CE w/ Islam– Remains in India – Parsis

» Historians say played a role in shaping Jewish/Christian thought