g. d. h. cole: den sosialistiske tenkningens historie. bind iii. den andre internasjonale, 1889-1914

7/22/2019 G. D. H. Cole: Den sosialistiske tenkningens historie. Bind III. Den andre Internasjonale, 1889-1914.

1/1761

3

@flsasdcndstdsmf

tflmldlkfls

odstardfBdl` DDD9 @fl cl`rf dltfrlcsialcnf

3??4-3430Kfarkf @aukncs Oawcr` Eanf

Ldsus Garnck


2/1761

2

Ardkdlcnfls tdttfn9 C Odstary ag Uaedcndst

Poaukot. Wan. D D D 9 Pof Ufeal` D ltfrlctdalcn.

3??4-3430.

Vtkdtt grstf kclk d 3467 cv Hcehdnncl,

Nal`al.

Eapyrdkot tdn `fl larsmf utkcvfl9 Ldsus

Garnck, 2:30.

ldsus2:30Jkhcdn.eah

DUBL 4;??2 43732 30:

Avfrsctt cv Ctnf Ofshyr

Ldsus Garnck
mailto:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]


3/1761

5

Garar`

@FPPF bdl`ft ocr vrt vclsmfndk smrdvf p krull cvsasdcndshfls utbrf`fnsf tdn s hclkf ncl`, ak `ftbfkrflsc ahgclkft cv hctfrdcnf gar s hclkf cv `fh psprm sah ifk mcl nfsf. Ifk mcl dmmf oc op ah ocullktt kirf hclkf gfdn, fnnfr garftctt gfdncmtdkf

bf`hhfnsfr, sin ah ifk opfr ct ifk ocr gtt `ft hfstfssflsdfnnf marrfmt d brfd garstcl`. @fr ovar `ft vcr hundksmtf ifk oifnp ak r` grc spfsdcndstfr sah ifk mifltf tdn,ak `frfs vfllndkf svcr ocr sctt hfk d stcl` tdn marrdkfrffl rfmmf gfdn. Hdl `ypfstf tcmmlfhhfndkoft tdngcnnfr ofrrOflry Lafn Brcdnsgar`, sah dkifl ocr nfst dkifllah ofnfbdl`ft ak oiunpft hfk hfkft, ak tdn Iundus Brcultocn,

sfmrftr gar @fl sasdcndstdsmf dltfrlcsialcnf, sah dmmfbcrf ocr nfst ofnf bamc hfl aks nlt hfk fl rfmmf bmfrak rcppartfr sah ifk fnnfrs smunnf octt starfvclsmfndkoftfr hf` malsuntfrf. Gar nl cv bmfrsmyn`fr ifk aks fl star tcmm tdn ofrr Rcyhal` Zastkctf,ofrr O. N. Bfcnfs, ofrr E. C. Hcecrtlfy, ofrr M. I. Ueatt

grc Lfw Yfcncl`, ak grmfl Gnarflef Brc`gdfn`. Hdlmalf ocr nfst flmfntf cv mcpdtnflf ak mahhft hf`vfr`dgunnf mahhfltcrfr.Hdl tcmmlfhhfndkoftskifn` gar vrdk clkr dlgarhcsialak oifnp hf` spfsdfnnf mcpdtnfr spfsdfnt hf` `ctc aksrsmdntf bdakrcgdsmf gcmtc. Ifk h tcmmf ofrr Ichfs Ianngar oifnp hf` `fl sfmsialfl sah tcr gar sfk @fl cl`rf


4/1761

0

dltfrlcsialcnf= ofrr I. G. Oarrcbdl, ofrr Hcurdef Rfemdtt,gru C. I. Zflty, pragfssar Hdeocfn Acmfsoatt, ak ofrr

Iaol Hcoal (Utarbrdtclldc)= H. Hcurdef @ahhclkft akH. Hdeofn Erazdfr (Grclmrdmf)= ofrr Iundus Brcultocn akgru Kfrtru`f Hckczdlfr (stfrrdmf)= ofrr Poahcs Bcnakoak ofrr M. Uzdkftd (Vlkcrl)= pragfssar O. K. Ueoflm(Bohfl)= H. Eocrnfs Bcrbdfr, pragfssar Hcx [fbfr,ofrr Ocls Ocl`seodl, ak Wfrbcl` Ueowfdz

Malsuhvfrfdlf (Uvfdts)= H. Rfl Rflcr` (Bfnkdc),pragfssar val [dfssdlk, pragfssar C. E. Rtfr ak PofDltfrlctdalcn Dlstdtutf gar Uaedcn Odstary (Lf`frncl`)=ofrr Zaun Oclsfl (@clhcrm)= ofrr Kastcr Nclkflgfnt,Bcral Zcnhstdfrlc ak pragfssar I. [. Chfs (Uvfrdkf)=ofrr B. Odl`con (Larkf)= ofrr R. O. Adttdlfl (Gdlncl`)=ofrr N. Wcndcld (Dtcndc)= ofrr N. Zapav (Bunkcrdc)= ofrr W.

Pulkuz (Iukasncvdc)= grmfl Hcriardf Znclt, ofrr DscdcoBfrndl, gru Musmavc-Zramapavdtseo, pragfssar Ru`angUeonfsdlkfr, ak ofrr Oflry Eanndls (Uaviftuldalfl)=pragfssar O. [. Ncd`nfr (@f garfltf stctfr)= ofrr E. C.Gnfhdlk, ofrr F. H. Odkkdls, ofrr L. U. Nylrcvl, ak ofrrNnay` Rass (Custrcndc)= pragfssar Dwca Cyuscwc (Icpcl)=ocls fmsfnnflsf ofrr Grclsdsea C. `f Deczc (Hfxdea)= akofrr @fshal` Erawnfy, ofrr M. I. Ueatt, ak grmfl F. K.Udhpsal (Lfw Yfcncl`). Upfsdfnt ofrr Erawnfy vcr svfllndk ct ocl nltf hfk sdl upubndsfrtf bam ahcrbfd`frbfvfkfnsfl p Lfw Yfcncl`, sah ofnt mncrt oicnphfk fl ofn `fn. Ofrr Odkkdls nltf hfk aks upubndsfrthctfrdcnf ah Custrcndc.


5/1761

6

Pdn snutt h ifk tcmmf ta sfmrftrfr, gru Raschul`Brac`nfy ak gru Cu`rfy Hdnncr, sah d tur ak ar`fl ocr

brft byr`fl vf`rrfl`f hdl ol`smrdgt ak oiunpft hfkp utcnndkf cl`rf htfr.

K. @. O. Eanf

Axgar`, sfptfhbfr, 3460


6/1761

7

Dlloan`sgartfklfnsf

Garar`, s. 5Dltra`umsial, s. 4Mcp.

D. @fl cl`rf dltfrlcsialcnf. @f td`ndkf rc, s. 23

DD.

@fl cl`rf dltfrlcsialcnf. @f sfdlfrf rc. (d) 34::Zcrds. (dd) 34:0 Chstfr`ch. (ddd) 34:;. Ututtkcrt. (dv) 343:.Chstfr`ch. (v) 3432.Bnf. (vd) 3430. [dfl ak Zcrds. @fl cl`rfdltfrlcsialcnfs schhflbru``, s. ?3

DDD.UtarbrdtclldcUasdcndshfl gr Pof Ncbaur Zcrty.(d) Utcrtfl p Gcbdcl-sasdcndshfl. (dd) @fl lyfgckgarfldlkscmtdvdshfl ak `fls bcmkrull.(ddd) @ft ucvoflkdkf crbfd`frpcrtdft. (dv)Rabfrt Bncteogar` ak Pof Encrdal, s. 2:0

DW.Utarbrdtclldc Crbfd`frpcrtdft ak `f starfurandkoftflf. (d) Crbfd`frpcrtdfts grchvfmst9Uasdcndstfr ak ndbfrcnfrf9 O. K. [fnns (dd)

Gcbdcl-sasdcndshfl Ud`lfy ak Bfctrdef[fbb, Uocw, ak [cnncs. (ddd) @fl starf urafl9Crbfd`frpcrtdft ak `fts nf`frf9 Uyl`dmcndshflak ncuksasdcndshfl, s. 502

W. Pysmncl`9 @fl rfvdsialdstdsmf maltravfrsfl, s.077


7/1761

;

WD.Pysmncl` fttfr `fl rfvdsialdstdsmf maltravfrsfl=`ft tdnsylfnctfl`f ak `ft vdrmfndkf, s. 607

WDD.

Grclmrdmf grch tdn 34:6, s. 6??WDDD. Grclmrdmf fttfr 34:6. @ft garfltf pcrtdft ak

syl`dmcndstflf. Icurs ak Uarfn, s. 70:D_.Russncl` grch tdn 34:6, s. ;:5_.

@fl grstf russdsmf rfvanusialfl, s. ;?4_D.ZanflRasc Nuxfhburk, s. ?72

_DD.

stfrrdmf, s. 43;Cppfl`dms tdn mcpdttfn _DD9 Pofa`ar Ofrtzmc,s. 4?6

_DDD.

Vlkcrl, s. 44;_DW. Bcnmcl. (d) Kflfrfnt. (dd) Bunkcrdc. (ddd)

Rahcldc. (dv) Ufrbdc. (v) Ofnncs. (vd) Pyrmdcak Crhfldc, s. 3:53

_W.

Uvfdts, s. 3:;:_WD.

Bfnkdc. @ft sasdcn`fhamrctdsmf ``pulmtft, s.3:?6

_WDD. Lf`frncl`, s. 3363_WDDD.

Umcl`dlcvdc ak Gdlncl`. (d) @clhcrm. (dd)Uvfrdkf. (ddd) Larkf. (dv) Gdlncl`, s. 33;3

_D_. Dtcndc, s. 320:__. Upcldc, s. 324?__D. @f garfltf stctfr. Eclc`c, s. 3504__DD.

Nctdl-Chfrdmc9 @fl hfxdeclsmf rfvanusial,s. 3024

__DDD.

Crbfd`frbfvfkfnsf ak sasdcndshf d Custrcndc,s. 30?2


8/1761

?

__DW.Lfw Yfcncl`, s. 3657__W. Ur-Cgrdmc, s. 36;;

__WD.

Mdlc9 Uul Tct Ufl, s. 36?7__WDD. Icpcl, s. 3733__WDDD.

Malmnusial. Rfgarh ak rfvanusial, s.375:Bdbndakrcgd, s. 374:


9/1761

4

Dltra`umsial

D `ft cl`rf bdl`ft cv `fllf stu`dfl bfsmrfdv ifkutvdmndlkc dllfl `fl sasdcndstdsmf tflmldlk ak ocl`ndlkgrc hd`tfl cv `ft ldttfl`f roul`rf cv `ft vdn sd, grc `ffurapfdsmf 3?0?-rfvanusialflfs lf`frnck, tdn ahmrdlk3?4:, `c `f sasdcn`fhamrctdsmf fnnfr crbfd`frbcsfrtf

pcrtdflf oc``f bndtt ftcbnfrt d `f gnfstf furapfdsmf ak`fssutfl d fl rfmmf dmmf-furapfdsmf ncl`. @ft ofr bdl`ftbrdlkfr smdn`rdlkc vd`frf grc stdgtfnsfl cv @fl cl`rfdltfrlcsialcnf d 3??4 oul`rfrsiubdnfft gar @fl starfgrclsmf rfvanusial ak grch tdn mrdksutbru``ft hfnnah`f furapfdsmf hcmtflf d 3430. D npft cv `fl pfrda`flsah bnfd `fmmft d bdl` DD, utkiar`f strd`fl hfnnahhcrxdshfl ak clcrmdshfl `ft sfltrcnf tfhcft. @flstrd`fl oc``f dmmf fl`t d 3??4, hfl `fl oc``f apport dllfoc oavf`rannc, ak bfkkf `f strd`fl`f pcrtflf oc``fkifllahktt fl bfty`fndk ahgarhdlk. Hcrxdshfl oc``fbndtt ahgarhc avfr ofnf Wfst-Furapc d flsasdcn`fhamrctdsm garmnf`ldlk, ak oc``f bndtt arkcldsfrt d

fl rfmmf lcsialcnf pcrtdfr sah fltfl vcr cmtdvf pvcnkmchpcrflcfl ak smtf bykkf app sdlpcrnchfltcrdsmf styrmf vf` oifnp cv malstdtusialfnnfhd`nfr, fnnfr, `fr ovar stfhhfrfttfl vcr gar slfvfr tdn kd`fh fl siclsf tdn vcnksumsfss, ckdtfrtf ak `fhalstrfrtfgar cnnhfll stfhhfrfttaks gar mvdllfrhf` sdmtf p bnd d stcl` tdn gnkf `fl schhf mursfl. D hfnnahtd`c


10/1761

3:

bnfd clcrmdshfl stfrmt pvdrmc cvgckgarfldlkscmtdvdshfls vfmst, ak bnfd tdn `fns rfdlmcrlfrt

d garh cv `ft sah grst bnfd mcnt rfvanusialrsyl`dmcndshf ak sfdlfrf bcrf syl`dmcndshf, p krullnckcv fl appoydlk cv `fl `drfmtf cmsialfls rannf, hf`kflfrcnstrfdmfl sah vpfl, sftt app hat pcrnchfltcrdsmckfrdlk. Kflfrcnstrfdmfl bnfd aks garfsntt, ak brumt, cvsasdcn`fhamrctflf sah ft vpfl gar tvdlkf grch

stfhhfrfttsrfgarhfr= ak d Russncl` vcr `ft `fl htflrfvanusialfl d 34:6 gcmtdsm bfkyltf p. Hflkflfrcnstrfdmfl, sndm `fl bnfd clvfl`t d stfrrdmf akBfnkdc, sah ft hd``fn tdn grchtvdlkfstfhhfrfttsrfgarh, vcr laf ofnt cllft fll `fl sasdcnfkflfrcnstrfdmfl tdn clcrmdstflf, syl`dmcndstflf ak `frussdsmf rfvanusialrf= `fl vcr dmmf hflt tdn psmyl`f

van`fndk rfvanusial, hfl tdn appl malstdtusialfnnfrfgarhfr ak snf`fs bclf vfd gar fggfmtdv pcrnchfltcrdsmocl`ndlk, ak `fl smunnf gnkfndk vrf fl `dsdpndlfrtcggrf, bfar`rc cv `ft sasdcn`fhamrctdsmf pcrtdft, ak dmmffl spaltcl hcssfbfvfkfnsf `fr `f hdndtcltf vdnnf `rcoavf`hcssfl bnclt crbfd`frlf dll d rfvanusialrocl`ndlk. Uin d `fllf bfkrflsc garhfl bnfd `fl cvvdst cv`f tysmf sasdcn`fhamrctflf, sah sanfmncrt vcr d bfsdttfnsfcv `ft stfrmfstf ak bfst arkcldsfrtf sasdcndstdsmf pcrtdft akoc``f `fl strstf prfstdsifl bcm sfk, b`f kifllah sdttrflahh sah vamtfrlf cv `fl hcrxdstdsmf trc`dsial aksah gnkf cv d ovdnmfl krc` `f oc``f nymmfs d st d hatBdshcrems garsm p mlusf `fh hf` sdlf


11/1761

33

cltdsasdcndstdsmf navfr. @dssf navflf sta` grfh`fnfs vf`nck `c @fl cl`rf dltfrlcsialcnf bnfd stdgtc, hfl `f

garsvclt `ft pgnkfl`f rft, ak `ft tysmf pcrtdft sta``frhf` grdtt tdn bykkf app sdl arkcldscsial nfkcnt ptysm iar` ak tdn kd sfk d mcst hf` sdtt Frgurt-prakrch grc3?43, sah v`f fl stfrm dllgnytfnsf p pandtdmmfl tdn `fsasdcndstdsmf pcrtdflf d cl`rf ncl`.

@ft tysmf sasdcn`fhamrctdsmf pcrtdft gunnt ut garflt ak

hf` fggfmtdv maltrann avfr `fl tysmfgckgarfldlksbfvfkfnsfl sah, ah fll garhfnt sfttucvoflkdk cv `ft ndmf gunnt gunktf `fts nf`frsmcp pny`dk vds, vcr ofnt mncrt `fl hfmtdkstf mrcgtc dllfl `fllyf dltfrlcsialcnf ak dllfl `fl vfr`flsahspfllfl`fsasdcndstdsmf bfvfkfnsfl. Lfst fttfr tysmfrlf ovcdllgnytfnsf ak hcmt clkr, sta` `f grclsmf= hfl d 3??4vcr `fl grclsmf sasdcndstdsmf ak crbfd`frbcsfrtfbfvfkfnsfl spndttc app d fl rfmmf dllbyr`fs strd`fl`fgrcmsialfr. D Grclmrdmf vcr `ft dmmf bcrf rdvcndsfrfl`fsasdcndstdsmf pcrtdfr, hfl aks rdvcndsfrfl`fgckgarfldlksbfvfkfnsfr= ak tdn ak hf` fttfr ct `frdvcndsfrfl`f pcrtdflf fttfr dltfrlcsialcnt prfss oc``f

bndtt garflt d 34:6, vcr gckgarfldlksbfvfkfnsfl p dlkflhtf rf`f tdn gnkf `ft sasdcndstdsmf pcrtdfts nf`frsmcp.Z malkrfssflf tdn @fl cl`rf dltfrlcsialcnf vcr `fgrclsmf `fnfkcsialflf cnntd` stfrmt spndttc, hfls tysmfrlflr sckt cnntd` grchvdstf fl schnc gralt.


12/1761

32

Lfst fttfr tysmfrlf ak grclsmhfllflf d bfty`ldlk sta`russfrlf, sin ah `f dmmf oc``f lafl hcssfarkcldscsial

sah mullf schhflndmlfs hf` `fl tdn `f ncl`c `frarkcldscsialscrbfd`ft mullf `rdvfs pflnyst ak hf`navfl d ocl`. Ic, dlltdn 34:6 spdntf russfrlf dlkfl strrfrannf d @fl cl`rf dltfrlcsialcnfs clndkkfl`fr= ak flàkfttfr `ft gartscttf `f vrf stfrmt spndttc, dmmf bcrfhfnnah sasdcn`fhamrctflf ak `f sasdcnrfvanusialrf,

hfl aks dllfl `fl sasdcn`fhamrctdsmf grcmsialflhfnnah bansifvdmflf ak hflsifvdmflf. Russfrlf oc``fdhd`nfrtd` `fttf tdn gfnnfs= `f vcr cnnf schhflrfvanusialrf, gar`d `ft dmmf vcr lafl cllfl rftldlk sahsta` pfl gar `fh stdnt avfrgar `ft cutamrctdsmf tscrdstdsmfrfkdhft. Fttfr 34:6 rfvanusialfls lf`frnck gcltfs `ft svdsst ft sncks pcrnchflt ùhcfl= hfl bftdlkfnsflf vf`

`fls vcnkar`ldlk lfmtc sasdcndstflf cnnf siclsfr gar vdllf lafl substclsdfnn rfprfsfltcsial d `fl, ak uclsftts vcr `fls hcmt svrt dllsmrflmc. D `ft tscrdstdsmfRussncl` vcr `ft dlkfl hundkoft gar bykkf app ftprdhrt pcrnchfltcrdsm pcrtd fttfr `fl tysmf, fnnfr laflsah ofnst vfstndk, ha`fnn= ak sin ah `f russdsmfsasdcn`fhamrctdsmf `fnfkctflf p @fl cl`rfdltfrlcsialcnfs malkrfssfr gartscttf hf` bftrcmtf `fttysmf sasdcn`fhamrctdsmf pcrtdft sah `fl nf`fl`ffmspalfltfl gar `ft hcrxdstdsmf bu`smcpft, s vcr `frfsfkfl sdtucsial s garsmifnndk grc `fl d `f vfstndkf ncl`csah àhdlfrtf @fl cl`rf dltfrlcsialcnfs prasf`yrfr, ct`ft kiar`f `ft vclsmfndk gar `fh tc lafl srndk `fn d


13/1761

35

hclkf cv `dsmusialflf. @frfs vdmtdkstf dllkrdpfl vcr dUtuttkcrt d 34:;, `c Nfldl ak Rasc Nuxfhburk mncrtf

pvdrmf rfsanusialfl sah `fgdlfrtf `fl oan`ldlkflsasdcndstflf smunnf dlltc d tdngfnnf fl dltfrlcsialcn mrdkbrt ut.

@f brdtdsmf sasdcndstflfs cl`fn d @fl cl`rf dltfrlcsialcnfvcr ndtfl sftt d garoan` tdn Utarbrdtclldcs pasdsial d vfr`fl,gar`d `f b`f vcr spndttc ak sfdlt utf hf` utvdmnf fl

hfmtdk pandtdsm bfvfkfnsf. @fl brdtdsmfgckgarfldlksmalkrfssfl, sah sin ah `fl sfl`tf`fnfkctfr tdn @fl cl`rf dltfrlcsialcnf, spdntf dlkfl strrfrannf d `fls clndkkfl`fr ak tam mlcpt lam sdl fkfl`fntcmfnsf cnvarndk= fd ofnnfr vcr Ncbaur-pcrtdft, `c `ftsnuttc sfk tdn `fl brdtdsmf sfmsialfl, cv strrf bfty`ldlk.@fl sasdcn`fhamrctdsmf g`frcsialfl ak Mfdr Ocr`dfsucvoflkdkf crbfd`frpcrtd brcmtf sdl dltfrlf strd` grc `ftlcsialcnf ak avfr p `ft dltfrlcsialcnf ahr`f, akhfnnah `fh `ahdlfrtf `fl brdtdsmf `fnfkcsialfl. MfdrOcr`dfs appsnutldlk ah kflfrcnstrfdmfl hat mrdk kiar`foch tdn fl nf`frsmdmmfnsf fttfr 34:6, hfl dlkfl cllfl`fnfkct kiar`f laf `ypt dlltrymm. Oyl`hcls stfrmf

sylspulmtfr vf`rrfl`f `fl tysmf trussfnfl garodl`rcoch, tdn trass gar ocls hcrxdshf, grc spdnnf laflnf`fl`f rannf. Brdtfl bnfd maltdlufrndk mncl`rc dllfl @flcl`rf dltfrlcsialcnf gar ct `f dmmf nymtfs d smcpf fthfmtdk ak garflt sasdcndstdsm pcrtd, ak gar ct `frfsgckgarfldlksbfvfkfnsf vcr s tdnbcmfstfl`f sah gnkf cv`fls dltfrlcsialcnf sand`crdtft avfrgar mncssfmchpfl.


14/1761

30

Bnclt `f hdl`rf pcrtdflf spdntf stfrrdmfrlf ak bfnkdfrlf`fl hfst cmtdvf rannc. Wdetar C`nfr ak hdnf

Wcl`frvfn`f vcr grchstfl`f dltfrlcsialcnfpfrsalndkoftfr. stfrrdmfrlf gunktf d `ft starf ak ofnf `fttysmf nf`frsmcpft, hfl vcr hyf hfr garsalndkf avfrgarappasdsialfl= bfnkdfrlf pasdsialfrtf sfk bfst vf` ckfrfsah hfmnfrf hfnnah `f tysmtcnfl`f ak nctdlfrlf, spfsdfnt`c `ft vcr sprshn ah gckgarfldlkflfs ak `f

maapfrctdvf schgullcs pncss d rfncsial tdn `f pandtdsmfpcrtdflf. Dtcndflfrlf strfv`f cnntd` hf` dl`rf spnd`, dndmoft hf` grclsmhfllflf= `ft schhf kiar`flf`frnfl`frlf. Umcl`dlcvflf oc``f fll dmmf vullft`fl vdmtdkf pasdsialfl sah `f gdmm fttfr 343?.Upclianflf vcr mul rfprfsfltfrt vf` `ft ndnnf hcrxdstdsmfpcrtdft tdn Zcbna Dknfsdcs, sah tragcst gunktf `ft tysmf

sasdcn`fhamrctdsmf nf`frsmcpft. Ncl`c p Bcnmcl oc``fmul sh ak gar `ft hfstf stfrmt gargunktf sasdcndstpcrtdfr`fl vdmtdkstf kruppc, bunkcrfrlf, vcr `fssutfl spndttc drdvcndsfrfl`f sfmtfr. Aks chfrdmclfrlf vcr spndttc,hfnnah @f Nfaldttflf ak ha`frctf sasdcn`fhamrctfr,hfl dlkfl cv grcmsialflf mullf smdntf hf` fl star fnnfrdllgnytfnsfsrdm tdnoflkfrsmcrf. Cl`rf dmmf-furapfdsmfncl` `ummc bcrf app grc td` tdn cllfl ak utv`f svrtndtfl dllgnytfnsf p @fl cl`rf dltfrlcsialcnfsclndkkfl`fr. Wclndkvds `ahdlfrtf tysmfrlf,grclsmhfllflf, stfrrdmfrlf ak bfnkdfrlf `fbcttflf, hf`brdtfr, dtcndflfrf ak oannfl`frf d fl substclsdfnn sfmul`r


15/1761

36

rannf, ak russfrlf sah grc td` tdn cllfl kiar`f sdltdnstf`fvrfnsf kifn`fl`f.

@fttf trf`if bdl`ft bfstr uullkfndk gar fl star `fn cvsmdn`rdlkfr cv `fl sasdcndstdsmf utvdmndlk d bfstfhtf ncl`,gar d npft cv pfrda`fl hfnnah 3??4 ak 3430 utvdmnc `flsasdcndstdsmf tflmldlk ak ocl`ndlk sfk oavf`scmfndk nclkslcsialcnf ndlifr. Fttfr ovfrt sah ovfrt flmfnt sasdcndstdsmpcrtd ak ovfr flmfnt gckgarfldlksbfvfkfnsf styrmc sdl

pasdsial ak appl``f fl vdss krc` cv sumsfss akarkcldsctardsm cppcrct, appnfv`f `f st avfrgar sdlffklf spfsdfnnf prabnfhfr, ak scttf d kclk h` rfspal`frfp bfoavc ak dltfrfssflf tdn sdlf fkfl patflsdfnnftdnoflkfrf. @fttf vcr s vdsst fl l`vfl`dk bftdlkfnsfb`f gar appl sumsfss vf` vcnkflf ak gar malsand`frf gckgarfldlkscmtdvdshfl sah fl stfrmgarocl`ndlkscmtr= ak ah s hf` fl vdss hatvdnifclfrmifltf @fl cl`rf dltfrlcsialcnfs nf`frf bfoavft gar kd ovfrt flmfnt pcrtd start spdnnfrah tdn garhf sdl fkflpandtdmm ak sdtt fkft prakrch d ofloan` tdn `f garoan`csah `ft vcr mcnnft tdn apfrfrf ul`fr. Kifllah ofnf sdlmcrrdfrf vcr @fl cl`rf dltfrlcsialcnf mul fl nst

schhflsctt g`frcsial cv lcsialcnf kruppfr, hf` mul flsvrt bfkrflsc hcmt tdn bdl`f sdlf malstdtufrfl`ffnfhfltfr. @fl mullf s vdsst gcstsfttf bdl`fl`fbfsnutldlkfr vf`rrfl`f pandtdsmf sprshn mul lr `ftr``f fl star krc` cv fldkoft= ak `fl nc sfk cnntd` d sfnflgar garhf rfsanusialfr `fr ovar `dssf tam tdn ar`f garpasdtdv ocl`ndlk, sndm ct `f vcr kcrcltfrt schtymmf d `ft


16/1761

37

hdlstf grc `f nf`fl`f `fnfkcsialflf. @fl mullf d `fthdlstf dmmf bfkd sfk ut p laf sah strf` hat `fl

schstfhtf rstfl tdn tysmfrlf, ovds `dsdpndlfrtf floft dprcmsds kc `fh ft lrhfst ubfkrflsc vfta, ah `fl lfll dmmf cnntd` hcmtc appl appsnutldlk ah sdtt fkftsyl.

D npft cv @fl cl`rf dltfrlcsialcnfs td`ndkf r spfltf`dsmusialflf avfr ft vd`t gfnt, utfl laf flmfntsprshn

sah uthfrmc sfk grchgar `f cl`rf. U mah `fl smcrpf`dsputtfl sah bnfd garclnf`dkc cv `fl smcntf cggcdrfHdnnfrcl`, sah sin vcr ft rfsuntct cv @rfygus-scmfl,vf`rrfl`f nfkdtdhdtftfl vf` sasdcndstdsm `fntcmfnsf dbarkfrndkf hdldstfrdfr= ak fl spndttfnsf bnfd ullktt vf`Mcutsmys vfngarhunfrtf utmcst tdn fl rfsanusial sah frmiflt ul`fr ocls lcvl. @fl sfltrcnf dltfrfssfl `rfd`f`frfttfr avfr tdn garsmft p prahatfrf sasdcndstdsmfloft, grchgar cnt d Grclmrdmf= ak `c `f grclsmf pcrtdflfoc``f bndtt clsparc tdn snuttf sfk schhfl d 34:6, ak@fl russdsmf rfvanusialfl `ft schhf r oc``f bndtt snttlf`, vfl`tf @fl cl`rf dltfrlcsialcnf sdloavf`apphfrmsahoft hat `fl mfl`f gcrfl gar mrdk

hfnnah `f starf dhpfrdcndsthcmtflf. @fttf sprshnftgartscttf nfkkf bfsnck p @fl cl`rf dltfrlcsialcnfsapphfrmsahoft ofnt grch tdn 3430, `c ounoftfl d `flsprftflsialfr ah avfrvdllf crbfd`frlfs lcsialcnfnaicndtft d oavf`ncl`c fl`fndk bnfd fmspalfrt ak `flsstrumtur bnfd brutt d stymmfr sah gnkf cv mrdksutbru``ft dFurapc.


17/1761

3;

Uah ft utgcnn cv mrdkfl mah s @fl russdsmf rfvanusial=ak hf` ftcbnfrdlkc cv mahhuldshfl d Russncl` garsvclt

hundkoftfl gar kiflsmcpf fl gfnnfs dltfrlcsialcnbfvfkfnsf. Gar d sdl lyf garh dllfbcr mahhuldshfl flkifl`rdvfnsf cv `fl nsf g`frcnf strumturfl sah oc``fkiart `ft hundk gar vd`t garsmifnndkf kruppfr schfmsdstfrf dllcgar fl flmfnt dltfrlcsialcn arkcldscsialp krullnck cv ft nfvf ak nc nfvf prdlsdpp. @ft lyf

bu`smcpft ah `fhamrctdsm sfltrcndshf, dmmf bcrf dllflovfrt flmfnt ncl` hfl aks dltfrlcsialcnt, vcr ofntugarflndk hf` `fl typfl pcrnchfltcrdsm sasdcndshf sahoc``f bndtt utvdmnc cv `f lcsialcnf sasdcn`fhamrctdsmf akcrbfd`frbcsfrtf pcrtdflf d `fl vfstndkf vfr`flsndbfrcn`fhamrctdsmf ncl`= ak vf` start sftt oc gtt flstfrm mldlk d sdl vcnkhfssdkf styrmf vf` mrdkfls snutt,

vcr `dssf pcrtdflf avfroa`ft dmmf dllstdnt p kd cvmcnn psdl pcrnchfltcrdsmf hcmt tdn gar`fn gar chbdsialflf ahvfr`flsrfvanusial ul`fr ft mahhuldstdsm nf`frsmcp.Hfls russfrlf ftcbnfrtf fl trf`if dltfrlcsialcnf sahdlstruhfltft gar vfr`flsrfvanusialfl, scttf gnkfndk `fsasdcn`fhamrctdsmf ak crbfd`frbcsfrtf pcrtdflf sfk garf rfftcbnfrf fl dltfrlcsialcn arkcldscsial fttfr ha`fnn cv`fl sah oc``f brutt schhfl d 3430. @ft vcr dlkfltdngfn`dkoft ct garsmft grc stfrrdmfrlf ak `frfsgarbul`sgfnnfr d `fl smcntf ta ak fl ocnvf [dfl-dltfrlcsialcnf p brdlkf tdnoflkfrlf cv `fl 2. ak `fl 5.dll d fl gfnnfs arkcldscsial, vcr dlfggfmtdvf. Mul flsfltrcnt `dsdpndlfrt dltfrlcsialcnf mullf pcssf gar


18/1761

3?

mahhuldstflf= mul fl nst g`frfrt dltfrlcsialcn mullfkirfs garflndk hf` bfoavc tdn sasdcndstdsmf pcrtdfr sah

sdmtc hat fl malstdtusialfnn frabrdlk cv pcrnchfltcrdsmhcmt. Gar cppfnnfl tdn fl vfnkfrhcssf dllfbrfr kdgarrclk gar prakrchhfr sah dlmnu`frfr uhd``fnbcrf mrcvsah rfprfsfltfrfr `fl vd`fst hundkf dltfrfssfkruppf, ak`dssf mrcvc fr l`t tdn vcrdfrf grc ncl` tdn ncl`, ak `frovar b`f fl vd` stfhhfrftt ak clsvcrndk pcrnchfltcrdsm

rfkifrdlkshcmt rr, vdn `f avfrlfvltf mrcv svrt ndtfscllsylndk cltc fl rfvanusialr mcrcmtfr. @fr ovar `dssfbftdlkfnsflf fmsdstfrfr, appnfvfr pcrnchfltcrdsmf pcrtdfruullkfndk bnd `rfvft d rftldlk cv utvdmnfvfngfr`sstctfl, slcrfrf fll d rftldlk cv bfdltgrch sasdcnrfvanusial. Fd ofnnfr mcl `f tdnnctf sfk vrf hfrdltfrlcsialcndstdsmf fll `ft oavf`hflk`fl cv `frfs

vfnkfrf fr= vfnkfrf ovds stfhhfr `f h sdmrf sfk hf`sdmtf p appl hcmt.

Cnt `fttf ocr bndtt hyf mncrfrf d `ck fll `ft vcr gar grtdfnnfr gfhtd r sd`fl, `c rfvanusialrf ak rfgarhdstfr vcr dstcl` tdn ckfrf dllfl fl gfnnfs dltfrlcsialcnarkcldscsial. Gr 3430 vcr cltcnnft ncl` sah b`f vcr d

bfsdttfnsf cv utstrcmtf vfnkfrhcssfr ak gunnt clsvcrndkpcrnchfltcrdsm rfkifrdlkshcmt, vfn`dk ndtf. @ft dlmnu`frtfUtarbrdtclldc, Grclmrdmf, Bfnkdc, Uvfdts, @f garfltf stctfr,Eclc`c, Custrcndc ak Lfw Yfcncl`, ak dmmf s hclkfgnfrf. Pysmfrlf ak stfrrdmfrlf oc``f fl vd` stfhhfrftt,hfl dmmf clsvcrndk rfkifrdlkshcmt. Russfrlf oc``f dlkflcv `fnflf. D Dtcndc oc``f stfhhfrfttfl bndtt utvd`c grst


19/1761

34

rftt gr 3430. D Upcldc ak fl rfmmf cl`rf tdnbcmfstfl`fncl` mullf vcnkhclltcnnc ak fl`ak stfhhflf bnd iumsc

hf` cv cutardtftflf. Vl`fr `dssf garoan`c mullf hcldmmf trfmmf app fd mncr smdnnfndlif hfnnah rfvanusialrfak rfgarhdstfr D Russncl` httf fl`ak ha`frctf vrfrfvanusialrf, ak vfrmfl tysmfrf fnnfr stfrrdmfrf mullfvrf kclsmf flmfnt malstdtusialcndstfr, gar`d `f d bfkkftdngfnnf sta` avfrgar cutamrctdsmf rfkdhfr sah `f dmmf

mullf bnd mvdtt vf` oifnp cv rfdlt malstdtusialfnnf hd`nfr.Uin ah b`f `ft tysmf ak `ft stfrrdmsmf pcrtdft vcr cn`rds rfgarhdstdsmf d prcmsds, gartscttf bfkkf ta hf` pramnchfrf sdl tra p `fl sasdcndstdsmf rfvanusialfl.Grst hf` `fl bansifvdmdsmf rfvanusialfl akOaoflzannfrl ak Ocbsburk halcrmdflfs gcnn, bnfdsmdnnfndlic hfnnah rfvanusialrf ak rfgarhdstfr tdn bnd

trummft mncrt app, ak spndttc `fl vfr`flsahspfllfl`fcrbfd`frmncssfbfvfkfnsfl d ta ugarsalndkf fnfhfltfr laf sah `frhf` plc vfd gar gcsedshfl slcrfrf fll gar`fl vfr`flsrfvanusialfl sah `f bansifvdmdsmf nf`frlfrfklc sah l`vfl`dk gar ct `f sin smunnf ullk bfsfdrfs.

Ifk ocr gul`frt nflkf p ovdnmfl tdttfn ifk smunnf kd tdn`fttf bdl`ft. Pdn snutt bfstfhtf ifk hfk gar mcnnf `ft@fl cl`rf dltfrlcsialcnf, gar`d ifk dmmf mullf gdllflaf cllft tdngrf`sstdnnfl`f lcvl. Uasdcn`fhamrctdftvfrsus syl`dmcndshfl vdrmc gar slfvfrt, sin ah ifksmunnf oc ndmt oc tfhcft `drfmtf cmsial sftt app hatpcrnchfltcrdsm ckfrdlk d tdttfnfl. Rfvanusial fnnfr


20/1761

2:

rfgarh1 vdnnf dmmf kirf lyttc gar`d, sah ifk ocr sckt,grch tdn 3430 mullf dmmf smdnnfndlic hfnnah

rfvanusialrf ak rfgarhdstfr bnd trummft mncrt app.Lcvlft ifk ocr vcnkt fr utdngrf`sstdnnfl`f gar`d `ft nfkkfrofnf vfmtc p `f pcrtdflf sah utkiar`f @fl cl`rfdltfrlcsialcnf, tdn garmnfdlfnsf gar gckgarfldlkflf ak `fcl`rf fnfhfltflf sah tdn schhfl rfprfsfltfrfr ofnfcrbfd`frmncssfbfvfkfnsfl. @ft fr dhd`nfrtd` `ft bfstf ifk

mcl gdllf, ak d `ft hdlstf cvkrflsfr `ft prfsdst `flpfrda`fl ifk ocr garsmt `fmmf sin ah ifk d lafl gtdngfnnfr ocr gullft `ft l`vfl`dk k tdnbcmf tdn td`c gr3??4, fnnfr grf odstardfl tdn fl bfstfht bfvfkfnsf nflkfrgrch fll 3430. Hdtt lfstf bdl` vdn, ah ifk nfvfr nflkflam tdn smrdvf `ft, grf smdn`rdlkc vd`frf grch tdn 3454.


21/1761

23

Mcpdttfn D

@fl cl`rf dltfrlcsialcnf= `f td`ndkf rc

Wf` snuttfl cv 3??:-rc fmsdstfrtf d `ft hdlstf spdrflf tdn`f sasdcn`fhamrctdsmf pcrtdflf, ha`fnnfrt fttfr `ft tysmfs`cllf, d fl rfmmf furapfdsmf ncl`= ak td`c syltfs oc

vrt dllf gar `fh tdn snuttf sfk schhfl d fl lydltfrlcsialcnf. Fttfr spndttfnsfl ul`fr Occk-malkrfssfl d3?;2 oc``f `ft sah vcr dkifl d Furapc cv @fl grstfdltfrlcsialcnf knd`` avfr d g`frcndstflfs ofl`fr= fdkruppf sah tdnbcmfvdstf Hcrx cutardtrf nf`frsmcp. Hflsah vd ocr sftt oc``f `fl g`frcndstdsmf (agtf mcnt `flclcrmdstdsmf) dltfrlcsialcnf krc`vdsbndtt appnst d npft

cv syttdrc. @fl oan`t sdl sdstf malkrfss d Wfrvdfrs dBfnkdc d 3?;;, uhd``fnbcrt garut gar `fl sasdcndstdsmffloftsmalkrfssfl d Koflt, sah vcr schhflmcnt hf` `ftgarhn rfftcbnfrf fl dlmnu`frfl`f dltfrlcsialcnf. DKoflt gartscttf `fl vfnmifltf strd`fl hfnnah clcrmdstflfak tdnoflkfrlf cv pandtdsm ckfrdlk. @f gunnbna`s

clcrmdstflf oc``f bndtt lf`stfht, ak `ft oc``f bndttbfsnuttc apprfttf ft dltfrlcsialcnt marrfspal`clsf- akstctdstdmmaltar d Wfrvdfrs, sah smunnf vrf pflt gararkcldscsialfr cv cnnf hfldlkscvsmykldlkfr. Hfl `fllffloftfl gdmm cn`rd sf `ckfls nys. Malgraltfrt hf` `fugarsalndkf oan`ldlksgarsmifnnflf sah hcldgfstfrtf sfkul`fr malkrfssfl, dllmcntf hciardtftfl sah garftrcmm


22/1761

22

pandtdsm ocl`ndlk, tdn sdtt fkft htf utfl clcrmdstflf ak ftcbnfrtf ft g`frcnt byr hf` dlstrumsialfr tdn

dllmcnnf tdn fl ly malkrfss. Bfsnutldlkc ah kirf `fttf,ak brytf hf` `fl clcrmdstdsmf kruppc, bnfd ul`frtfklc cvbnclt cl`rf Escr `f Zcfpf, sah oc``f vrt flnf`frsmdmmfnsf dllfl `fl g`frcndstdsmf dltfrlcsialcnf, svfn sah cv [dnofnh Ndfbmlfeot, sah rfprfsfltfrtf `fttysmf pcrtdft. Cl`rf ul`frtfklf`f dlmnu`frtf Ofrhcl

Krfundeo, `fl sasdcn`fhamrctdsmf nf`frfl grc Yrdeo,Nauds Bfrtrcl` ak gnfrf cl`rf bfnkdfrf, P. Yclcr`fnnd grcHdnclasah oc``f brutt hf` sdlf dtcndflsmf ncl`shfllNfa Grlmfn grc Vlkcrl, Cl`r Bfrt grc Grclmrdmf, ak`f flkfnsmf `fnfkctflf, Iaol Ocnfs ak Hcnthcl Bfrry.

D `fllf utvdmndlkc bnfd ftcbnfrdlkc cv @fl cl`rfdltfrlcsialcnf garfspfdnc. Hfl sin ah Koflt-byrftnymtfs d cvoan`f fl yttfrndkfrf dltfrlcsialcn malkrfss dEadrf d Uvfdts, d 3??3, s strcl`c `ft ofnf `fr. Ndfbmlfeotak Nauds Bfrtrcl` `ra tdn Eadrf sah rfprfsfltcltfr garofloan`svds `ft tysmf ak `ft bfnkdsmf pcrtdft, akrfprfsfltcltfr clmah aks grc `ft grclsmf Zcrtd Auvrdfr(Bflat Hcnal ak Iunfs Iaggrdl, bfkkf td`ndkfrf

mahhulcr`fr), ak grc `ft chfrdmclsmf sasdcndstdsmfcrbfd`frpcrtdft (Z. I. HeKudrf, sfmrftr gar PofBratofroaa` ag Ecrpfltfrs). Hfl gar `ft hfstf bfsta`malkrfssfl cv tysm-svfdtsdsmf `fnfkctfr, dlmnu`frt `fltragcstf vftfrclfl I. Z. Bfemfr grc Kflvf. Zcun Cxfnra`grc Russncl` mah sah fl brarsmcps`fnfkct, ak `fr vcrlafl g pancmmfr sah rfprfsfltfrtf kruppfr cv fmsdnfr.


23/1761

25

Dlkfl mah grc Utarbrdtclldc fnnfr Lf`frncl`, fnnfr grcUpcldc fnnfr Dtcndc. Clcrmdstflf, sah dmmf vcr dlvdtfrt, vcr

apptctt hf` sdl fkfl malkrfss d Nal`al, `fr hcl garfsna`cllfnsfl cv fl `fgdldtdvt clcrmdstdsm dltfrlcsialcnf.

Uin ah `fls `fbcttfr `fmmft ft vd`t gfnt, mah Eadrf-malkrfssfl tdn `fl malmnusial ct td`c fll dmmf vcrha`fl gar ftcbnfrf fl sasdcndstdsm dltfrlcsialcnf. Dlkflstf`fr bartsftt grc d Pysmncl` gcltfs `ft fll laf gunnt ut

malstdtufrt sasdcndstdsm pcrtd, sin ah Bfnkdc cnnfrf`f vcrka`t p vfd tdn g ft. Hf` `f cltd-sasdcndstdsmf navflf dmrcgt, mullf dmmf Pysmncl` tc grdlkc ovc dltfrlcsialcnckfrdlk clkr. D Grclmrdmf vcr Iunfs Kufs`fs ZcrtdAuvrdfr mul d gfr` hf` `cllfs. D ft cv sdlf g yfbndmmovar hcl appl``f fldkoft, oc``f Koflt-malkrfssflbfsnuttc ct fl gckgarfldlksbcsfrt dltfrlcsialcnf bur`f bndstdgtc, ak ct fl dltfrlcsialcn gckgarfldlksmalkrfss bur`fbnd schhflmcnt hf` `fttf garhn= hfl dlkfl oc``f tcttp sfk dllmcnnf tdn fl s`cl. Fd ofnnfr vcr `fttf ovctysmfrlf lsmc= gar `ft vdnnf oc vrt uhundk oan`f svfn clcrmdstflf sah `f ha`frctf gckgarfldlkscmtdvdstflf,sah cvvdstf d`ffl ah ucvoflkdk crbfd`frmncssfbcsfrt

pandtdsm ocl`ndlk, bartf. Gnkfndk oc``f Eadrf-malkrfssfldlkfl fttfrgnkfrf, ak sin ah fl s`cl cn`rd bnfd kdtt appbnfd d`ffl ah fl ly sasdcndstdsm dltfrlcsialcnf utsctt pubfstfht td`.

Garsmft p kiflappndvf `fl dltfrlcsialcnfarkcldscsialfl bnfd dhd`nfrtd` kclsmf slcrt garlyc, hf`


24/1761

20

grclsmhfllflf d grfrsftft. @fl grclsmfcrbfd`frmncssfbfvfkfnsfl kifllahkdmm fl ourtdk

kiflappndvdlk d `f td`ndkf ttdrc, hfl vcr spndttc d hclkfrdvcndsfrfl`f kruppfr. Dllfl 3??2 vcr Kufs`fs ZcrtdAuvrdfr gunnt ftcbnfrt ak d gfr` hf` g fl bfty`fndkgarrclk garcl gckgarfldlksbfvfkfnsfl. Hfl app hatKufs`f ak ocls hcrxdstfr sta` `f smcntf passdbdndstflf,clgrt cv Zcun Braussf, sah `cllc Zcrtd Auvrdfr

Uaedcndstf Rvanutdallcdrf d 3??2 ak oc``f sdl fkflbfty`fndkf tdnoflkfrsmcrf bnclt gckgarfldlkflf. D 3??5kiar`f passdbdndstflf sdtt grstf garsm p schhflmcnnffl dltfrlcsialcn crbfd`frmalkrfss d Zcrds. D ndmoft hf` `fgnfstf malkrfssflf sah `fl grclsmf crbfd`frbfvfkfnsflschhflmcntf d npft cv `ft tdrft, vcr snf`fs `fllfmalkrfssfl fl bncl`c cggrf, pfl gar ft hclkgan` cv

arkcldscsialfr, dl`ustrdfnnf s vfn sah pandtdsmf, ak sahrfprfsfltfrtf garsmifnndkf tfl`flsfr. @fls bfty`ldlkndkkfr dmmf d laf cv `ft `fl appl``f, hfl kclsmf flmfntd `ft gcmtuh ct `fl bnfd schhflmcnt sah svcr p `flgnfnsfl ct crbfd`frmncssfbfvfkfnsflf sah vcr ul`frutvdmndlk d `f undmf ncl`c bur`f maar`dlfrf sdlf mrcv ahgarbf`rdlk cv dl`ustrdhfssdkf garoan`, ak spfsdfnt ah martf lf` crbfd`sumc. @fl hnsfttdlkc bnfd hyf mncrfrfgarhunfrt p fl dltfrlcsialcn malkrfss luhhfr ta,schhflmcnt cv `f schhf dldtdctdvtcmfrlf, sah mahschhfl d Zcrds d 3??7. Dllfl `fl td` oc``foavf`sprshnft bndtt `ft sah vf`rrtf schocl`ndlk d shclkf ncl` sah hundk, gar appl ttftdhfrs


25/1761

26

crbfd`s`ck. @fllf ckdtcsialfl gar `f ttf tdhflf oc``fcnnfrf`f vrt d kirf fl ka` stul` d @f garfltf stctfr. D

Custrcndc oc``f `f gcknrtf crbfd`frlf d Hfnbaurlf, vf` `rc lyttf cv hclkfnfl p crbfd`smrcgt sah fttfrgunktfkunnrusoft, appl`` ttf tdhfrs crbfd`s`ck s td`ndksah d 3?67 vf` truf hf` kflfrcnstrfdm, akdllrhhfnsfl oc``f dllfl mart td` sprf`` sfk tdn cl`rfstctfr, hfl d grcvr cv navhfssdk sclmsial oc``f `fl

dmmf bndtt cnnhfll.

3

D npft cv `f sfdlf syttdrc oc``f `ftgullft stf` fl ckdtcsial gar tvdlkf kifllahttftdhfrs`ckfl p kflfrfnt krullnck, ak d 3??6 oc``fhcl vf`tctt `fl aks gar mvdllfr ak bcrlsvf`mahhfl`f. Fl custrcnsm `fnfkct, Iaol Lartal, sdltdnstf`fvrfnsf ul`fr Zcrds-malkrfssfl kiar`f malkrfssflapphfrmsah p `dssf applfnsflf= ak utvdmndlksndlifr d

@f garfltf stctfr bnfd aks gunkt lyf. @fr oc``fGarbul`ft gar ttftdhfrs crbfd`s`ck, ul`fr nf`fnsf cv DrcUtfwcr` d 3?7:- ak `f td`ndkf 3?;:-rc, brutt schhfl dnpft cv `fl pgnkfl`f `fprfsialfl= hfl d 3??5 oc``fPof Mldkots ag Ncbar kiart ttftdhfrs`ckfl tdn flbrfbifnmf d sdtt uhd``fnbcrf prakrch, ak d 3??6-?7oc``f `ft vrt hclkf namcnf strfdmfr gar tvdlkf `fl dkifllah. D Zcrds prfsfltfrtf braussdstfl Wdetar @cnnf flrcppart sah nc grch mrcvft ah dltfrlcsialcncrbfd`snavkdvldlk gar dhpnfhfltfrf mrcvft ahttftdhfrs`ck, ak gdmm stfrm stttf b`f grc sdlhf`schhflsvarlf bnclt passdbdndstflf, Udhal @frfurf,ak grc `aucr` Clsfnf ak Escr `f Zcfpf, sah vcr


26/1761

27

tdnstf`f sah `fnfkctfr gar `f bfnkdsmf sasdcndstflf. @dssfta garfsna ftcbnfrf fl dltfrlcsialcn crbfd`frarkcldscsial

hf` ttftdhfrs`ckfl sah sdl grfhstf hnsfttdlk, ak tamtdn ar`f gar ct fl ly dltfrlcsialcn malkrfss bur`fcvoan`fs d 3??4 sah fl `fn cv gfdrdlkc cvoul`rfrsiubdnfft gar @fl grclsmf rfvanusial hf` sdmtfp l `fllf hnsfttdlkc. @fttf garsnckft gdmmtdnsnutldlk, ak `ft grclsmf passdbdndstdsmf pcrtdft bnfd kdtt

hcl`ctft tdn ckfrf sah arkcldsctar. @fl flfstfappasdsialfl hat garsnckft mah grc `f brdtdsmf`fnfkctflf, sah dmmf stdntf sprshnstfkl vf` `ft smirf lf` crbfd`s`ckfls nflk`f, hfl sah vcr d hatnavkdvldlk d `ft yfhf`, ak cvsta` grc stfhhfvf`rrfl`f oavf`rfsanusialfl. @f grclsmf `fnfkctflf`ra uhd``fnbcrt grc `fl dltfrlcsialcnf malkrfssfl tdn sdl

fkfl crbfd`frmalkrfss d Nyal, ovar clgrfrlf gar mrcvftah ttftdhfrs`ck vcr Rcyhal` Ncvdklf (3?63-345:) akCltadlf Iaur`f grc Bar`fcux, hf` stttf grc tcnflf tdnIfcl @arhay. D Nyal bnfd ckdtcsialfl gar ttftdhfrs`ckflmabnc schhfl hf` `ft clcrmdstdsmf garsvcrft garkflfrcnstrfdmfl. @ft bnfd tctt tdn ar`f gar ct `frsahrfkifrdlkfr fnnfr crbfd`skdvfrf lfmtc k hf` p ttftdhfrs crbfd`s`ck, s smunnf crbfd`frlf ty tdn kflfrcnstrfdmgar tvdlkf kifllah mrcvft. @fllf pandtdmmfl appl``fdmmf gunn tdnsnutldlk= hciardtftfl garftrcmm bfkyllf hf`fl rfmmf sdhuntclf `fhalstrcsialfr sah vdnnf prfsfltfrfmrcvft avfrgar crbfd`skdvfrf ak aggfltndkf cutardtftfr, akgarftc fl crbfd`sstcls d fl `ck hf` `fttf garhnft d sdmtf,


27/1761

2;

hfls hdl`rftcnnft dlsdstfrtf p ct hcl dmmf mullf opfp laf sah ofnst grc rfkifrdlkflf ak ct `fhalstrcsialfr

bcrf mullf vrf tdn lyttf d `fl krc` `f tifltf tdn ut`cllfcrbfd`frlf tdn hfr hdndtclt ocl`ndlk.

Uah vd smcn sf d ft sfdlfrf mcpdttfn2 vcr `f grclsmfgckgarfldlkflf `frfttfr d mfl`f krc` apptctt cv d`fflah garbfrf`f kflfrcnstrfdmfl, sah lafl appgcttc sah`ft grstf stfkft d fl crbfd`frrfdsldlk, ak cl`rf bftrcmtc

sah ft vpfl gar tvdlkf grch malahdsmfdllrhhfnsfr utfl ty tdn `fl mcpdtcndstdsmf stctfl.Dllfl 3??? oc``f bfvfkfnsfl, sah vcr mncrt mlyttc tdnmrcvft ah ttf tdhfrs crbfd`s`ck, vullft ahgcttfl`fstttf, ak garbfrf`fnsfr vcr d gunn svdlk gar sdhuntclf fl-`cks crbfd`sstclsfr td`ndk `ft pgnkfl`f r.

D hfnnahtd`c oc``f fl ly dltfrlcsialcn crbfd`frmalkrfssbndtt crrclkfrt. @fl httfs d Nal`al d 3???, ak `fr stdntfrfprfsfltcltfr gar `fl brdtdsmf gckgarfldlksmalkrfssfl,s vfn sah sasdcndstfr kflfrfnt, dlmnu`frt Iaol Burls,Clldf Bfsclt, Pah Hcll ak Mfdr Ocr`df.Gckgarfldlksmalkrfssfl oc``f vrt rfprfsfltfrt vf` `fdltfrlcsialcnf malkrfssflf d 3??5 ak 3??7, tdn trass gar

hatstcl`fl grc `fl pcrnchfltcrdsmf mahdtffl, sah httfbyf sfk gar lsmflf tdn gnfrtcnnft bnclt `fnfkctflf. @c`fl bnfd garfspurt cv grclsmhfllflf ah ptc sfkarkcldsfrdlkc cv `fl dltfrlcsialcnf malkrfssfl d 3???,dlsdstfrtf `fl pcrnchfltcrdsmf mahdtffl grst p rfgfrfrf sprshnft tdnbcmf tdn `fl gunntcnndkf


28/1761

2?

gckgarfldlksmalkrfssfl, ak utstf`tf fl pchgnftt sah vcrstfrmt mrdtdsm tdn `f maltdlfltcnf gckgarfldlkflfs

ustcbdndtft ak utdnrfklfndkoft. @c `fnfkctflf, tdn trass garsdlf hatgarfstdnndlkfr, dlstrufrtf `fh tdn arkcldsfrf `ftdltfrlcsialcnf htft, utgarhc `f ft utmcst tdn rfknfr sahtam sdmtf p fmsmnu`frf sasdcndstdsmf arkcldscsialfr, gars ahgarhf `fl tdn fl rfdl gckgarfldlkscggrf. @fttfgarodl`rc @fl sasdcn`fhamrctdsmf g`frcsialfl ak @ft

sasdcndstdsmf garbul`, s vfn sah `f maltdlfltcnfsasdcndstdsmf pcrtdflf, grc vrf rfprfsfltfrt= hfl `ftstrcmm dmmf tdn hf` tclmf p fmsmnu`frf sasdcndstfr sahmullf mahhf app hf` hcl`ctfr grc dl`ustrdfnnfarkcldscsialfr. Pysmfrlf bnfd fggfmtdvt fmsmnu`frt= hflbfnkdfrlf, grclsmhfllflf ak oannfl`frlf stdntf hf` gunntylk`f, schhfl hf` ta `clsmfr ak fl flmfnt dtcndflfr,

Ealstcltdla Nczzcrd grc Hdncla. Ufsialflf vcrturbunfltf, ak d grcvr cv fklc rcppartfr fr `ft dmmfflmfnt tc rf`f p lycmtdk ovc sah smif``f. @ft gdllfsdhd`nfrtd` dlkfl tvdn ah ct oavf`rfsanusialfl, d gcvr cvckdtcsial gar tvdlkf kifllah ttftdhfrs`ckfl vf` oifnpcv navvf`tcm, gdmm kifllahsnck, ak ct `ft bnfd vf`tctt cvoan`f fl ly malkrfss d Zcrds `ft pgnkfl`f r ul`fr`fl dltfrlcsialcnf utstdnndlkchf` sdmtf p ftcbnfrf fl`fgdldtdv dltfrlcsialcn arkcldscsial.

Nal`al-malkrfssfl d 3??? vcr utf cv tcmt hf` sdlfgarnpfrf p krull cv dlsdstfrdlkc grc `fl brdtdsmfgckgarfldlksmalkrfssfls nf`frf p s nclkt `ft nat sfkkirf kd `fl fl dmmf-pandtdsm mcrcmtfr. @fttf bfmyhrc


29/1761

24

lcturndk lam `f maltdlfltcnf sasdcndstflf, spfsdfnttysmfrlf ak `f grclsmf kufs`dstflf, ak aks bfnkdfrlf.

Malsfmvflsfl vcr ct `f tysmf sasdcn`fhamrctflf,schhfl hf` `frfs cnndfrtf, scttf sfk garf arkcldsfrf sdlfkfl dltfrlcsialcnf sasdcndstdsmf malkrfss, sah smunnfmahhf schhfl d Zcrds rft fttfr, hfls passdbdndstflf dGrclmrdmf sfl`tf ut sdlf dlvdtcsialfr tdn `fldltfrlcsialcnf crbfd`frmalkrfssfl, sah oc``f bndtt

bfsnuttc d Nal`al, hfl sah dmmf nflkfr vcr tync cv `frfknflf sah `f brdtdsmf gckgarfldlksnf`frlf oc``f pnckt.@ft vcr gnkfndk fl ofn `fn garvdrrdlk. Ft htf sahoannfl`frlf ak bfnkdfrlf oc``f schhflmcnt tdn, bnfdcvoan`t d Occk d op ah garflf `f rdvcndsfrfl`fmalkrfssflf= hfl garocl`ndlkflf brt schhfl d htfhf` `fl smcrpf mrclkndlkc hfnnah hcrxdstflf ak `f

cltd-cutardtrf, ak d sdstf dlstcls bnfd bfkkf cvoan`t, akbfkkf vf`tam prcmtdsm tcnt d`fltdsmf rfsanusialfrvf`rrfl`f sprshnft ah ttftdhfrs`ckfls nfkcnf stctus.@fllf schstfhtf ocl`ndlkc smyn`tfs gar fl star `fnchfrdmclsm dllgnytfnsf. Pa `fnfkctfr grc @f garfltf stctfr,bfkkf typakrcgfr, `fntam p `fl malkrfssfl sah vcrschhflmcnt cv passdbdndstflf= ak sin ah dlkflchfrdmclsmf `fnfkctfr oc``f hcl`ct tdn `fl hcrxdstdsmfmalkrfssfl, vcr Ouko HceKrfkar sah sfdlfrf bnfdsfmrftr gar sihcllsgarfldlkfl tdn stf`f sahabsfrvctr, ak garhd`nc fl bfsmif` grc chfrdmclfrlf sahtifltf sah krullnck gar `fl rfsanusialfl sah tdn snutt bnfdvf`tctt.


30/1761

5:

Dllfl `fl td` oc``f nf`frsmcpft garttftdhfrs`ckbfvfkfnsfl d @f garfltf stctfr smdgtc ofl`fr

grc Pof Mldkots ag Ncbar tdn Pof Chfrdecl Gf`frctdal agNcbar, sah vcr d gfr` hf` bykkfs app tdn fl hfmtdkarkcldscsial cv Uchufn Kahpfrs. D 3??? oc``f Pof C.G. ag N. bfstfht sfk gar dllvdf fl ly mchpclif garttftdhfrs crbfd`s`ck= ovfrt flfstf r smunnf strfdmfr garttftdhfrs`ckfl arkcldsfrfs avfr ofnf ncl`ft dllfl fl

flmfnt dlùstrd, schtd`dk sah `f strfdmfl`f smunnf ggdlclsdfnn bdstcl` grc `f gckc sah garbnfd d crbfd`, dlltdnovfr flmfnt dlùstrd oc``f kiart sdtt, ak dllrhhfnsflsnf`fs oc``f bndtt sdmrc p uldvfrsfnt krullnck. D`ffl ah kirf 3. hcd tdn fl clnf`ldlk gar kd sttft tdn flgrchtd`srfttc crbfd`frbfvfkfnsf vcr dmmf ly= hfl `flsylfs vf` `fllf clnf`ldlk oc mahhft grc @f garfltf

stctfr ak oc bndtt smrfvft dll d rfsanusialflf sah bnfdgarfsntt ul`fr `f ta Zcrds-malkrfssflf sah ft `drfmtfrfsuntct cv `fl ocl`ndlkc sah Pof C. G. ak N. cnnfrf`foc``f bfstfht sfk gar k tdn. @f grclsmf crbfd`frlfoc``f gcmtdsm, gr malkrfssflf vcr d kclk, d gfbrucr, 3??4,kifllahgrt `fl grstf cv sdlf `fhalstrcsialfr garttftdhfrs`ckfl= `fhalstrcsialfr sah oc``f bndtt htthf` fl fltusdcstdsm rfspals d `f gnfstf dlùstrdsfltrcflf.D Zcrds bnfd `ft bfsnuttc ct d grchtd`c smunnf 3. hcd vrfcrbfd`frlfs `ck, ak ct ttftdhfrs`ckfl smunnf oc flsfltrcn pasdsial sah ft uhd``fnbcrt mrcv. D npft cv `fhdsnymmc `dsmusialflf p appl floft d Occk, oc``fhcl grymtc ct tysmfrlf d `frfs bfmyhrdlk vf`rrfl`f


31/1761

53

yttfrndkfrf rfprfssdvf tdntcm grc Bdshcrem vdnnf lfmtf stdnnf sfk bcm garsnckft= ak `frfs tcnshcll, [dnofnh

Ndfbmlfeot, dlsdstfrtf gcmtdsm p ct ovfr flmfnt lcsialcnbfvfkfnsf httf st grdtt tdn tdnpcssf sdl ckfrdlk tdnlcsialcnf garoan`, ak ct `ft dmmf httf mahhf lafloflstdnndlk ah kd sfk d mcst hf` strfdmfr d ovfrt flfstfncl`. @c `fttf bnfd dhtfmahhft cmsfptfrtf tysmfrlfrfsanusialfl.

Bfkkf `f ta Zcrds-malkrfssflf d 3??4 gdmm hclkf`fntcmfrf, ak ul`fr bfkkf vcr grclsmhfllflf d ftavfrvfn`fl`f gnfrtcnn. @fl passdbdndstdsmf schndlkc d RufNclery vcr `fl tcnnrdmfstf hf` avfr 7:: `fnfkctfr, bncltovfh hfr fll 6:: vcr grclsmf. @fl hcrxdstdsmfmalkrfssfl d Ucnnf Ztrfnnf mah app d ft cltcnn cv 543,bnclt ovfh 223 vcr grclsmf. @fl oc``f `fl strstfdltfrlcsialcnf `fntcmfnsfl, hf` ?3 tysmfrf, 22 brdtfr, 30bfnkdfrf, ? stfrrdmfrf, 7 russfrf, scht hdl`rf`fnfkcsialfr grc Lf`frncl`, @clhcrm, Uvfrdkf, Larkf,Uvfdts, Zanfl, Rahcldc, Dtcndc, Vlkcrl, Upcldc, Zartukcn,Bohfl ak Bunkcrdc, pnuss kifstfr grc @f garfltf stctfr,Crkfltdlc ak Gdlncl`. Flmfntf cv `f hdl`rf

`fnfkcsialflf vcr utvdnsaht mlcpt lam hfr flllahdlfnnf, vf` ct `f bfsta` cv fmsdnfr sah oc``f hcl`ctgrc sh kruppfr cv ncl`sgarvdstf. Dmmf `fsta hdl`rfschnc malkrfssfl ft ka`t spfmtfr cv nf`frf gar Furapcskryfl`f sasdcndstdsmf pcrtdfr. Bnclt tysmfrlf vcr [dnofnhNdfbmlfeot ak Cukust Bfbfn cnnfrf`f vftfrclfr= F`ucr`Bfrlstfdl, garfnpdk dmmf miflt sah rfvdsialdst hfl


32/1761

52

hf` fl star iaurlcndstdsm dllscts vdsf tdn= Mcrn Nfkdfl,gckgarfldlkflfs oavfàrkcldsctar= Kfark Ofdlrdeo val

Wannhcr, `fl bcyfrsmf nf`frfl= Ofrhcll Hanmflbuor,cnnfrf`f tysmfrlfs spfsdcndst dllfl crbfd`snavkdvldlk, akEncrc Yftmdl. Bnclt grclsmhfllflf vcr Iunfs Kufs`f,ùcr` Wcdnnclt, Eocrnfs Nalkuft ak Zcun Ncgcrkuf bfkkf svdkfrsllfr tdn Hcrx Ypodrdl Echndlct,Rcyhal` Ncvdklf ak Wdetar Icencr`. Ufbcstdcl Gcurf vcr

aks tdn stf`f, sah tcnshcll gar `f grclsmf clcrmdstflf.Bfnkdfrlf bnfd clgrt cv Escr `f Zcfpf ak ùcr`Clsffnf, sdstlfvltf oavf`krullnfkkfrfl cv `ft bfrhtfmaapfrctdvft Waarudt d Koflt. Wdetar C`nfr nf`cstfrrdmfrlf ak Nfa Grlmfn ulkcrfrlf= Zcbna Dknfsdcs akIas Hfsc mah grc Upcldc, ak U. Zcnhkrffl grc Uvfrdkf=Zftfr Ncvrav ak K. W. Znfmoclav rfprfsfltfrtf `flcra`ldmdsmf ak hcrxdstdsmf tfl`flsflf bnclt russfrlf.Grc Lf`frncl` mah @ahfnc Ldfuwflouds, sah slcrtsmunnf mahhf tdn k avfr tdn clcrmdshfl. Flmfntf cvdtcndflfrlf, dlmnu`frt Cl`rfc Eastc ak `fl kchnfKcrdbcn`d-tdnoflkfrfl ak mahhulcr`fl, ChdnecrfEdprdcld, vdstf dhd`nfrtd` sdl tdnstf`fvrfnsf p bfkkf

malkrfssflf. @ft schhf kiar`f hdnf Wcl`frvfn`f, `ftbfnkdsmf crbfd`frpcrtdfts starf op. @fl vdmtdkstfgrcvrfl`f vcr `fl brdtdsmf sasdcn`fhamrctdsmfg`frcsialfl, sah upcssfl`f lam, hfl tdn Flkfns starftdngrf`sstdnnfnsf, bfgclt sfk d `fl hatscttf nfdr.


33/1761


34/1761

50

`f Echpas grc Zartukcn, ak chfrdmclfrlf [. U. [cl`nyak Z. G. Erawnfy.

@fl hcrxdstdsmf malkrfssfl vcr `frhf` fl hyf hfr`dstdlkvfrt schndlk, ak tam utfl strrf prabnfhfrdllfrsvdlkfl p sdl rdvcn. Gnkfndk ocr `f td`ndkfrfdltfrlcsialcnf malkrfssflf sah bd`ra tdn bclf vfd gar@fl cl`rf dltfrlcsialcnf gar fl star `fn bndtt knfht, akhf` `fh `fl lrf garbdl`fnsfl hfnnah ofnf bfvfkfnsfl

d `fls td`ndkf stc`dfr ak strd`fl gar ttftdhfrs`ckfl,ofrul`fr `ft chfrdmclsmf dldtdctdvft d `fllfschhfloflk. @ft sah d vdrmfndkoftfl smif``f vcr ctdldtdctdvft gar fl ly dltfrlcsialcnf, gar fl star `fn cvchfrdmclsm ak grclsm apprdllfnsf ak hdlst ndmf hyfgckgarfldlksbcsfrt sah sasdcndstdsm ak tctt avfr cv `ftysmf sasdcn`fhamrctflf ak kdtt fl fssflsdfnt sfttcllfrnf`fs mcrcmtfr sah fl clspardlk d rftldlk cvdltfrlcsialcn g`frcsial cv sasdcndstdsmf pcrtdfr, sahcmsfptfrtf `fl pandtdsmf ocl`ndlkcs garrclk, ak ovar fllahstfl`dkoftflf tdnnat `ft scttf sfk garf utmifhpf sdlfoavf`mchpfr p `ft pcrnchfltcrdsmf gfntft. @fttf mullfsmif grchgar cnt gar`d `ft tysmf dldtdctdvft mah d `ft

yfbndmm Bdshcrems cltd-sasdcndstdsmf navfr vcr d gfr` hf` appofvfs, ak p ft td`spulmt `c `ft tysmfsasdcn`fhamrctdsmf pcrtdft oc``f appl`` `flrf`vfl`f sumsfssfl ul`fr vcnkc d 3?4:.

@fl gcmtdsmf rfsanusialfl sah bnfd vf`tctt `fl sdstf`ckfl d Ucnnf Ztrfnnf, ak sah tam app ovc sncks ocl`ndlk


35/1761


36/1761

57

prakrch. Hfl sin ah `fl clkdr rfsanusialfls tfmst, aksdfr ct `fl bfra``f p dldtdctdv grc Rcyhal` Ncvdklf p

vfklf cv `fl grclsmf lcsialcnfgckgarfldlksg`frcsialfl, rcppartfrfr ul`frndk lam `flaggdsdfnnf rcppartfl grc Ztrfnnf-malkrfssfl dmmf laf grc`fbcttfl, fnnfr tdnsmrdvfr bfsnutldlkfl lafl bfstfhtbfty`ldlk. @ft fr ty`fndk ct tysmfrlf bftrcmtcttftdhfrs`ckfl, ak bfsnutldlkc ah ty tdn sdhuntcl

ocl`ndlk `fl 3. hcd, 3?4:, sah ft clndkkfl`f cvgaroan`svds bfsmif`fl bfty`ldlk.

Dmmf `fsta hdl`rf vcr 3. hcd, 3?4: fl bfhfrmfnsfsvfr`dkdhpalfrfl`f clnf`ldlk. Utarf `fhalstrcsialfr garttftdhfrs`ckfl bnfd oan`t d hclkf ncl` ak d `frfs byfr,ak `ft vcr ahgcttfl`f crbfd`sstclsfr dmmf bcrf dGrclmrdmf, hfl aks d stfrrdmf, Vlkcrl, d `fnfr cv Dtcndcak Upcldc, d Bfnkdc, Lf`frncl` ak `f smcl`dlcvdsmfncl`c, s vfn sah d @f garfltf stctfr. @f brdtdsmfgckgarfldlkflf ly`f sfk dhd`nfrtd` hf` cvoan`f starfhtfr `fl grstf sl`ckfl d hcd, gar ullkcrbfd`sstclsfr. Z flmfntf stf`fr bfkrflsc crbfd`frlf sfktdn vfnar`lc `fhalstrcsialfr ak htfr= hfl d Grclmrdmf,

Upcldc ak Dtcndc, ovar clcrmdstflf sta` d grfhstf rfmmf,vcr `ft flmfntf cnvarndkf schhflstt hf` pandtdft aksan`ctflf. Fl`ak gr 3. hcd oc``f `ft gullft stf` hclkfcrrfstcsialfr cv iaurlcndstfr ak hdndtcltf, sah bnfdclmnckc gar oc clsparc tdn van` spfsdfnt clcrmdstfr ak`frfs syhpctdsrfr. Upfsdfnt d Grclmrdmf vcr `ft starufldkoft. Oyrfgnyfl bnclt passdbdndstflf ak `frfs


37/1761


38/1761

5?

hat uoykdfldsmf fnnfr gcrndkf crbfd`sgaroan`. @fl tysmfmfdsfrfls dldtdctdv grchbrcmtf dlkfl prcmtdsmf rfsuntctfr,

gar`d malgfrclsfl d Bfrndl gar `f undmf rfkifrdlkflf dmmfnymtfs d cvstf`mahhf lafl fldkoft. Hfl `f td`ndkf3?4:-rc vcr fl pfrda`f `c `ft sasdcnf sprshn sta`mncrt gar `fl cnnhfllf hfldlk, ak gul`chfltft gar `flfn`rf, ncdssfz gcdrfbcsfrtf malahdsmf ndbfrcndshfl bnfdcnvarndk rystc.

Crbfd`frmncssfbfvfkfnsfl d `dssf rc bnfd stfrmt bfrrt cvfl malgndmt hfnnah d`ffr sah p dlkfl htf bcrf spndttcoyrfsd`c grc vflstrfsd`c fnnfr bfkkf `dssf grc flkflfrfnn sfltruhspasdsial. @ft vcr fl rfmmf strd`fr sahbyk`f sfk app schtd`dk, b`f vf`rrfl`f strctfkd akhnsfttdlkfr. Fl strd` kicn`t pandtdsm ocl`ndlk, ak `fllfstrd`fl sta` dmmf bcrf hfnnah hcrxdstfr ak clcrmdstfr,hfl aks hfnnah rfgarhdstdsmf pandtdmfrf ak `fh sahscttf sdl ndt tdn dl`ustrdfnnf garsaldlk, utfl cppfnnfrf tdnstctfl ak navkdvfl`f dllkrdpfl= ak fl cllfl, sah vcrgarbul`ft hf` `fl garrdkf hfl dmmf d`fltdsm hf` `fl, aksah sfltrfrtf rul`t ovdnmfl oan`ldlkcrbfd`frbfvfkfnsflf smunnf dlltc avfrgar mcpdtcndstdsmf

stctfr ak rfkifrdlkfr. Uah vd ocr sftt vcr hcrxdstflffrmnrtf tdnoflkfrf cv oyst `dsdpndlfrt pandtdsm ocl`ndlkkifllah sfltrcndsfrtf pcrtdfr, ak brum cvgckgarfldlkscmtdvdshfl sah fl rfmruttfrdlkscmtr ak flgarstfrmldlk ul`fr vcnkflf, schtd`dk sah `f vcrahoykkfndk appsctt p ct pcrtdnf`fnsfl smunnf bfoan`fmaltrannfl avfr pandtdmmfl. @f lsmc vdllf maltrann


39/1761

54

avfr `f lcsialcnf navkdvfl`f garschndlkflf kifllahvfnkfrardfltfrt arkcldsfrdlk ak prapckcl`c= hfl

garfnpdk bftrcmtc `f start sftt dmmf vcnksumsfss, flàksin d tdngfnnf `fr hcl appl``f pcrnchfltcrdsm gnfrtcnn,sah laf sah hf`grtf fl fssflsdfnn garcl`rdlk cv stctflsfssflsdfnnf mcrcmtfr. @f tflmtf grfh`fnfs p vcnktrduhgfrmul sah fl garbfrf`fnsf gar fl fnnfr cllfl garh garrfvanusial, sah vdnnf rfsuntfrf d ct stctfl vdnnf bnd styrtc

ak fl ly crbfd`frstct fnnfr ganmfstct bnd sctt dll d `flsstf`.

D sdlf prakrchhfr oc``f `f s vdsst uhd``fnbcrf mrcv,sah d mfl`f krc` dlmnu`frtf mrcv ah dlùstrdnavkdvldlk.Hfl gar `ft hfstf tflmtf `f grfh`fnfs ah `f gnfstf cv`dssf rfgarhflf ct `f trflktf bnd grcvrdstc fl gdfl`tndkdllstdnt stct, slcrfrf fll sah stfkvdsf tdntcm gar ahgarhf stctfl tdn ft dlstruhflt gar `fhamrctd. Avfrstrstf`fnfl cv Furapc bftrcmtc s vfn hcrxdstfr sahcl`rf hfllfsmfr stctfl, lr `f tflmtf p `fl,dlstdlmtdvt sah fl utvfl`f slcrfrf fll sah flnavkdvfl`f cutardtft. Wfn s hyf d Pysmncl` sah dRussncl`, ak scllfndk d bfty`fndk krc` lrhfst avfrcnt

bartsftt grc d Uvfdts ak mclsmif d @clhcrm, bfty``fstctfl rfkifrdlkc, ak ovar fll ft s`clt fmsdstfrtftflmtf hcl p pcrnchfltft sah fl gcmtar sah dllsmrflmcstctfl, slcrfrf fll sah `fls oyfstf hcmtarkcl. @fttfstfhtf gar fl star `fn flàk d Grclmrdmf, ovar @fl trfìfrfpubndmmfl oc``f crvc hyf cv trc`dsialfl fttfr `ftlcpanfclsmf cl`rf dhpfrdft, ak `ft vcr dmmf flmfnt sf d


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rftldlk cv mchhfrft fnnfr sflctft gar smf gdllf flmdn`f tdn sasdcn rfkflfrfrdlk.

Uah vd smcn mahhf tdnbcmf tdn d mcpdttfnft `fr `ft tysmfsasdcn`fhamrctdfts ardfltfrdlk fttfr 3?4: vdn bnd `rgtc5,garodl`rc `fllf oan`ldlkc avfrgar stctfl p fl fggfmtdvhtf tysmfrlf grc garhunfrf sdlf prakrchhfr d nys cvlcsialcndsfrdlk cv praùmsialshd`nflf vf` oifnp cvpcrnchfltcrdsmf hd`nfr. Lcsialcn maltrann, hf` stctfl

sndm sah `fl vcr, vdnnf fttfr Mcutsmy ak Ndfbmlfeots syldmmf bfty sasdcndsfrdlk, hfl avfrnctf fl`c hfrmalahdsm hcmt tdn fl utvfl`f cutardtft sahrfprfsfltfrtf `ft mcpdtcndstdsmf baurkfadsdft d cnndclsfhf` gy`cndshfl ak cutamrctdft. Dmmf gr stctfl oc``fbndtt ahgarhc kifllah rfvanusialfl vdnnf `fl bnd ftdlstruhflt sah mullf grfhhf crbfd`frlfs scm kifllah`fhamrctdsm c`hdldstrfrdlk cv ganmfts fdflàh. Gnkfndkhttf `ft starf crbfd`frpcrtdft bnd byk` app ofntucvoflkdk cv cnnf cl`rf pcrtdfr, ak `ft vdnnf snf`fs vrfkcnt cv sasdcn`fhamrctflf tflmf sfk lafl sah ofnstgarh gar macndsial fnnfr rfkifrdlksschcrbfd` hf` lafbarkfrndk pcrtd, sin ah garhnft vcr appl lafl cv sdlf

uhd``fnbcrf mrcv. @dssf sylspulmtflf smunnf s vdsstslcrt mahhf tdn bnd utgar`rc, dllfl `ft tysmfsasdcn`fhamrctdft, cv sndmf mifttfrf sah Wannhcr akBfrlstfdl= hfl d 3??4 oc``f `fllf utgar`rdlkc mlcpt lamhfn`t sdl tdnstf`fvrfnsf, ak sin `c `fl ùmmc app staòfnf `fl hcrxdstdsmf trc`dsial rf`f tdn htf `fl.


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D Grclmrdmf vcr sdtucsialfl cllfrnf`fs gar`d ncl`ft dbfty`fndk strrf krc` vcr ul`frnckt fl pcrnchfltcrdsm

styrfgarh. Rfpubndmmfl vcr, tdn garsmifnn grc `ft tysmfdhpfrdft, fl pandtdsm strumtur sah hclkf sasdcndstfr gntfsfk garpndmtc tdn apprfttoan`f d hatsftldlk tdn lafl sahofnst garlyfnsf cv efscrdshf fnnfr halcrmdsm rfcmsial.@fttf smunnf mahhf tdn bnd ft ndvsvdmtdk strd`ssprshn d`f mrdtdsmf rc `c @rfygus-cggrflak Hdnnfrcl`-cggrfl

utspclt sfk= scmfr sah `drfmtf rfdstf sprshnft ahgarsvcrft cv rfpubndmmfl ak spndttc `fl grclsmfsasdcndstbfvfkfnsfl d ta rdvcndsfrfl`f grcmsialfr.0Pysmfrlf oc``f dlkfl rfpubndmm garsvcrf, ak dltftpcrnchfltcrdsm systfh. @ft oc``f grclsmhfllflf= ak sin`f sah dmmf vcr srndk bfkfdstrc gar pcrnchfltft, vcr dmmfndmf `vf avfrgar `ft rfpubndmclsmf mcnnft. Dmmf `fsta

hdl`rf lfmtc `f grclsmf hcrxdstflf, `c @rfygus-scmc vcrdllf d sdl hfst smifblfsvclkrf gcsf, bnd nf`c dll d lafschcrbfd` hf` `ft rfpubndmclsmf barkfrsmcpft, ak `f vcrfl`ak tdnbyfndkf tdn sd ct `f barkfrndkf pandtdmfrlfsuavfrflsstfhhfnsfr dmmf vcr `frfs clndkkfl`f.Bnclqudstflf sc sfk lcturndk lam fldkf hf` `fh= Icurs,Hcnal ak `f ucvoflkdkf vcr stfrmt ufldkf= braussdstflf,fnnfr passdbdndstflf, bnfd spndttc d ta rdvcndsfrfl`fgrcmsialfr.

Malgndmtfl dllfl `fl grclsmf crbfd`frmncssfbfvfkfnsflvcr dhd`nfrtd` fl ka` `fn hfr mahpndsfrt fll `dssfhfldlksgarsmifnnflf clty`fr. D Pysmncl` oc``fclcrmdstflf prcmtdsm tcnt bndtt fndhdlfrt sah fl mrcgt gar


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pvdrmf hcssflfs hfldlk, sin ah `f mullf smdntf hf`lafl g opfgunnf cttfltcthfll d npft cv `fl clcrmdstdsmf

kiflappndvdlkc d 3?4:-rc, ak `ft gcltfs cnntd` fl ndtflcltd-pcrnchfltcrdsm kruppf p `fl yttfrstf vflstrf gny.Bartsftt grc `f rfnctdvt sh kruppflf ul`fr mrdstflt fnnfrndbfrcnt (Odrseo-@ulmfr) avfrappsyl, vcr gckgarfldlkflfsand` `dsdpndlfrt ul`fr sasdcn`fhamrctdsm nf`frsmcp. Hfld Grclmrdmf vcr clcrmdshfl, d hclkf garhfr sah vcrdfrtf

grc ``fls prapckcl`c tdn clcrmasyl`dmcndshf, fl ndvndkmrcgt= ak kufs`dstflfs garsm p dllar`lfgckgarfldlkflf ul`fr pcrtdft, oc``f mul appl`` flusdmmfr ak `fnvds sumsfss. Zcun Braussf, nf`frfl garpassdbdndstflf, oc``f stcrtc sah clcrmdst ak gartscttf sahfl gdfl`f cv sfltrcndsfrdlk= hfl ocl oc``f knd`` avfr grcclcrmdshfl tdn d stf`ft tc tdn ar`f gar huldsdpcn

sasdcndstdsm ocl`ndlk, ak ocls tdnoflkfrsmcrf oc``fmahhft tdn dlmnu`frf fl oy cl`fn ha`frctf sah vcrvfn s gdfl`tndk dllstdnt avfrgar hcrxdshfl akbnclqudshfl p `fl flf sd`f, sah avfrgar `fl vamsfl`frfvanusialrf syl`dmcndshfl p `fl cl`rf. @c IfclCnnfhclf grtf `f vflstrfardfltfrtf ut cv `ftpassdbdndstdsmf pcrtdft, bnfd `ft ah`cllc tdn ft pcrtd p `flsasdcndstdsmf oyrfsd`c, hfl bfoan`t fl rfmmf cv sdlfgarbdl`fnsfsndlifr tdn gckgarfldlkflf. @f ucvoflkdkfsasdcndstflf, sah `ft bfgclt sfk d cnndclsf hf`, smdntf sfkgrc `ft vf` prdhrt vrf fl pcrnchfltcrdsm nf`frkruppfslcrfrf fll fl bfvfkfnsf hf` lafl substclsdfnn namcnarkcldscsial bcm sfk.


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D npft cv rc gr @rfygus-cggrfl ak trussfnfl hatrfpubndmmfl brcmtf sprshnft ah schcrbfd` hf` `f

barkfrndkf rfpubndmclfrlf ofnt grch d garkrullfl, vcr `ftstarf ahstrd`tf sprshnft sah spndttc grclsmhfllflf `ftsah clkdmm ovdnmf rannfr ofloan`svds pandtdsm akdlùstrdfnn ckfrdlk smunnf oc. Kufs`dstflf ak bnclqudstflfmullf snuttf sfk schhfl hf` `f cl`rf kruppflf d mrcvftah ttftdhfrs crbfd`s`ck ak d lsmft ah ct crbfd`frlf

smunnf brumf 3. hcd tdn `fhalstrfrf sdl lcsialcnf akdltfrlcsialcnf sand`crdtft= hfl `ft gcltfs dlkfl rffnnfldkoft vfrmfl ah `fl rdmtdkf htfl `fhalstrfrf p,fnnfr ovdnmfl uhd``fnbcr hnsfttdlk hcl smunnf sdmtf hat.Braussdstfr, hcrxdstfr, bnclqudstfr ak syl`dmcndstfr vdnnfcnnf mullf flfs ah mrfvf dlùstrdnavkdvldlk sin ahgunnbna`sclcrmdstflf oc``f dllsdkfnsfr flàk hat `fttf.

Hfl schtd`dk sah braussdstflf mul lsmc grf`fndkfprasfsialfr ak `fputcsialfr tdn `f aggfltndkf cutardtftflf,ak kufs`dstflf oavf`scmfndk vcr appsctt p brumfclnf`ldlkfl tdn vdllf stttf tdn gar`fn gar `ft hcrxdstdsmfpcrtdft, `rhtf bnclqudstflf fnnfr d cnnf gcnn flmfntf cv`fh gartsctt ah garvcl`nf `fhalstrcsialfl tdn flappstcl`, hfls syl`dmcndstflf bftrcmtc flovfr 3. hcdprdhrt sah fl garbfrf`fnsf tdn `fl starf strfdmfl, sahvdnnf bnd garclnf`ldlkfl tdn ahgarhdlkc cv schgullft sslcrt crbfd`frlfs sdll oc``f bndtt tdnstrfmmfndk garbfrf`t.Cnt `fttf fr sinsckt grchstdnnf hfldlksgarsmifnnflf pfl gar kravmarlc htf= `ft gcltfs gcmtdsm hyfschhflbncl`dlk cv d`ffr dllfl cnnf `f rdvcndsfrfl`f


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kruppflf. Hfl `ft fr ndmf gunnt sclt ct d Grclmrdmf, tdngarsmifnn grc Pysmncl`, vcr `ft cnntd` hfmtdkf mrfgtfr sah

vcr uvdnndkf tdn cmsfptfrf pandtdsm nf`frsmcp grc laflsah ofnst mdn`f oyrf, vflstrf fnnfr sfltruh ak sahsmuc d rftldlk cv gckgarfldlkflf gar dlspdrcsial, slcrfrffll gfstf ndt tdn laf sah ofnst pandtdsm pcrtd. @dssfkruppflf vcr gdfl`tndk dllstdnt avfrgar stctfl, hfl dmmfsndm sah tysmfrlf vcr, cnts sndm garst ct `fl vcr

barkfrsmcpfts stct ak lrhfst mncr gar bnd cvnst cvpranftcrdctfts sfltrcndsfrtf stct, hfl kclsmf flmfnt gar`d`fl vcr lfttapp stctfl, ak `frgar fl gdfl`f cv ganmft snflkf `fl fmsdstfrtf d `ft ofnf tctt. @f bftrcmtc `fl d bfstfgcnn sah fl garschndlk sah crbfd`frlf mullf oc op ah cvmrfvf dllrhhfnsfr kifllah brumf sdl arkcldsfrtfmncssfhcmt, hfl dmmf flkclk sah laf d lroftfl cv fl

dlstdtusial sah `f hf` td` ak stul`fr mullf ahgarhf tdn tiflf sah uttrymmft gar `fl mannfmtdvf vdnif.

Ovc vcr s garhnft hf` 3. hcd `fhalstrcsialflf1 mahhf hf` pftdsialfr tdn `f aggfltndkf cutardtftflf akofv`f crbfd`frmncssfls sand`crdtft1 @ft vcr ft sylspulmt. grchtvdlkf kifllah strfdmfcmsial dllrhhfnsfr

b`f grc prdvctf crbfd`skdvfrf ak aggfltndkf cutardtftfr.@ft vcr ft cllft sylspulmt ak `fssutfl sylspulmtft tdnPof Chfrdecl Gf`frctdal ag Ncbar, sah d s star krc`oc``f dlgnufrt p `f uhd``fnbcrf bfkdvfloftflfs kclk dFurapc. g crbfd`frlf tdn snuttf app ah sasdcndstflf,dlltdn `f vdnnf bnd d stcl` tdn appl pcrnchfltcrdsmgnfrtcnn, tc stctfl d sdlf ofl`fr ak ahgarhf `fl tdn fl


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crbfd`frstct1 @ft vcr ft trfìf sylspulmt, sah `f grclsmfhcrxdstflf oan`t gcst vf` ul`fr dllgnytfnsf grc sdlf

dlspdrctarfr. garbfrf`f crbfd`frlf p strfdmfcmsial d flfl`c strrf smcnc, ak d hfnnahtd`cvf` strfdmfappldllrhhfnsfr grc prdvctf crbfd`skdvfrf, mahhulcnfcutardtftfr ak flàk stctfl sin, utfl bfoav gar tc `fn dpcrnchfltcrdsm vdrmsahoft, ak ullk k sfk vdnn dpcrnchfltfts hclvrfr ak mahprahdssfr1 @ft vcr ft

gifr`f sylspulmt, sah `ft vamsfl`f cltcnnft syl`dmcndstfroan`t gcst vf`. Fnnfr, sdst hfl dmmf hdlst, grchbrdlkfschhflstt hf` pandtdft ak hdndtrft= trflf crbfd`frlfdmmf bcrf tdn strfdmf, hfl tdn bnd gunnbna`srfvanusialrf ak snf`fs brf`f krullnckft gar `flapprrsmf kflfrcnstrfdmfl `fr stctfl smunnf bnd mlust akgrchtd`cs grdf schgull vdnnf g`fs1 @ft vcr ft gfhtf

sylspulmtclcrmasyl`dmcndstflfs s`cllf. Fnnfr kclsmfflmfnt smcpf s hyf trbbfn, ak kflfrfrf s hyf`fstrumtdvt rcsfrd sah hundk, hf` sdmtf p applovc1Clcrmdshfl d `fls hfst rfdlsmrlf garh, sah dllfbrfrft ofnt lytt schgull utfl rfkifrdlkshcmt, ak flàk grdttgar gckgarfldlkflfs tyrclld, ak `fl gunnstfl`dkfutsnfttfnsfl cv barkfrndk harcndtft s vfn sah barkfrndkofrrf`hhf. @fllf sdstf oan`ldlkfl vcr `ft sinsckt mullafl g sah dlltam= hfl lafl vcr `ft, ak d lafl gclcrmdstdsmf bcstdalfr mlyttc `fl tdnoflkfrlf cv 3. hcd`fhalstrcsialflf tdn `f sh ul`frkrullskruppflf sahscttf sdl ndt tdn ``fls prapckcl`c.


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hcssf`fhalstrcsialfr rfttc hat `f aggfltndkfcutardtftflf. @fttf dllfbcr aks crbfd`sstclsic, fl hyf

hfr ahgcttfl`f s`cl, ah fll mul gar fl `ck ak `ftplc snf`fs vfdfl gar appsdkfnsfr ak nfkcnf rfprfscndfr`fr ovar strfdmfrfttfl vcr dllsmrflmc vf` nav sndm `flvcr d `f gnfstf ncl`. D `f grclsmf garmifhpfrlfs ylf vcrpnclfls gartrdll ct `fl appgar`rc crbfd`frlf tdn trassf`f urfttgfr`dkf navflf sah `f vcr ul`frmcstc.

Pysmfrlf, p `fl cllfl sd`f, ak aks `f brdtdsmfgckgarfldlksnf`frlf, oc``f p nclkt lr laf lsmf ah ctcrbfd`frlf smunnf sfttf sfk app hat navfl, ak vdnnf ocgarftrummft kirf 3. hcd tdn fl flmfn, gunnt navndk akgrf`fndk `fhalstrcsial gar crbfd`frsand`crdtft, sah smunnfkifllahgrfs utfl lafl garstyrrfnsfr gar dl`ustrdfl akutfl lafl bru`` p maltrcmtfr fnnfr mannfmtdvf cvtcnfr.Hfl `f mullf vfrmfl avfrbfvdsf grclsmhfllflf fnnfrstfrrdmfrlf, ak fd ofnnfr `f gnfstf cv `f cl`rf`fnfkcsialflf. D Grclmrdmf oc``f `fhalstrcsialflf d3?43 hf`grt svrt cnvarndkf schhflstt hf` pandtdft flrfmmf stf`fr6, ak `ft oc``f vrt ndmlfl`f tdngfnnfr d cl`rfncl` gar fmsfhpfn d stfrrdmf, Dtcndc, Upcldc ak Bfnkdc.

@fr ovar sndmf malgndmtfr oc``f gullft stf`, vcrcrbfd`frlf p oukkft, ak `f vcr gar `ft hfstf hfrbfstfhtf fll laflsdllf p dmmf kd fttfr kifllah kdapp 3. hcd sah hcldgfstcsials`ckfl. @f mah tysmfrlfak brdtflf d htf vf` k hf` p ct strfdmfcmsial bcrfmullf vrf pmrfv` `fr `fl dmmf bnfd bftrcmtc sahukifllahgrbcr `ft vdn sd, sndm `fl bnfd bftrcmtc bnclt


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6:

`fr fl ka` `fn `fnfkctfr uttrymtf utnha`dkoft avfrgarsnsdlkc hf` s hclkf srt tdnhntf tdhfr gar `fntcmfrf

sah oc``f rfdst fl nclk vfd gar mahhf tdn htft, akmastc sdlf arkcldscsialfr tdnsvcrfl`f, ak sah lsmc mullf rcppartfrf ah prcmtdsmf rfsuntctfr tdn sdlfgarschndlkfr d oifhncl`flf. @ft schhf smif``f ul`frYrdeo-malkrfssfl d 3?45, ak lam fl kclk ul`fr Nal`al-malkrfssfl d 3?47. Uah vd ocr sftt vcr cnnf `dssf td`ndkf

malkrfssflf cv fl uvdss schhflsftldlk. @f bnfdvclndkvds bfsmrfvft sah sasdcndstdsmfcrbfd`frmalkrfssfr, hfl flmfntf kclkfr, sah d 3?47,sah sasdcndstdsmf crbfd`fr- ak gckgarfldlksmalkrfssfr,ak `ft bnfd dmmf stdnt sprshn vf` ah gckgarfldlkflf p ndlif hf` sasdcndstdsmf pcrtdfr ak schgulloc``f rftttdn vrf rfprfsfltfrt p `fh. D Pysmncl` grtf dmmf

gckgarfldlksprabnfhft tdn lafl sah ofnst vclsmfndkoftfr,gar`d gckgarfldlkflf, ul`fr Mcrn Nfkdfls nf`frsmcp, vcrsand` cnndfrt hf` @ft sasdcn`fhamrctdsmf pcrtdft= ak `frfsrfprfsfltcltfr d vdrmfndkoftfl utkiar`f fl `fn cv `flsasdcndstdsmf `fnfkcsialfl. Undm tysmfrlfs prabnfhfr crtcsfk, mah `f grc fl nclkt p vfd clcrmdstdsm vflstrfgnyclgrt cv Kustcv Ncl`cufr rf`cmtrfl gar UasdcndstfldBfrndlak O. [fklfr, sah gdmm sdl siclsf mul d npft cvpldlksstc`dft, gr `fnfkctflfs mrf`dtdvfr oc``f bndttvfrdgdsfrt. Vl`fr `dssf malkrfssflfs crrclkfhfltfr vcrvfrdgdsfrdlkc cv mrf`dtdvflf prdhrt ft clndkkfl`f garovfr flmfntf lcsialcnf `fnfkcsial, sah avfrgar flgunntcnndk sfsial nc grch fl rcppart sah vdstf ovfh sdlf


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Chfrdecl Gf`frctdal ag Ncbar bnd bftrcmtc sahsasdcndstdsmf. @fnfkctflf sah `ra tdn `f undmf

dltfrlcsialcnf malkrfssflf sah rfprfsfltcltfr gar P. V.E., fnnfr `f cv `fls tdnsttfl`f garbul` sah vcnktf vrftdn stf`f, dlmnu`frtf lafl g sasdcndstfr= hfl `f gnfstf cv`fh vcr gckgarfldlkscmtdvdstfr cv ndbfrcn-ncbaur-avfrbfvdsldlk, ak appnfv`f ct `dsmusialflf by``f `fh dhat ak agtf vcr ofnt ubfkrdpfndkf. @c `ft bnfd ft sprshn

ah vrf gar fnnfr d hat pandtdsm ckfrdlk, stfhtf `f gar`fttf, hfl hf` `ft hfltf `f laf ofnt cllft fll `fttysmfrlf, stfrrdmfrlf fnnfr `f grclsmf hcrxdstflf akbnclqudstflf kiar`f= kruppfr sah dlsdstfrtf p ct pandtdsmckfrdlk h tc garh cv ocl`ndlk d rfkd cv ft ucvoflkdkcrbfd`frpcrtd sah oan`fr sfk gunnstfl`dk bartf grc lafsah ofnst schrrf hf` `f barkfrndkf pcrtdflf. @ft

brdtdsmf ucvoflkdkf crbfd`frpcrtdft gunktf sinsckt aks`fllf ndlic, ak `ft schhf kiar`f `fl sasdcn`fhamrctdsmfg`frcsial= hfl `fl bnfd dmmf ftcbnfrt gr d 3?45, ak gr`fl td` vcr `ft mul fl rfmmf namcnf ucvoflkdkfcrbfd`fr-arkcldscsialfr, dlmnu`frt `ft smatsmfcrbfd`frpcrtdft, sah bnfd ftcbnfrt d 3???-?4. Grc 3?45 cvvcr `ft, fttfr ct @ft sasdcndstdsmf garbul` oc``f ktt avfrtdn clcrmdshfl, gar s svdllf ofl, trf oavf`bfstcl``fnfrd `fl brdtdsmf `fnfkcsialflU. @. G., D. N. Z. ak P. V. E.,hfls gcbdcl-schgullft ak lafl g hdl`rf arkcldscsialfrutkiar`f rfstfl. D `fllf garvdrrfl`f sdtucsialfl gunktf `fbrdtdsmf `fnfkctflf vclndkvds `fl ndlic ct `f tanfrfrtf lrsckt cnnf mrcv lr `ft vcr slcmm ah ovfh sah smunnf


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ka`mifllfs sah malkrfss`fntcmfrf= hfl lr `ft kicn`t `fhfst bfty`ldlksgunnf strd`ssprshnc s stfhtf `f gnfstf

cv `fh schhfl hf` `f pandtdsmf, hat `fh sah tam tdnar`f gar dl`ustrdfnn ckfrdlkak spndttc oyrf grc vflstrf,sndm sah bnclt grclsmhfllflf `c strd`ssprshnft mahtdn `rfdf sfk ah rfgarh vfrsus rfvanusial.

Bnclt `f cl`rf strrf `fnfkcsialflf prfsfltfrtf vclndkvdsstfrrdmfrlf, sah p sdl Ocdlgfn`-malkrfss d 3??4 oc``f

arkcldsfrt sdtt sasdcn`fhamrctdsmf pcrtd hfr fnnfr hdl`rffttfr `fl tysmf ha`fnnfl, fl lrhfst schstfht gralt, sinah `f sncpp tdn `f tsifmmdsmf sasdcn`fhamrctflf sah flfkfl kruppf dllfl sdl `fnfkcsial. @r. Wdetar C`nfr vcrcnnfrf`f `frfs grfhstf tcnshcll= Mcrn Mcutsmy, sah vcrg`t d stfrrdmf, oc``f octt fl grchstfl`f rannfvf`rrfl`f `frfs prakrchutmcst, ak ocls malf, NudsfMcutsmy, vcr fl grchstfl`f nf`frsmdmmfnsf bncltmvdllflf d [dfl. Vlkcrl (hf` fl mractdsm maltdlkflt)oc``f fl sfpcrct `fnfkcsial clgrt cv Nfa Grlmfn, sahtd`ndkfrf oc``f vrt cmtdv dllfl @fl grstf dltfrlcsialcnfak d Zcrdsfrmahhulfl, ak sah vcr fl avfrbfvdst hcrxdst.Uvfdtsfrlf vcr dmmf ndmf schstfhtf= hfl clcrmdstflf ak

`frfs syhpctdsrfr oc``f hdstc sdl td`ndkfrfgrchofrsmfl`f pasdsial, ak `f ta oavf`arkcldscsialflf`fl smcntf Krtnd Vldal ak laf sah bnfd mcntKfwfrmseocgtsbul` schcrbfd`c ka`t hf` `ftsasdcn`fhamrctdsmf pcrtdft sah vcr ul`fr utvdmndlk. @fgrchstfl`f smdmmfnsflf vcr vftfrclflf Mcrn Brmnd ak`fl ylkrf Ofrhcl Krfundeo, bfkkf grc Krtnd Vldal ak


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`fl sdstlfvltf aks cmtdv dllfl pcrtdft, scht RabfrtUfd`fn grc `ft sasdcn`fhamrctdsmf pcrtdft. Cukust Hfrm

vcr `fl hfst grchstfl`f `fnfkctfl grcKfwfrmseocgtsbul`= ak `fl kchnf @r. Zdfrrf Eaunnfry,Iurc-clcrmdstflfs nclkvcrdkf hatstcl`fr, ùmmc aks appsah `fnfkct.

Bfnkdfrlf, sah vcr hd`t appf d prasfssfl hf` malsand`frf sdtt crbfd`frpcrtd hf` `fts lrf bl` tdn

gckgarfldlkflf ak maapfrctdvflf oc``f snuttc nflfsfk hat `fl g`frcndstdsmf sd`fl. @frfs lyfrf hfll àucr` Clsffnf ak hdnf Wcl`frvfn`f, hf` NaudsBfrtrcl` sah sdl oavf`rfprfsfltclt d pcrnchfltft oc``f sdlf fklf sylspulmtfr, ak vcr p dlkfl htftysmfrlfs tragcstf ul`frar`lf`f= hfl `f tra``f gunnt akgcst p pandtdsm ocl`ndlk, sin ah `fl slfvrf bfnkdsmfstfhhfrfttsar`ldlkfl kc `fh sh siclsfr tdnpcrnchfltcrdsmf sfdrf. @f tra``f p `ft kdgckgarfldlkflf ak crbfd`frmaapfrctdvflf fl ucvoflkdkdllgnytfnsfspasdsial dllfl pcrtdft, ak oc``f fl hyfhdl`rf stctssasdcndstdsm grchtaldlk fll `f artaàmsfhcrxdstflf. @ft gcltfs grfh`fnfs clcrmdstdsmf ak

clcrmdstdstsyhpctdsfrfl`f kruppfr, spfsdfnt dmunnkruvf`dstrdmtflf= hfl `dssf oc``f hdstc hyf cv sdldllgnytfnsf. D Lf`frncl` vcr p `fl cllfl sd`fclcrmdstdsmf, fnnfr lfstfl-clcrmdstdsmf, tfl`flsfrgrfh`fnfs grchofrsmfl`fhf` @ahfnc Ldfuwflouds akEordstdcl Earlfndssfl sah `f grchstfl`f smdmmfnsflfdllfl `ft oanncl`smf sasdcndstdsmf garbul`. Z Nalàl-


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malkrfssfl d 3?47 trcmm gnfrtcnnft cv `f oanncl`smf`fnfkctflf, clgrt cv `dssf ta, sfk tdn snutt ut `c `ft oc``f

bndtt utstf`t fl fl`fndk frmnrdlk sah fmsmnu`frtfclcrmdstflf. @f fttfrnat sfk `f gfh `fnfkctflf grc `ftoanncl`smf sasdcn`fhamrctdsmf crbfd`frpcrtdft, sah `fclmnckc gar vrf dltft hfr fll fl ul`fr`fnfkcsial gartysmfrlf. @fts nf`frsmdmmfnsfr vcr O. O. vcl Man, Z. I.Prafnstrc ak [. O. Wndfkfl.

Uvflsmflf vcr sasdcn`fhamrctfr, oavf`scmfndk fttfr `fltysmf ha`fnnfl, hfl hf` strrf dllgnytfnsf dgckgarfldlkflfs ofl`fr. @f sfl`tf dmmf lafl `fnfkcsialtdn Yrdeo d 3?45= hfl d 3?47 mullf Oicnhcr Brcltdlk --sah cnnfrf`f sctt d pcrnchfltft ak gckgarfldlksnf`frflEocrnfs Ndl`nfy gar trclspartcrbfd`frlf, tcnf p vfklf cvfl ourtdk vamsfl`f sasdcn`fhamrctdsm bfvfkfnsf.Lar`hfllflf ly`f sfk vclndkvds hf` fl flmfnt `fnfkctgrc `ft sasdcn`fhamrctdsmf crbfd`frpcrtdft. @clsmflf vcrp `fl cllfl sd`f ka`t rfprfsfltfrt, cv ftsasdcn`fhamrctdsm pcrtd sah vcr lrt garbul`ft hf`gckgarfldlkflf, ak sah `f p iavdcnt krullnck `fntf sdl`fnfkcsial hf`. I. Iflsfl, grc gckgarfldlkflf, ak Z.

Mlu`sfl grc `ft sasdcn`fhamrctdsmf pcrtdft, vcr `frfsgrchstfl`f tcnshfll.

Z `fl cl`rf mcltfl cv Furapc oc``f dtcndflfrlfgrfh`fnfs dltflsf dl`rf strd`dkoftfr bcnf hf`. @fsfl`tf vclndkvds fl star `fnfkcsial, dlmnu`frt hclkfgarsmifnndkf tfl`flsfr. D 3??4 vdlknc `f sah vd s hfnnah


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`f rdvcndsfrfl`f malkrfssflf. Cl`rfc Eastc, sah oc``fbrutt hf` clcrmdstflf, ak stdgtc ft sasdcndstdsm pcrtd d

3??:-rc, snuttc sfk d 3?42 tdn fl rfmmf cl`rf kruppfr gar `cllf ft garflt sasdcndstpcrtd= ak lyf hfll, GdndppaPurctd grc Hdncla ak pragfssar Flrdea Gfrrd grc Rahc,rfprfsfltfrtf garstfrmldlkfr gar Eastcltdla Nczzcrd ak`fl hcrxdstdsmf dltfnnfmtufnnf, pragfssar CltaldaNcbrdanc. Hfl app hat `dssf pandtdsmf sasdcndstflf sta`

grfh`fnfs hfmtdkf clcrmdstdsmf arkcldscsialfr, hf`tdnoflkfrf dllfl gckgarfldlkflf, ak garbdl`fnsfr sahstrcmtf sfk tdn Grclmrdmf ak Bcrefnalc. Oavf`tcnshcllflgar `fl sdstlfvltf kruppc vcr Chdnecrf Edprdcld, sahvfmsfnvds `ummc app sah dtcndflsm ak grclsm `fnfkct. Oclofv`c tcnf p vfklf cv fl nctdlsm sfmsial cv ft kflfrfntganmfgarbul`, ak pratfstfrtf dkifl ak dkifl lr `fl

sasdcndstdsmf malkrfssfl garsmtf mvdttf sfk hf`clcrmdstflf. @fl hfst grchstfl`f bnclt `f dtcndflsmfclcrmdstflf, Frrdea Hcnctfstc, sta` grc grstf stul` utcgar`fl lyf dltfrlcsialcnf, sin ah ocl `ummc app p hdlstfl cv `fls malkrfssfr.

Upcldc sfl`tf mul lafl g `fnfkctfr. @fl pandtdsmf

nf`frfl vcr Zcbna Dknfsdcs, krullnfkkfrfl cv `ft spclsmfsasdcndstdsmf crbfd`frpcrtdft, fttfr hcrxdstdsm ha`fnn= akhf` och mah vclndkvds hdlst fl `fnfkct grc `ftkflfrfnnf garbul`ft gar `f spclsmf crbfd`frlf, sah vcrtdnsnuttc pcrtdft. @f spclsmf clcrmdstflf oan`t sfk gar `fthfstf ullc.


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Zanfls vfn `fl russdsmf ak stfrrdmsmf sah `fl tysmf=`f appnfv`f cnnfrf`f smcrpf spndttfnsfr hfnnah `fh sah

smuc stavfr hat Russncl` ak `fh sah slcrfrf vfl`tfbndmmft hat Pysmncl`= ak aks hfnnah hcrxdshfl ak flhfr lcsialcndstdsm garh gar sasdcndshf, sah Zdnsu`smdsmunnf mahhf tdn bnd fl latardsm tcnshcll gar. Fl rfmmfcv `fh vcr fmsdnfr, utsfl`t grc pansmf kruppfr d Chfrdmcs vfn sah Nalàl ak Zcrds. @f spdntf dmmf lafl strrf

rannf d @fl cl`rf dltfrlcsialcnfs td`ndkf `fbcttfr, ak vcrgar `ft hfstf dmmf flmnf pncssfrf d garoan` tdn `f nf`fl`f`fnfkcsialflfs uavfrflsstfhhfnsfr.

Grc ncl`c p Bcnmcl oc``f Rahcldc cnntd` sdl fkflmaltdlkflt oavf`scmfndk grc `ft sasdcn`fhamrctdsmfpcrtdft. Bunkcrfrlf oc``f cnnfrf`f sdlf rdvcndsfrfl`fgrcmsialfr, rfprfsfltfrt d 3?45 vf` Eordstdcl Rcmavsmyak L. E. Kcbrawsmy= hfl d 3?47 vcr Rcmavsmy clgrfrgar fl flmfnt `fnfkcsial. Ufrbdc oc``f aks fl flmfnt`fnfkct d Yrdeo, hfl dlkfl d Nalàl. Fl custrcnsmsasdcn`fhamrct dllgclt sfk d 3?45= hfl d 3?47 bnfdF`wcr` Cvfndlk spurt ah stdnnf sah custrcnsm `fnfkct.@ft vcr dlkfl rffnnf rfprfsfltcltfr gar Custrcndcs

gckgarfldlkfr fnnfr crbfd`frpcrtdfr, ak dmmf lafl sahflkclk kc sfk ut gar rfprfsfltfrf Lfw Yfcncl`.

Pdn snutt mahhfr vd tdn chfrdmclfrlf. Uah vd s `fntam ftpcr chfrdmclsmf gckgarfldlkscmtdvdstfr p `flpassdbdndstdsmf malkrfssfl d 3??4, ak fl trfìf bfsmtf`fl hcrxdstdsmf malkrfssfl, `fr `ft aks `fntam `fnfkctfr


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dllvfl`tf ct `f aks vcr hfll ak br`rf, ak ct cnt `f bcah vcr fl grd dltfrlcsialcnf pfl gar cnnf

mcpdtcndshfls gdfl`fr sah garsmtf schar`lfcrbfd`frmncssfl hf` sdmtf p bfsrkf `fls gcnn. Dofloan` tdn hcrxdstflf vcr `ft cnntd` sfltdhfltcnf d`datfrsah gcnt gar `fl clcrmdstdsmf pstcl`fl ah brarsmcp aklsmc ct flovfr smunnf st grdtt tdn sd sdl hfldlk= ak `ftvcr aks pfrsalfr sah dmmf vcr clcrmdstfr, hfl sah

oc``f brum gar `ft `dsdpndlfrtf pcrtdft, fnnfr `fvcnkmchpcliflf sah sasdcn`fhamrctflf scttf sdl ndt tdn.@ft vcr vclsmfndk g fl hciardtft tdn snuttf app ahfmsmnu`frdlkc cv `dssf hfnnahkruppflf= fd ofnnfr lsmcsasdcn`fhamrctflf utvdsf `fh fl hcssf. @f opc vdllf flmfntf cv `fh avfr p sdl sd`f, ak tc ocl` ahrfstfllcsialcndtft gar lcsialcndtft fttfr ovfrt sah `f

appl``f tdnstrfmmfndk maltrann avfr ovfr flmfnt lcsialcn`fnfkcsial ak bfvfkfnsflf bcm `fh. @frfs tcmtdmm kdmmut p utstf`f malkrfssrfsanusialfr sah garpndmtc @flcl`rf dltfrlcsialcnf tdn pandtdsm ocl`ndlk, sah ftl`vfl`dk vpfl, ak krdpf flovfr clnf`ldlk sahtdnby``f sfk tdn vdsf flovfr bfsyl`frndk kruppf cvhatstcl`frf rc.

@ft vcr dhd`nfrtd` `fl svrt cnvarndkf vclsmfndkoftflsah bfra``f p ct sin ah clcrmdstflfs mrf`dtdvfr mullfbnd tdnbcmfvdst lr `f mah grc pflbcrt clcrmdstdsmfarkcldscsialfr, fnnfr grc `rndk mchugnfrtf sasdcndstdsmfarkcldscsialfr, s vcr `ft grfh`fnfs dlkfltdlk sah mullfgarodl`rf ct clcrmdstflf mah tdnbcmf dkifl ak dkifl s


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nflkf `f mullf appl bnd lahdlfrt grc gckgarfldlkflf.@fllf vclsmfndkoftfl appsta` dmmf `fr ovar `ft gcltfs

fl fggfmtdv sfltrcn gckgarfldlksarkcldscsial sah vcr lrtmlyttc tdn, fnnfr ul`frar`lc, `ft sasdcn`fhamrctdsmfpcrtdft, fnnfr tdn ft crbfd`frpcrtd hf` ft tdnsvcrfl`f ststf`.Hfl d `f gnfstf ncl` gcltfs dlkfl sndm arkcldscsial. DGrclmrdmf vcr `ft rdvcndsfrfl`f gckgarfldlkskruppfr sahsta` gar undmf tfl`flsfr, sndm sah `ft aks vcr d Dtcndc,

Upcldc ak @f garfltf stctfr. D Utarbrdtclldc garfltfgckgarfldlksmalkrfssfl `f undmf gckgarbul`flf, hfl vcrsin fl snckhcrm gar rdvcndsfrfl`f tfl`flsfr `fl kchnfgckgarfldlkscmtdvdshfl ak `fl lyf= fd ofnnfr gcltfs `ftlaf sasdcn`fhamrctdsm pcrtd sah mullf tynfgckgarfldlkflf. Gar ttdrcs malkrfssfr oc``f `fnfkctfraks bndtt cmsfptfrt grc dl`dvd`ufnnf gckgarbul`, s vfn

sah grc lcsialcnf sfltrc fl`ak `fr ovar sndmf sfltrcfmsdstfrtf= ak dlkfl vdsstf ovar`cl hcl smunnf gdllf fldltfrlcsialcnt clvfl`bcr `fgdldsial cv fl gckgarfldlksah vcr tdnstrfmmfndk balc gd`f tdn ct `fls mrf`dtdvfrmullf cmsfptfrfs. D mchpfl gar ttftdhfrs`ckfl vcr `ftsdhpfntofl uullvrndk ct hcl sdmrc `fl brfdfst hundkfstttc grc gckgarfldlkflf, ak kc gckgarfldlkflf fl vdmtdkpncss d `f fttfrgnkfl`f malkrfssflf. Hfl `fttf mullfdmmf kirfs utfl ct hcl p `fl flf sd`f sncpp tdn `fbrdtdsmf ndb-ncbs(ndbfrcnf crbfd`frarkcldscsialfr. A. c.)sah hatscttf sfk `cllfnsfl cv ft sasdcndst- fnnfrcrbfd`frpcrtd, ak p `fl cl`rf sd`f syl`dmcndstfr ak


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clcrmdstfr sah gar`htf pcrnchfltcrdsm ckfrdlk sahsvdl`fn ak bf`rck.

Uasdcn`fhamrctflf vcr snf`fs d ft vf`vcrfl`f `dnfhhc.@f mullf dmmf sfttf cnt dll p appl fl rfdlthcrxdstdsm, sasdcn`fhamrctdsm dltfrlcsialcnf utfl `frhf` kd cvmcnn p fl star `fn cv malkrfssflfsgckgarfldlksstttf= hfl `f oc``f fd ofnnfr hckf tdn nc`fl bnd brumt sah pncttgarh gar clcrmdstdsm fnnfr

syl`dmcndstdsm prapckcl`c. Ic, `f oc``f `fsta strrfprabnfhfr hf` cmsfptfrf `fttf fttfr sah fl ly bnkf cvclcrmdstdsm van` sprf``f sfk avfr Furapc, ak fttfr sahrfcmsialrf avfrcnt bflyttc clnf`ldlkfl tdn d`fltdgdsfrfsasdcndstflf hf` bahbfhfllflf ak cttfltctflf. Flmfntfclcrmdstfr mullf dmmf odl`rfs d mahhf, ak ah `f lmah s mullf dmmf `f apprrtf sasdcn`fhamrctflfodl`rfs d nfkkf bfsnck p malkrfssfls td` sah gnkf cv`frfs garsm p hcrmfrf cvstcl` tdn `f grstlfvltfsrfvanusialrf utspdnn. @frhf` gartscttf hulloakkfrdft sprf bdttfroft grc `fl flf malkrfssfl tdn `fl cl`rf.

D Yrdeo d 3?45 vcr utmahhft cv `dsputtfl utstf`fnsfl cvfl rfsanusial hf` gnkfl`f ar`ny`9

Cnnf gckgarfldlkflf smcn sndppfs tdn p malkrfssfl= aks`f sasdcndstdsmf pcrtdflf ak arkcldscsialflf sahclfrmifllfr l`vfl`dkoftfl cv crbfd`frlfs arkcldsfrdlkak cv pandtdsm ocl`ndlk. Hf` pandtdsm ocl`ndlk hflfs`ft ct crbfd`frmncssfarkcldscsialflf s nclkt sah hundksmfr clvfl`f fnnfr frabrf pandtdsmf rfttdkoftfr ak


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navkdvdlkscppcrctft hf` sdmtf p grfhhf pranftcrdctftsdltfrfssfr ak frabrdlk cv pandtdsm hcmt.

@ft vcr `dsputtfr p ft sfdlfrf td`spulmt vf`rrfl`fbfty`ldlkfl cv, ak scllfndk `fl marrfmtf tfmstfl tdn,`fllf rfsanusialfl. @fl vcr ofnt mncrtf hflt tdn cvvdsfarkcldscsialfr sah dmmf vcr gckgarfldlksbcsfrtf ak sahdmmf stttc pandtdsm ocl`ndlk sah tam sdmtf p frabrfpandtdsm hcmt ak sdmrf pcrnchfltcrdsm rfprfsfltcsial=

hfl `fllf tfstfl mullf dmmf clvfl`fs gargckgarfldlkflf. @frsah cnnf gckgarfldlkflf dhd`nfrtd`mullf sndppfs tdn, s sta` `rc p vd`t kcpdmmf bcrf garflovfr sah mullf bnd utlfvlt cv fl fmsdstfrfl`fgckgarfldlk, hfl fl`ak gar lahdlfrtf grc gckgarfldlkfrsah bnfd `cllc mul hf` `ft garhn. @ft bnfd gnkfndkofv`c, b`f grc sasdcn`fhamrctflf ak `f arkcldsfrtflcsialcnf gckgarfldlkssfltrcflf, ct mul balc-gd`fgckgarfldlkfr mullf ahgcttfs cv rfsanusialfl= hfl ovcvcr fl balc-gd`fgckgarfldlk1 Hclkf psta` ct `fl httfvrf fl gckgarfldlk sah kdmm dll gar pandtdsm ocl`ndlk ah s bcrf d `fl krc` ct `fl tam tdn ar`f garcrbfd`snavkdvldlkp `ft krullnck ct dlkfl gckgarfldlk

sah dmmf kdmm spcss nclkt mullf oc lafl hf`vdrmldlk d@fl cl`rf dltfrlcsialcnfs clndkkfl`fr. Hfl dmmf flkclk`ft vcr cmsfptcbfnt= `fl brdtdsmf gckgarfldlksmalkrfssflspcrnchfltcrdsmf mahdt vcr dmmf rf`f tdn sf ct `f cv`fls hf`nfhhfr sah hatscttf sfk `fl nfkcnfttftdhfrs`ckfl, smunnf fmsmnu`frfs. @ft garbnfd ucvmncrt


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ovc cnnfgckgarfldlkflf bfty``f=ak fl rfmmf suspfmtf`fnfkctfr vcr d stcl` tdn sldmf sfk dll.

Uah dnnustrcsial mcl hcl tc gar sfk schhflsftldlkc cv`fl tcnnrdmf brdtdsmf `fnfkcsialfl tdn Nalàl-malkrfssfl d3?47. U hclkf sah 364 cv 0;7 mah grc gckgarfldlkflf,27 cl`rf grc namcnf gck- ak crbfd`frr`, 2 grc mvdllflfsgckgarfldlksgarbul`, ak 5 grc mvdllflfs dlùstrdr`. @flsasdcn`fhamrctdsmf g`frcsialfl sfl`tf 323, `ft

ucvoflkdkf crbfd`frpcrtdft 33;, ak gcbdcl schgullft 22.Prf mah grc [dnndch Harrds sasdcndstschgull dOchhfrshdto, 5 grc namcnf sasdcndstschgull d Brdstan,Axgar` ak Bfrmsodrf, ak 5 grc Iaol Prfvars mdrmfndkfcrbfd`frgarbul`. @fl flfstf `dsmvcndgdsfrdlkc sah`fnfkctflf clbfgcntf, kicn`t sasdcndstschgullft dBfrmsodrf sah mul oc``f 0 hf`nfhhfr, ovarcv `ftsin oc``f sfl`t 2. @fl brdtdsmf `fnfkcsialfl sncpp dll 3,ak cvvdstf `fl cl`rf.

@fttf vcr sinsckt fl appsvunhft `fnfkcsial, sah gnkfcv ct malkrfssfl gclt stf` d Nalàl. D Yrdeo d 3?45oc``f `f brdtdsmf `fnfkctflf tcnt 70, ak vrt cv ftbfty`fndk hfr schhflsctt appocv. U. @. G. oc``f sfl`t

?= D. N. Z., sah s vd`t lfttapp oc``f bndtt `cllc, sfl`tf6= ak `ft smatsmf crbfd`frpcrtdft 2. Gcbdclfrlf oc``f 6,ak undmf namcnf sasdcndstschgull yttfrndkfrf 6. Fl mah grcmahhuldstschgullft d Nalàl, sah oavf`scmfndk vcrutflncl`sm d sdl schhflsftldlk. Fl mah grc ftmaapfrctdvt praùsfltschgull hf` fl sasdcndstdsm


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grchtaldlk, ak 3 grc ft i`dsm gckgarfldlks- aksasdcndstschgull. Z gckgarfldlkssd`c sfl`tf

gckgarfldlkflfs malkrfssmahdt akkruvfcrbfd`frg`frcsialfl 0 ovfr, ak kruvfcrbfd`frlf d@uroch 2 gar sdl fkfl `fn. Kcsscrbfd`frlfs garbul`oc``f 5, ak cl`rf gckgarfldlkfr 37 cnt d cnt. Namcnfgckgarfldlksr` sfl`tf 7, ak mvdllflfsgckgarfldlksgarbul` 2. Fl fnnfr ta clcrmdstfr gar

fmsfhpfn E. [. Hawbrcy sncpp dll sahgckgarfldlks`fnfkctfr.

@fttf vcr gar dlkfltdlk rfklf schhflndmlc hf` `fgrclsmf ak dtcndflsmf `fnfkcsialflfs mahpnfmsdtft `fnfkcsialfr ovds hf`nfhhfr ovfr ak fl oc``f fltfl`fls tdn mahhf hf` mrf`dtdvfr grc gnfrf undmfarkcldscsialfr, sndm ct `frsah ft mrf`dtdv bnfd cvvdst smullf `ft cl`rf kirf lyttc. Grclsmhfllflf mah grcrdvcndsfrfl`f sasdcndstdsmf pcrtdfr ak grc rdvcndsfrfl`flcsialcnf gckgarfldlksg`frcsialfr= grc stu`fltkruppfrak namcnf Eochbrfs Uyl`decnfs= grc sasdcndstdsmftd`ssmrdgtfr= grc namcnf syl`dmctfr ak grc lcsialcnfG`rctdals `f Uyl`dects= grc Baursfs `u Prcvcdn ak grc

prapckcl`cschgull= ak, d 3?47, aks grc `f ucvoflkdkfsasdcndstflfs pcrnchfltcrdsmf kruppf. @fnfkctflf mullfkclsmf flmfnt dmmf mncssdgdsfrfs p fl sndm htf ct `ftgrchmah ovdnmf garschndlkfr `f grst ak grfhstrfprfsfltfrtf, fnnfr ovfh `f tcntf p vfklf cv.


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Yrdeo-rfsanusialfl sta` vfrst p `cksar`flfl ul`frNal`al-malkrfssfl d 3?47. B`f Pah Hcll ak Mfdr

Ocr`df tam tdn ar`f gar fl utstrcmt tanfrclsf avfrgarhfldlksgarsmifnnfr, hfls Icurs ak Oyl`hcl dlltam `fthatscttf stcl`pulmt. Ldfuwflouds grc Lf`frncl` stdntfsprshn vf` Yrdeo-rfsanusialfls kyn`dkoft akgrchoan`t ct clcrma-mahhuldstfr, sndmf sah Mrapatmdl,vcr ka`f sasdcndstfr, sin ah cl`rf clcrmdstfr dmmf vcr `ft.

Ichfs Hcw`snfy grc `f brdtdsmf bahunnsspdllfrlfsgarfldlk, ak sah slcrt smunnf mahhf tdn stdnnf sahpcrnchfltsmcl`d`ct sah malsfrvctdv sc ct `fl brdtdsmfsfmsialfl vdnnf apprfttoan`f bfsnutldlkc d Yrdeo. U mahcvstfhldlkc, ncl` gar ncl`. Custrcndc, stfrrdmf, Bfnkdc,Bohfl, Bunkcrdc, @clhcrm, Pysmncl`, Vlkcrl, Zanfl,Zartukcn, Rahcldc, Russncl`, Upcldc, Uvfrdkf, Uvfdts ak

@f garfltf stctfr stfhtf uldsalt gar bfmrfgtfnsf cvYrdeo-rfsanusialfl. Grclmrdmf stfhtf d hat, hf` 6;stfhhfr hat 67, ak Lf`frncl` hf` 4 stfhhfr hat 6.Dtcndflfrlf sah vcr ndmf spndttc -- cvsta` grc stfhhf.Brdtflf stfhtf gar rfsanusialfl, hf` 225 stfhhfr hat330. @fttf garfkdmm gr vfrdgdsfrdlkc cv mrf`dtdvflf, sndmct flovfr sah kiar`f mrcv p vrf fl `fnfkct mullfstfhhf. @f lcsialcnf `fnfkctflf httfs s gar vfrdgdsfrf stctusfl gar `fh sah vcr tdn stf`f= ak lafl gfmsmnusialfr bnfd garftctt. @ft vcr fl uavfrflsstfhhfnsf,cnnfrf`f lfvlt, vf`rrfl`f `f grclsmf ucvoflkdkfsasdcndstflfs stdnndlk, ak fl cllfl s`cl vf`rrfl`f `flcvvdstf pancmmfl. Tttfrndkfrf fl kicn`t `fl dtcndflsmf


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7?

rcppartfl. Naudsf Hdeofn ofv`c dllfoc ft dtcndflsmhcl`ct, hfls Hcnctfstc sctt bnclt `f grclsmf `fnfkctflf,

Ufsialfls prfsd`flt, Oyl`hcl, frmnrtf ct `ft cnnfrf`foc``f bndtt bfsnuttc fmsmnu`frf clcrmdstflf, ak fttfrpratfstfr trcmm gnfrf sfk ut. Oannfl`frlf, sah oc``f fllr clcrmdstdsm hciardtft, mullkiar`f tdn snutt ct `f oc``fbndtt fldkf ah cmsfptfrf `fl pcrnchfltcrdsmfhdlardtftfl.

Grclsmhfllflf nc grch sdtt mrcv ah spndttf app d tasfpcrctf sfmsialfr, ak Hdnnfrcl` gdmm clnf`ldlk tdn tcnf dgcvr cv `fttf. Fttfr ct `ft oc``f bndtt kiart mncrt ct `f tagrclsmf kruppflf gdmm clnf`ldlk tdn `fnfs d ta, vf` ct `fsmunnf `fnf mvatfl gar grclsmf mahhdsialshf`nfhhfrndmt, stfhtf `fl grclsmf hciardtftfl d hat. Gdrf sfsialfroc``f pcssfrt utfl ct laf sah ofnst malstrumtdvt oc``fbndtt kiart= hfl mahhdsialflf vf`rrfl`f pandtdsmfpnclfr sah malkrfssfl oc``f bndtt fldk ah lf`sfttf,vcr grfh`fnfs dmmf rf`f tdn cvnfkkf rcpparts mclsmifspdntf dmmf snsdlkc hf` td` lafl rannf.

@f gnfstf cv mahhdsialsrcppartflf, `c `f vcr gfr`dkf,bd`ra dmmf hf` laf srndk cv bfty`ldlk. @ft vcr dmmf td`

tdn ocl`smfs hf` mahpndmcsialflf vf` mahhf apphf` garsnck d ofloan` tdn `f garsmifnndkf ncl`cs undmfahstfl`dkoftfr= ak rfsuntctft vcr ct d `f gnfstf tdngfnnf vcr`ft bcrf kflfrfnnf rftldlksndlifr sah gdmm appsnutldlk= akhfr spfsdgdmmf garsnck bnfd nckt grch d garh cvhdl`rftcnnsrcppartfr, gar s gar `ft hfstf bnd lf`stfht


69/1761

74

lrhfst utfl `dsmusial. Unf`fs frmnrtfiar`brumsmahhdsialfl ct iar` bur`f bnd sasdcndsfrt, hfl

vf`mifltf sdl hclknfl`f fvlf tdn mahhf app hf` lafflstfhhdk garsnck vf`rrfl`f hd`nflf. @fl mullf bcrfclbfgcnf cmtdvf krfp gar arkcldsfrfiar`brumspranftcrdctft, ak avfrnctf tdn ovfrt flmfnt ncl`appkcvc hf` utcrbfd`f sdtt fkft prakrch.Mahhdsialfl gar pandtdsm ocl`ndlk, ovds rcppartr vcr

Kfarkf Nclsbury, `fl kclk grc U. @. G., frmnrtf sfk dgcvr cv crbfd`frmncssfbcsfrt pandtdsm ocl`ndlk hf` sdmtfp frabrdlk cv pandtdsm hcmt, ak cv brumfl cv navkdvfl`fak c`hdldstrctdvf hd`nfr d rftldlk cvcrbfd`frmncssfgrdkirdlk. @fl bfsmrfdv `dssf hd`nflf sahrfttc hat ftcbnfrdlkc cv @fl dltfrlcsialcnf sasdcndstdsmfrfpubndmm, mrfv`f ucvoflkdkoft cv cnnf barkfrndkf

pandtdsmf pcrtdfr, cnnhfll stfhhfrftt, dlmnu`frtgrdkirdlkc cv mvdllfr, fl cl`rf stfhhfkdvldlk,ganmfcvstfhldlkfr ak dldtdctdvft tdn s`cllf, gunncutalahd gar cnnf lcsialcndtftfr, ak cvsmcggfnsfl cvmanaldcn utbyttdlk. @fl appgar`rc cnnf ncl`s crbfd`frfsah vcr ul`frmcstc hdndtcrdshf ak dhpfrdcndshfah snuttf sfk schhfl hf` vfr`fls mncssfbfvdsstf crbfd`frfgar arkcldsfrf cvsmcggfnsfl cv `fl dltfrlcsialcnfmcpdtcndshfl, ak ftcbnfrdlkc cv `ft dltfrlcsialcnfsasdcn`fhamrctdft.

@fttf brcmtf `fl grclsmf clcrmdstfl, Partfndfr, sah oc``fmrf`dtdv grc fl gckgarfldlk, p bclf, ak `frfttfr Wcdnncltak Icurs p hatsctt gralt. U mah `f brdtdsmf ndb-ncbs,


70/1761

;:

sah pratfstfrtf hat mrcvft ah pandtdsm ucvoflkdkoft, akZftf Eurrcl grc D. N. Z. sah garsvcrtf `ft. Bfbfn gunktf

sah tcnshcll gar `ft tysmf pcrtdft, ak Gfrrd gardtcndflfrlf bfkkf ta gar ucvoflkdkoft. Fttfr ct `ftbrdtdsmf ndb-ncb tdnnfkkft, schtflmfntf cl`rf, oc``f bndttlf`stfht, bnfd rcppartfl cmsfptfrt lfh. eal.

Z `fl lfstf sfsialfl nc Ud`lfy [fbb grch fl rcppartgrc ut`clldlksmahhdsialfl, appsuhhfrt d siu

rfsanusialfr, sah kdmm nclkt hfr d `ftcni fll `f gnfstf cvrcppartflf. @fl mrfv`f ct `fl aggfltndkfc`hdldstrcsialfl d ovfrt flmfnt ncl` smunnf mahhf apphf` ft mahpnftt ut`clldlkssystfh ul`fr `fhamrctdsmaggfltndk maltrann, ]ftX sah strcmtf sfk grc bcrlfockfltdn uldvfrsdtftft. Umanfhntd`fr smunnf aks bfsrkfs garcnnf bcrl= hdldhuhscn`frfl gar garnctf smanfl smunnfvrf sfmstfl r, hf` `fntd`sut`clldlk app tdn cttfl=stdpfl`fr ak ul`frstttfnsf smunnf bnd kiart tdnkiflkfndk= ak`ft smunnf vrf strflkf bfkrflsldlkfr p bcrlfcrbfd` akft strflkt dltfrlcsialcnt navvfrm gar gcbrdmmcrbfd`. Cnt`fttf vcr fl shunf utapdsm, fl`ak ovc `f hfrgrchsmrf`lf ncl`c clkr= hfl `ft bnfd dmmf utgar`rc d

lafl cnvarndk krc`. Mfdr Ocr`df cltf ofrd fl smiuntdltflsial ah gcvardsfrf `f `ymtdkfrf bcrlc pbfmast

g. d. h. cole: den sosialistiske tenkningens historie. bind iii. den andre internasjonale, 1889-1914

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