GRA 613

Style

Clarity and concision

• Avoid complexity in sentences and vocabulary• Vary your sentences; long and short• Consider accessibility to the reader• Relevance • STYLE:• clarity and conciseness• Simplicity in sentences• Direct/ straight forward• Avid complex and lengthy sentences• Brief and to the point

Techniques

• Parallel structure- sentence elements with similar grammatical form

• Parallelism-creates balance or symmetry• examples of these elements• And, but,or, for, both…and, neither…nor, not

only…but also• Example: her frequent absences and poor

motivation caused her to fail

• This paper will discuss [1] trade policy considerations, [2] the use of trade policy in developing countries and [3] how advanced countries apply strategic policy

No parallelism

• This conference will focus on [1] trade policy considerations [2] the use of trade policy in developing countries and [3] the application of strategic trade policy in advanced countries.

• Notice that number 3 lacks parallelism• Whereas number 1 and 2 use noun phrases,

number 3 begins with a relative clause

Academic papers

• Should be:• Formal• Concise• Well organised

• Write a parallel sentence for each of the following:

• 1. My business was both -------------and--------• The lectures were not only……….but also……..• --------is more effective than-------------------

coordination

• Achieved by combining simple sentences or two complete thoughts using conjunctions

• Examples of coordinating conjunctions• And, or, but, yet, so, for• Their purpose is to join• Never begin sentences with them• Ex. The accountant checked the financial

documents, but he could not find the mistake

subordination

• Types• Subordinating conjunctions (although, because, if,

unless, when, whereas• Form complex sentences• Subordinate clause • Precedes or follows a main clause

• Subordination is achieved when we use conjunctions that turn one sentence into a dependent clause

• The computer is a calculating device. It was once known as a mechanical brain. It has revolutionised society.

• This is a string of sentences• Sounds monotonous• Can be revised to remove the repetitive nature as

follows:• The computer, a calculating device once known

as a mechanical brain, has revolutionised society.

Types of clauses

• Independent or main clause• Expresses a complete idea or thought• Has a subject and a verb• Can stand alone • Subordinate or dependent clause• Introduced by a subordinating word or phrase• Examples: when, despite, although, after…• Although the exam was tough• Had a subject exam and verbs ‘was tough’

Cont’

• Note the group of words is incomplete; i.e it does not express complete thought

• Add a main clause:• Although the exam was tough, Jane passed.• Jane passed is a main clause and expresses

complete thought

• Ideas are made less important (subordinated)• An idea can be subordinated into:• 1. A dependent clause:• Example without subordination: The student

started a business of rearing rabbits. He has become a millionaire

• With subordination:• The student who started a business of rearing

rabbits has become a millionaire.

A phrase

• Without a subordinate phrase:• Safaricom now employs over 500 people. It

was founded more than ten years ago.• With a subordinate phrase: A phrase:

Safaricom, founded more than ten years ago, now employs over 500 people.

• Note the two comas setting off the clause

Single modifier

• Without subordination:• The landscape designer’s report was

extensively illustrated. It covered ten pages.

• Single modifier: The landscape designer’s ten-page report was extensively illustrated.

Introductory words and phrases

• Use a coma after introductory words and phrases• example:1. Sales have been good recently• Recently, sales have been good.

2. You must commit yourself to lifetime learning to advance in your career.To advance in your career, you must commit yourself to life learning

• Fortunately, we found that these groups are as healthy as others.

• Exceptions to this rule:• Omit a coma after: now, thus, and hence

3. She found several factual errors while reading the report.While reading the report, she found several factual errors.

Common errors

• Sentence fragments:• While waiting for the computer to boot up…• Among my fast selling products are electronic

things, household goods, and farm equipment.• Which the businessman often does, although I

don’t approve• All the banks situated in the city centre (only a

subject)

• While the government was regulating prices• A long Kenyatta Avenue• Meaning of a sentence fragment:• It is one that is treated like a whole sentence

hence punctuated like a whole sentence.

punctuation

• No semicolon at the end of an introductory element.• No coma after a subordinating conjunction• E.g. wrong: Although, the practice of punctuation is

not complicate, it is rarely mastered.• No coma after coordinating conjunction.• Wrong:• But, we cannot know whether life on other planets

realises that we are here and simply prefers to ignore us.

Misplaced modifiers

• When a sentence is phrased in a way the modifier does not modify the subject

• Opening the software package, the programme disks and assorted manuals should be checked to see if anything is missing.

• The modifier-”opening the software package” modifies “the programme disk and assorted manuals.”

• While selling the wares, the products got stolen

• Correct:• After opening the software package, check the

programme disks and assorted manuals to see if anything is missing

• Now the phrase “after opening the software package, “ modifies the implied subject ‘you’

Run on or fused sentences

• When two independent clauses are fused together. These sentences are usually long and complex

• The traders staged a demonstration the police arrested them.

• The students held their elections they elected a business student as their president.

• You need a period, a conjunction or a semicolon after demonstration and elections respectively

Coma splice

• Occurs when two independent clauses are joined together using a coma rather than a period, a coordinating conjuction, or a semicolon.

• Example: Insert the first programme disk into the disk drive, run the setup.exe file

• The economy was destroyed, the poor people suffered a lot.

• The stock market was experiencing problems, share holders lost confidence in it.