guia ingles iii unal 2012b

UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL DE COLOMBIASEDE PALMIRA

CENTRO DE IDIOMAS ALEXFACULTAD DE CIENCIAS SOCIALES

READING MANUAL

ENGLISH III

Compiled by: ANA LILIA MURILLO M.MARIA FERNANDA TOBAR M.

Agosto 2012

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Universidad Nacional de Colombia Sede PalmiraReading Manual English III

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Why Is Memory So Good and So Bad?

Explaining the memory paradox

By Julian De Freitas | May 29, 2012 | 20

What did you eat for dinner one week ago today? Chances are, you can’t quite recall. But for at least a short while after your meal, you knew exactly what you ate, and could easily remember what was on your plate in great detail. What happened to your memory between then and now? Did it slowly fade away? Or did it vanish, all at once?

Memories of visual images (e.g., dinner plates) are stored in what is called visual memory. Our minds use visual memory to perform even the simplest of computations; from remembering the face of someone we’ve just met, to remembering what time it was last we checked. Without visual memory, we wouldn’t be able to store—and later retrieve—anything we see. Just as a computer’s memory capacity constrains its abilities, visual memory capacity has been correlated with a number of higher cognitive abilities, including academic success, fluid intelligence (the ability to solve novel problems), and general comprehension.

For many reasons, then, it would be very useful to understand how

visual memory facilitates these mental operations, as well as constrains our ability to perform them. Yet although these big questions have long been debated, we are only now beginning to answer them.

Memories like what you had for dinner are stored in visual short-term memory—particularly, in a kind of short-term memory often called “visual working memory.” Visual working memory is where visual images are temporarily stored while your mind works away at other tasks—like a whiteboard on which things are briefly written and then wiped away. We rely on visual working memory when remembering things over brief intervals, such as when copying lecture notes to a notebook.

The question is: when are these memories wiped away? And when they are, can we still discern traces of what was originally ‘written,’ or does nothing at all remain? If visual short-term memories are only gradually wiped away, then remnants of these memories should still be retrievable; but if these memories are wiped out all at once, then we shouldn’t be able to retrieve them in any form whatsoever.

UC Davis psychologists Weiwei Zhang and Steven Luck have shed some light on this problem. In their experiment, participants

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briefly saw three colored squares flashed on a computer screen, and were asked to remember the colors of each square. Then, after 1, 4 or 10 seconds the squares re-appeared, except this time their colors were missing, so that all that was visible were black squares outlined in white. The participants had a simple task: to recall the color of one particular square, not knowing in advance which square they would be asked to recall.

The psychologists assumed that measuring how visual working memory behaves over increasing demands (i.e., the increasing durations of 1,4 or 10 seconds) would reveal something about how the system works.

If short-term visual memories fade away—if they are gradually wiped away from the whiteboard—then after longer intervals participants’ accuracy in remembering the colors should still be high, deviating only slightly from the square’s original color. But if these memories are wiped out all at once—if the whiteboard is left untouched until, all at once, scrubbed clean—then participants should make very precise responses (corresponding to instances when the memories are still untouched) and then, after the interval grows too long, very random guesses.

Which is exactly what happened: Zhang & Luck found that participants were either very precise, or they completely guessed; that is, they either remembered the square’s color with great accuracy, or forgot it completely. It was almost as if their memories behaved like files on a computer: Your Microsoft Word documents don’t lose letters over time, and your digital photos don’t yellow; rather, they continue to exist until you move them into the trash—where they are wiped out all at once.

But this, it turns out, is not true of all memories. In a recent paper, Researchers at MIT and Harvard found that, if a memory can survive long enough to make it into what is called “visual long-term memory,” then it doesn’t have to be wiped out at all. Talia Konkle and colleagues showed participants a stream of three thousand images of different scenes, such as ocean waves, golf courses or amusement parks. Then, participants were shown two hundred pairs of images—an old one they had seen in the first task, and a completely new one—and asked to indicate which was the old one.

Participants were remarkably accurate at spotting differences between the new and old images—96 percent. In other words, despite needing to remember

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nearly 3,000 images, they still performed almost perfectly.

However, it turns out that they were only this accurate when the new and old images came from different types of scenes (e.g., a golf course and an amusement park). In order to test just how detailed these memories really were, the psychologists also analyzed how participants performed when the images were from the same types of scenes (e.g., two different amusement parks). Since images from the same scene type differ from each other in fewer ways than do images from different scene types, the only way participants would’ve been able to succeed at pointing out differences between these similar images is if they had remembered them with a truly vast amount of detail.

As you might expect, participants were worse at discriminating between same-category images, but not by much, scoring as high as 84 percent. In fact, even when the experimenters increased the number of images that participants initially needed to remember for a given type of scene, participants were still good at distinguishing the old image from the new—with only slight decreases in performance. That said, the fact that memory performance decreased at all shows that, although our memories are very detailed, they are not photographic.

These two separate experiments present a paradox: why are we capable of remembering such a massive number of images with great detail in some instances, and not even a few images after a couple of seconds in others? What determines whether an image is stored in long-term vs. short-term memory?

In a recent review, researchers at Harvard and MIT argue that the critical factor is how meaningful the remembered images are—whether the content of the images you see connects to pre-existing knowledge about them. In the Zhang & Luck experiment, you try to remember meaningless, unrelated colors, and so no connection with stored knowledge is made; it’s as if the white board is scrubbed clean before you get a chance to copy the scribbles into your notebook. But in the Konkle et al. experiment, you see images of recognizable scenes that you already have meaningful knowledge about—such as where the roller coaster is likely to be located relative to the ground. This prior knowledge changes how these images are processed, allowing thousands of them to be transferred from the whiteboard of short-term memory into the bank vault of long-term memory, where they are stored with remarkable detail.

Together, these experiments suggest why memories are not eliminated equally— indeed, some don’t seem to be eliminated at all.

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This might also explain why we’re so hopeless at remembering some things, and yet so awesome at remembering others.

Source:http://www.scientificamerican.com/section.cfm?id=mindmatters

How to generate Electricity

What is Electricity?

Essentially, there are two kinds of Electricity: Static Electricity and Current Electricity. Both depend on electrons, the tiny charged particles that orbit the nucleus of an atom.

Static Electricity has been known about since earliest times, though it was not properly understood until the discovery of subatomic particles a little over a hundred years ago.

Static Electricity on a large scale causes lightning and on a much smaller scale can give you an annoying shock when you step out of a car. You can generate it

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simply by combing your hair with a nylon comb. The electrical charge transferred to the comb will cause it to attract the hair, or, if you like, to pick up little scraps of paper to entertain the kids.

Though interesting, static electricity is of limited practical use. For the remainder of this hub, we'll concentrate on current electricity which is a flow of electrons through a conductor (usually a copper cable).

A Little Science

But first, we need to talk a bit about Energy. In Physics, Energy is defined as the ability to do Work. (Everyday examples of Work are: climbing stairs, loading a truck. anything that involves moving mass).

Some of the common types of energy are: heat, light, kinetic energy (movement), chemical energy, gravitational energy and of course. electrical energy.

In Physics, the Law of Conservation of Energy says that energy cannot be created or destroyed. It can only be transformed from one type to another. This means that to generate electricity, we have to use another kind of energy to fuel the process - in this World you don't get something for nothing!

Michael Faraday

In the 19th Century, Michael Faraday carried out the pioneering

work that linked Electricity and Magnetism. In particular, he showed that an electrical current is generated in a conductor moving in a magnetic field.

The effect is greatly magnified if the conductor is replaced with a coil or coils of copper wire. If these coils are mounted on a rotating shaft or armature, continuous rotation will produce a continuous alternating electrical current. This is how nearly all electricity is generated today.

Now that we have a device (the generator, or alternator) that converts mechanical energy (rotation) into electrical energy, the next problem is how to obtain the mechanical energy to keep the alternator spinning. Here is a brief summary of some of the viable ways of generating electricity on a commercial scale.

The Commercial Options

Fossil Fuels

In a coal or oil fired power station, the fuel is burned (converting its chemical energy into heat) and the heat used to convert water into steam at very high temperature and pressure. This then drives a steam turbine, a device which harnesses the energy in the steam (heat and pressure) to produce rotational movement (mechanical energy). The rotating shaft of the steam turbine is coupled to the armature of the alternator, so the final result is electricity.

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Wind Power

Windmills have been around for centuries and all have harnessed the energy of moving air (wind!) through rotating sails or fan blades. Traditionally, the mechanical energy was used directly, to turn a mill wheel. A modern wind turbine simply couples the rotating shaft to an alternator armature. The last link in the chain is always the same - electricity from mechanical rotation.

Hydro Electric Power

Here, the source energy (there always has to be one!) is gravitational potential energy. A mountain stream is dammed in a high place, to create an artificial lake or reservoir. Farther down the mountain, the power station is equipped with water turbines. These are simply highly efficient versions of the old fashioned water-wheel; effectively they harness the kinetic energy of a carefully channelled waterfall to produce mechanical rotation. The rest you know.

Tidal Power and Wave Power

These new technologies extract energy from the long-term bulk movement of water in a tidal estuary and from the short-term wave motion of the surface. The principle remains the same, to harness the 'free' natural energy in moving water to drive a mechanical turbine.

Solar Power - local

In a sense all energy on Earth is solar energy, as even fossil fuels are chemical 'memories' of ancient sunshine. But we're talking here about generating electricity from solar energy, and strangely enough, it's not very easy. The problem is that you can't easily convert sunshine into mechanical rotation to drive alternators on a commercial scale. Solar panels have no moving parts, and so the electricity they produce is 'DC' or direct current. This is like the electricity from a battery. It's great for local use, e.g. running a small irrigation pump, but the big problem with DC is that it is hard to distribute. (No time to explain that now - maybe another hub!)

Solar Power - commercial

Photovoltaic units, as described above, are best suited to localised applications like space or water heating. However, commercial-scale solar power plants, though still expensive to build, are becoming viable, the more so as the price of fossil fuels increases.

No single design for commercial solar power has yet won through, but all are based on the same idea - a large array of reflectors to collect the sun's rays and focus them onto a receiver which is effectively pipe-work containing a heat-absorbing fluid. Technologies are already well developed to store the collected energy as heat

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and to convert it to electricity using steam or gas turbines at a steady rate, night and day. The biggest problem is that the sun moves (OK, the Earth rotates!) and so ingenious tracking mechanisms are needed to make the reflectors follow the sun through the daylight hours.

Ironically, the part of the world best suited for deploying this technology is the part that least needs it - the oil rich deserts of the Middle East.

Geothermal Energy

This is another underdeveloped source. If you drill down into the Earth's crust, at first the temperature drops, because the sun's warmth can't penetrate. But deeper, the temperature rises. Volcanoes are evidence of this - molten lava is pretty hot! That well of energy is there to be tapped. As always, the final conversion process is the familiar steam turbine. And, like solar energy, it is environmentally friendly, provided you don't accidentally trigger a local volcano! But it is not as simple as it seems. The process of taking heat from a hot rock cools the rock locally. There's plenty more heat surrounding it, but can it flow quickly enough to your collectors? Again, it's another technology whose time will come, but not a panacaea.

Nuclear Energy

This is the controversial one. Nuclear fission is a process in which unstable (radioactive) atomic nuclei break down, releasing energy in the form of radiation (escaping particles). By concentrating these nuclei together, a controlled chain recation is produced releasing huge amounts of energy which is used to convert water into steam. The process of generating electricity in a nuclear power plant is simply by steam turbine, exactly the same as in a fossil fuel plant. The public fear of nuclear power is twofold: the risk of meltdown - an uncontrolled nuclear reactor is not very different from an 'atomic' bomb; also the by-product, radioactive nuclear waste, is none too pleasant.

As an aside - Nuclear energy does not obey the classical Physics law of conservation of Energy. It does however obey the Modern Physics law of conservation of Mass-Energy which allows for interconversion of matter and energy according to Einstein's famous equation E=mc² This fundamental difference means that Nuclear Energy is potentially the most fruitful source of all. It is important that proper scientific research & development into nuclear energy, and Nuclear Fusion in particular, should be allowed to continue.

Source:http://paraglider.hubpages.com/hub/generate-electricity

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A Tale of 2 Transit Systems: Battery-Powered Buses Enter the Mainstream

Using stimulus funds, two transit systems, in California and Washington State, pioneer a cleaner, greener and less expensive method of transportation

By Nick Chambers | June 11, 2012 | 17

Better lithium ion batteries have led to an explosion in availability of plug-in passenger cars. And now, thanks to relatively cheap electricity and the simplicity of the electric drivetrain, electric vehicles have even more potential for use in the extremely cost-sensitive public transportation arena—a concept that is only just taking root.

In particular, two projects funded mostly by grants from the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 (ARRA)—better known as the stimulus package—are pioneering new ways that public transit systems both large and small can think about total cost to operate buses and their environmental impact in the burgeoning era of cheaper, large format, lithium ion batteries.

Different needs, same goal

Spanning from Pasadena to Pomona in an area east of Los Angeles, Foothill Transit is a large bus operator serving about 14 million passengers per year over a 900-square-kilometer area. On the other end of the spectrum is LINK Transit, based in rural Wenatchee, Wash., which conveys just one million passengers annually—but

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unlike the compact footprint of Foothill Transit, its lower passenger volume is spread out over an area about 10 times larger.

Both public transit operators place significantly different demands on their buses, but each has trained its long-term vision on battery power as a way to reduce costs, improve operational efficiencies and reduce environmental impact. During multiple-year electric bus projects that were funded in 2009 but didn't pick up steam until 2010 (and in the case of LINK, still aren't fully in place), the operators are using different equipment and battery technology to see if their projections pan out in the real world. The projects were mostly funded by ARRA grants, with LINK receiving $2.9 million (of which all went to purchasing electric buses and associated charging equipment) and Foothill receiving $21.3 million (of which only a portion went to the buses and associated equipment).

Lithium ion batteries are still not energy dense enough hold more than the equivalent of between four and eight liters of gasoline in a battery package small enough to put on a bus. Nevertheless, inherent efficiencies in the electric drivetrain enable significant increases in fuel economy. Whereas a typical 12-meter-long,

diesel-powered transit bus might return between one and two kilometers per liter, the electric ones that Foothill is running average the equivalent of 8.5 kpl. After some quick math it is apparent that 8.5 kpl combined with 7.5 liters of energy storage is not enough to fuel the hundreds of kilometers a bus might need to travel in a day. To get around this, both Foothill and LINK have added ultrafast charging stations in the middles of their buses' loops.

Foothill Transit operates three 12-meter long, 35-passenger buses built by Greenville, S.C.–based Proterra. Each relies on batteries that supply 72 kilowatt-hours and runs on a 27-kilometer-long loop that handles 5 percent of the yearly ridership. At specially built fast charging stations in the Pomona Transit Center the buses can fill up within 10 minutes on their normally scheduled layover, meaning they never have to travel more than 27 kilometers between full charges—about half what their rated battery capacity can provide. LINK's system is similar, although it uses five, Ebus-built, seven-meter long, 22-passenger trolleys with 28 kWh-batteries that travel on two separate eight-kilometer-long loops and can be filled in about seven minutes with a fast charge at the downtown Wenatchee Transit Center.

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LINK originally planned to have its electric trolleys up and running by late 2010, but issues with the battery cooling system and manufacturing of the fast-charging station delayed full operation until later this year—although the trolleys are currently running for about two hours each day without fast charging. "There's nothing off-the-shelf about our trolleys," says Greg Pezoldt, special projects coordinator at LINK Transit. "As the first electric trolley of its kind, everything we have done with Ebus we've had to develop and sometimes redevelop. Even with the delays we're still excited about it, and we have an ultimate goal of electrifying the entirety of our Wenatchee and East Wenatchee routes."

Cost savings achieved

It is no wonder LINK is still bullish on the endeavor: Pezoldt says a comparable diesel-powered trolley would cost about $435,000 and each electric trolley built by Downey, Calif.–based Ebus costs significantly less at $370,000. On top of that, diesel fuel for the same trolley on the same route runs about $1,200 per month, whereas the inexpensive and green hydropowered electricity used for the Ebus trolley comes in at approximately $100 per month—less than one tenth the cost. The biggest question revolves around battery life, but even with the worst-case estimates, Pezoldt says LINK still comes out significantly ahead with electric bus operation in terms of lifetime fuel and maintenance costs.

Source:http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=battery-powered-electric-bus

Recycling Tips

With recycling tips, recycling can be easy. It just takes a little thoughtfulness, effort and creativity.Here are some tips to make your journey in protecting our earth a smoother one.

And as you make use of these tips and acquire the habit of recycling, I would not be surprise that you may even find yourself creating new ways of recycling! Then it would be your turn to share your tips with others.

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Remember, every effort counts.

By recycling, not only would you be protecting the environment, you would also be saving money and resources for your community, and securing the future of our descendents.

So don’t hesitate anymore. Start now. And here’s how.

Recycling tips 1: Start small

To make a difference, you don’t have to start big. Remember, every effort counts, small or big.

A small start is better than not at all, and it can help give you greater confidence to take bigger steps down the road.

What it means to start small is to start with yourself.

Look at the things that you own and use. Things around you that you have control over. These things could be in your home, in your workplace, at your hotel room during your holidays, in your car, etc.

And as you become comfortable recycling your own things, you can expand your sphere of influence to those around you, such as your immediate family, and then your relatives and friends.

Recycling tips 2: Reduce and Reuse first

Recycling is not exactly first in line in the Waste Reduction Hierarchy. In fact, it comes third.

To make a difference to the environment, you should first look towards reducing consumption, as it is actually the first and most effective step toward producing less waste (consuming less automatically produces less waste).

However, there are times when consumption is necessary. In these cases, reuse as much as possible before recycling any remaining materials. Reusing products, where possible, is even better than recycling because the item does not need to be reprocessed before it can be used again.

Finally, if you have to make the purchases, buy products that are made of recycled materials . And make sure you recycle the items when you don’t need them anymore.

Look out for the recycling symbols on your products that tell you that they are made of recycled materials, or are designed for recycling. These practices count!

Recycling tips 3: Know what to recycle

Before you start on your recycling journey, the basic knowledge you need is to know what to recycle.

There are many items in the house, office, school etc that can be recycled. The items range from paper, glass, metals like aluminium, plastic, electronic items and more!

For example, aluminium (used to make our coke cans) can be recycled over and over again,

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while not all types of plastics can be recycled. You need to look for the recycling symbols embedded at the bottom of most plastic bottles to be able to differentiate the type of plastic you have.

In other words, before you start, you will need to know what to recycle and where to send them for recycling.

Also, read more about the important recycling information you need to take note of.

Recycling tips 4: Green tips for the home

The home is where you can find lots of things for recycling.

Things are being purchased on a regular basis (eg. groceries and household consumables). Often these products comes with lots of packaging that end up immediately as waste, if no attempts are made to reduce, reuse and recycle them.

Read more about recycling at home, for tips you can try out in your home, including composting.

And as you become more and more familiar with the habit of recycling, innovate and find your own creative ways of reducing, reusing and recycling!

Also make it an effort to share your tips with your fellow home-makers (or even our website using the “Contact Us” page).

Remember, all efforts count. The more individuals make it their individual responsibility to recycle and protect the earth, the better!

Recycling tips 5: Green tips for the office

The office is another place where you can expand your recycling efforts to.

At the office, some materials such as paper can be used at alarming rates. At other offices, styrofoam cups are used on a daily basis for coffee and tea breaks, and at meetings. Imagine the amount of non-biodegradable waste these offices contribute to the incinerator and landfills on a daily basis! Scary!

Read more about office recycling tips and do your part for the earth now!

Source:http://www.all-recycling-facts.com/recycling-tips.html

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Childhood Obesity

Studies have shown that about 30% of all children in America aged 6 to 19 are either overweight or obese. That is almost one out of three young Americans. The situation in the countries of the European Union is similar.

The body mass index (BMI) is a formula to measure obesity. It uses a combination of height and weight. A BMI score of 25 or higher shows that you are overweight and a BMI of over 30 indicates obesity.

Who is at risk?If you are gaining weight it does not always mean that you are becoming obese. Children and young adults need nutrients in order to grow, so they gain weight as time goes on. However, if you consume more than you need and begin putting on extra weight you may be on the road to obesity - combined with all kinds of health problems.

Here are some signs that tell you if you are at risk:

Children who have obese parents or grandparents are in greater danger of becoming obese than others.If diseases like high blood pressure, high cholesterol, type 2 diabetes or heart illnesses run in

your family you might be at risk too.Bowed legs at an early age can be a warning signal for obesity.Depression and a lack of confidence have also been connected to obesity.People who don’t get enough exercise and sit around and do nothing all day long are definitely more at risk than others. What causes childhood obesity?The explanation is really simple: if you take in more energy in the form of food than you use up you will gain weight. There are, however, many factors that can influence this.

Genes determine how your body stores food and how well it turns food into energy. Our bodies are built to store energy in fat cells for times when food is scarce. But not all bodies are the same. Your genes come from your parents, so overweight parents are more likely to have overweight children.

Although you may have good genes you still can become obese. One of the main causes of obesity is the lack of physical exercise. An average child spends less time exercising than children did ten or twenty years ago. Our free time activities have changed. Instead of going outside and doing something physical children sit still for hours in front of computers, TV and video games.

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Snacks and fast foodMany of us eat up to four meals a day thanks to excessive snacking. And when we have a snack we don’t eat a carrot or an apple. Instead we reach for junk food. But this is not always the children’s fault. Schools are full of vending machines that offer high calorie snacks and sugary soft drinks. To make things worse they are bombarded with TV ads and commercials for unhealthy food. An average American eight-year old watches more than four thousand food ads a year. About 35% of these ads are for candy and snacks, another 10% for fast food.

Fast food is another reason for obesity. While some fast food chains offer healthy alternatives, these aren’t what people order. Today’s families also eat out a lot more than earlier generations.

Eating habits at homeIf you develop healthy eating habits you’ll be more likely to keep a healthy weight. And it’s at home where we form such habits.

If your parents are overweight or obese chances are that you may have seen wrong eating habits your whole life. Children who observe their parents eat a cookie instead of a piece of fruit, take their meals in front of the TV set or eat too quickly are more likely to do the same. This increases their chances of becoming overweight children and, later on, adults.

Consequences

Apart from the need for larger school desks and airline seats what else is there to worry about.

Type 2 diabetes was once thought to be a disease that mainly affected adults, but this not longer true. It can lead to blindness, heart and kidney diseases and damage your nerves.

Studies have shown that obesity can cause children with asthma to use more medicine and wheeze more.

Overweight children and adolescents are more likely to have high blood pressure than children with a normal weight.

Sleeping disorders are among the most common consequences of childhood obesity. Some children may even have pauses in their breathing during sleep. If not treated it may lead to a series of other illnesses, including heart and lung problems.

Source:http://www.english-online.at/health_medicine/childhood-obesity/causes-and-risks-of-childhood-obesity.htm

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Why should I learn a language?

Learning a foreign language takes time and dedication. The reasons below may help to convince you to take the plunge, if such persuasion is needed. Some reasons are practical, some aspirational, some intellectual and others sentimental, but whatever your reasons, having a clear idea of why you're learning a language can help to motivate you in your studies.

“Kolik jazyků znáš, tolikrát jsi člověkem”.You live a new life for every new language you speak.If you know only one language, you live only once.(Czech proverb)

EmigrationWhen you move to a different country or region, learning the local language will help you to communicate and integrate with the local community. Even if many of the locals speak your language, for example if your L1 is English and you move to the Netherlands, it's still worth your while learning the local language. Doing so will demonstrate your interest in and commitment to the new country.

Family and friendsIf your partner, in-laws, relatives or friends speak a different language, learning that language will help you to communicate with them. It will also give you a better understanding of their culture and way of thinking.

Work

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If your work involves regular contact with speakers of foreign languages, being able to talk to them in their own languages will help you to communicate with them. It may also help you to make sales and to negotiate and secure contracts. Knowledge of foreign languages may also increase your chances of finding a new job, getting a promotion or a transfer overseas, or of going on foreign business trips.

Many English-speaking business people don't bother to learn other languages because they believe that most of the people they do business with in foreign countries can speak English, and if they don't speak English, interpreters can be used. The lack of foreign language knowledge puts the English speakers at a disadvantage. In meetings, for example, the people on the other side can discuss things amongst themselves in their own language without the English speakers understanding, and using interpreters slows everything down. In any socializing after the meetings, the locals will probably feel more comfortable using their own language rather than English.

Study or researchYou may find that information about subjects you're interested in is published mainly in a foreign language. Learning that language will give you access to the material and enable you to communicate with fellow students and researchers in the field.

TravelMany English speakers seem to believe that wherever you go on holiday you can get by speaking

English, so there's no point in learning any other languages. If people don't understand you all you have to do is speak slowly and turn up the volume. You can more or less get away with this, as long as you stick to popular tourist resorts and hotels where you can usually find someone who speaks English. However, if you want to venture beyond such places, to get to know the locals, to read signs, menus, etc, knowing the local language is necessary.

Americans who travel abroad for the first time are often shocked to discover that, despite all the progress that has been made in the last 30 years, many foreign people still speak in foreign languages.(Dave Barry)

A basic ability in a foreign language will help you to 'get by', i.e. to order food and drink, find your way around, buy tickets, etc. If you have a more advanced knowledge of the language, you can have real conversations with the people you meet, which can be very interesting and will add a new dimension to your holiday.

“Die Grenzen meiner Sprache bedeuten die Grenzen meiner Welt”.The limits of my language are the limits of my universe.(Ludwig Wittgenstein)

Studying abroadIf you plan to study at a foreign university, college or school, you'll need a good knowledge of the local language, unless the course you want to study is taught through the medium of your L1. Your institution will probably

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provide preparatory courses to improve your language skills and continuing support throughout your main course.

Secret communicationIf you and some of your relatives, friends or colleagues speak a language that few people understand, you can talk freely in public without fear of anyone eavesdropping, and/or you can keep any written material secret. Speakers of such Native American languages as Navajo, Choctaw and Cheyenne served as radio operators, know as Code Talkers, to keep communications secret during both World Wars. Welsh speakers played a similar role during the Bosnian War.

Required courseYou may be required to study a particular language at school, college or university.

Getting in touch with your rootsIf your family spoke a particular language in the past you might want to learn it and possibly teach it to your children. It could also be useful if you are research your family tree and some of the documents you find are written in a language foreign to you.

Revitalising or reviving your languageIf you speak an endangered language, or your parents or grandparents do/did, learning that language and passing it on to your children could help to revitalise or revive it.

CultureMaybe you're interested in the literature, poetry, films, TV programs, music or some other

aspect of the culture of people who speak a particular language and want to learn their language in order to gain a better understanding of their culture.

Most people in the world are multilingual, and everybody could be; no one is rigorously excluded from another's language community except through lack of time and effort. Different languages protect and nourish the growth of different cultures, where different pathways of human knowledge can be discovered. They certainly make life richer for those who know more than one of them.(Nicholas Ostler, Empires of the Word)ReligionMissionaries and other religious types learn languages in order to spread their message. In fact, missionairies have played a major role in documenting languages and devising writing systems for many of them. Others learn the language(s) in which the scriptures/holy books of their religion were originally written to gain a better understanding of them. For example, Christians might learn Hebrew, Aramaic and Biblical Greek; Muslims might learn Classical Arabic, and Buddhists might learn Sanskrit.

FoodPerhaps you enjoy the food and/or drink of a particular country or region and make regular trips there, or the recipe books you want to use are only available in a foreign language

Linguistic interestMaybe you're interested in linguistic aspects of a particular

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language and decide to learn it in order to understand them better.

Challenging yourselfMaybe you enjoy the challenge of learning foreign languages or of learning a particularly difficult language.

Sounds/looks good to mePerhaps you just like the sound of a particular language when it's spoken or sung. Or you find the written form of a language attractive. If you like singing, learning songs in other languages can be interesting, challenging and enjoyable.

One language is never enough!If like me you're a bit of a linguaphile / glossophile / linguaholic or whatever you call someone who is fascinated by languages and enjoys learning them, then one language is never enough.

If you talk to a man in a language he understands, that goes to his head.If you talk to him in his language, that goes to his heart.(Nelson Mandela)

Source:http://www.omniglot.com/language/why.htm

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Colombian McDonald's to sell empanadasWEDNESDAY, 13 JUNE 2012 10:53 CHRISTAN LEONARD

McDonald's in Colombia has decided to adapt its menu to the local market and has introduced variations on numerous local foods in their new marketing platform, "Colombian Cravings," news publication Portfolio reported Monday.

"The platform of "Colombian Cravings" is composed of some of the most recognized and traditional foods in our country: The classic McPollo Junior, hogao sauce, empanadas, sundaes with lulo sauce, nuggets with honey, and original and unique options like aji sauce, now available in our sauce bar," said Mercedes Souto, marketing manager for the Andean Region.

According to Souto this strategy has been successful elsewhere in countries like Peru and Argentina.

"McDonald's is always on the search for alternatives that fit local tastes and preferences of our customers. We have done this historically, we will continue to do this, it is an unmistakable sign of our ongoing commitment that we have with adults and children who visit our restaurants day after day," said Souto.

McDonald's has also chosen to feature a Colombian brand of coffee, Juan Valez Coffee, in their menu and according to Souto, "so far, the results are very positive."

Although Colombian McDonald's feature some traditional foods, the majority of their menu is still composed of the same products as their original American restaurants.

"It is important to note that about 70 percent of inputs used in our restaurants are national, many of the same brands and suppliers we use in our home restaurants. That gives us significant support in terms of quality and safety for our customers," said Souto.

McDonald's is only one of many companies increasing their investment in Colombia. "Colombia may become the third largest economy in the region, and we are investing to accompany this trend," said Souto.

Source:http://colombiareports.com/colombia-news-lite/food/24564-colombian-mcdonalds-to-sell-empanadas.html

Controversial U.S. immigration clause allowed to stand

AFPThe U.S. Supreme Court struck down most of Arizona's controversial new immigration law on Monday but let stand a key provision allowing officers to do spot checks of people's identity papers.

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The Arizona law has aroused intense controversy because of a particular provision, 2(B), that requires police to stop and demand proof of citizenship of anyone they suspect of being illegal, even without probable cause. In Monday's ruling, U.S. President Barack Obama and the Justice Department were largely vindicated on the wider issue of state interference into federal law on immigration matters. However, in a victory for Obama's Republicans opponents, justices unanimously refused to strike down the crucial "check your papers" provision, as they said it was unclear, before its actual implementation, that it would raise constitutional concerns. "It was improper to enjoin 2(B) before the state courts had an opportunity to construe it and without some showing that 2(B)'s enforcement in fact conflicts with federal immigration law and its objectives," the ruling said. Justices rejected a series of other provisions, including those that would have criminalized immigrants for failing to register with the federal government, or for seeking work or working without proper documents. They also struck down a clause that would have allowed police to arrest those suspected of being deportable without a warrant. Senator Charles Schumer, chair of the Senate subcommittee on immigration and a senior member

of Obama's Democratic Party, called it "as strong a repudiation of the Arizona law as one could expect." "Three linchpins of the Arizona law were struck down by a convincing majority of the court as clearly violating federal law, and a fourth is on thin legal ice," Schumer said. "The court is sending a stern warning to Arizona that the provision allowing local law enforcement to check people's immigration documents cannot be implemented in a discriminatory or draconian way, or it will be thrown out like the rest of the law." But Obama's Republican presidential challenger Mitt Romney used the decision to attack the president for pursuing wrong-headed immigration policies and making broken promises. "Today's decision underscores the need for a president who will lead on this critical issue and work in a bipartisan fashion to pursue a national immigration strategy," Romney said in a written statement. Immigration is a hot-button issue in the United States as Obama and Romney court the sizeable Hispanic vote with just over four months to go until November's tightly-contested presidential election.Obama chides Republicans for failing to honor a 2008 campaign promise to pass reforms to bring more than 11 million illegal immigrants out of the shadows, a

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key issue for growing numbers of Hispanic voters. Earlier this month, Obama ordered a two-year halt to deportations of illegal immigrants who would have benefited from the DREAM Act. The legislation, which would offer a path to permanent residency for illegal immigrants who were brought to the United States as children and graduate from U.S. high schools, has been blocked by Republicans in Congress. The Supreme Court ruling on immigration comes amid fevered anticipation of an even weightier decision on the constitutionality of Obama's signature domestic policy achievement, health care reform. That ruling, which also has major implications for Obama's reelection chances as well as for America's health care delivery for decades to come, is now expected to come on Thursday. Lower courts last year opted to strike sections of the Arizona law they said would place a burden on legal resident aliens in the Mexico-border state, where a third of the 6.6 million people are foreign-born and more than 400,000 are illegal immigrants. Arizona Governor Jan Brewer -- who earlier this year was caught on camera pointing her finger in Obama's face in what looked to be a testy exchange on an airport tarmac -- asked the top court to reinstate the suspended sections.

Monday's decision, written by Justice Anthony Kennedy, was approved by five votes to three -- apart from the decision to uphold, for now, the status checks, which was unanimous. Mexico and 17 other countries have also filed arguments with the Supreme Court opposing the law. At least 36 states have introduced legislation with elements similar to those in Arizona, five of which have been passed.

Source: http://www.ntn24.com/news/news/controversial-us-immigration-c-14634

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ABSTRACTS

The Underclass: Definition and MeasurementRonald B. Mincy, Isabel V. Sawhill, Douglas A. Wolf

Research associate, The Urban Institute, 2100 M Street, NW, Washington, DC 20037Senior fellow, The Urban Institute, 2100 M Street, NW, Washington, DC 20037Senior research associate, The Urban Institute, 2100 M Street, NW, Washington, DC 20037ABSTRACT

The term "underclass" has been widely used by journalists and by some social scientists but, until recently, has not been clearly defined or quantified. Most of the recent quantitatively oriented literature on the topic has used a definition that emphasizes either the persistence of poverty or the number of people living in neighborhoods where the incidence of poverty or dysfunctional behavior is high. Conclusions about the size and growth of the underclass are sensitive to the definition chosen, but most available evidence suggests that it is small but growing.Source:http://www.sciencemag.org/content/248/4954/450.abstract===============================

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Mining the Biodiversity of Plants: A Revolution in the MakingVincenzo De Luca*, Vonny Salim, Sayaka Masada Atsumi, Fang Yu

Department of Biological Sciences, Brock University, 500 Glenridge Avenue, St. Catharines, Ontario L2S 3A1, Canada.

Only a small fraction of the immense diversity of plant metabolism has been explored for the production of new medicines and other products important to human well-being. The availability of inexpensive high-throughput sequencing is rapidly expanding the number of species that can be investigated for the speedy discovery of previously unknown enzymes and pathways. Exploitation of these resources is being carried out through interdisciplinary synthetic and chemical biology to engineer pathways in plant and microbial systems for improving the production of existing medicines and to create libraries of biologically active products that can be screened for new drug applications.Source:http://www.sciencemag.org/content/336/6089/1658.abstract===============================Achieving Diversity in the Face of Constraints: Lessons from MetabolismRon Milo1, Robert L. Last2,*

1Department of Plant Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel.2Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and Department of Plant Biology,

Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA.

Metabolic engineering of plants can reduce the cost and environmental impact of agriculture while providing for the needs of a growing population. Although our understanding of plant metabolism continues to increase at a rapid pace, relatively few plant metabolic engineering projects with commercial potential have emerged, in part because of a lack of principles for the rational manipulation of plant phenotype. One underexplored approach to identifying such design principles derives from analysis of the dominant constraints on plant fitness, and the evolutionary innovations in response to those constraints, that gave rise to the enormous diversity of natural plant metabolic pathways.Source:http://www.sciencemag.org/content/336/6089/1663.abstract===============================Evolution, Safety, and Highly Pathogenic Influenza VirusesMarc Lipsitch1,2,*, Joshua B. Plotkin3, Lone Simonsen4, Barry Bloom2

1Center for Communicable Disease Dynamics and Department of Epidemiology, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA 02115, USA.2Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA 02115, USA.3Department of Biology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.4Department of Global Health, George Washington University

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School of Public Health and Health Services, Washington, DC 20037, USA.ABSTRACT

Experience with influenza has shown that predictions of virus phenotype or fitness from nucleotide sequence are imperfect and that predicting the timing and course of evolution is extremely difficult. Such uncertainty means that the risk of experiments with mammalian-transmissible, possibly highly virulent influenza viruses remains high even if some aspects of their laboratory biology are reassuring; it also implies limitations on the ability of laboratory observations to guide interpretation of surveillance of strains in the field. Thus, we propose that future experiments with virulent pathogens whose accidental or deliberate release could lead to extensive spread in human populations should be limited by explicit risk-benefit considerations.Source:http://www.sciencemag.org/content/336/6088/1529.full

Thinking beyond formal frameworks for peace

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TUESDAY, 05 JUNE 2012 14:45 HELEN BERENTS

Colombia’s President Juan Manuel Santos has declared that the "Framework for Peace" bill currently making its way through congress will both satisfy the rights of victims and "make the transition to what we all want, which is peace.” Laudable goals, but the flurry of criticism around the proposed bill, due for its final debate on Monday, suggest that things aren't as clear-cut as Santos might like.

Such criticisms aren't to say that Colombians don't want peace. Rather, it suggests that not only are there significant flaws in the proposed Framework, but that legal mechanisms for so-called justice are inadequate by themselves in efforts to create real peace in Colombia; particularly when the victims of a plethora of human rights abuses seem to be sidelined in these discussions.

Now, I don't want to be misinterpreted: transitional justice is crucial in any cessation of conflict. Almost all conflicts globally that have come to an end have involved some form of transitional justice, reconciliation and restitution.

However, Human Rights Watch has argued during the last few weeks that the Framework for Peace would empower Congress to suspend prison sentences for those responsible for the worst abuses, arguing, "efforts to achieve peace should not abandon justice." Such a move can be read as shielding individuals from their criminal

responsibilities, and because Colombia is a signatory to the International Criminal Court's Rome Statute, the ICC could investigate on the basis that the state cannot or will not genuinely prosecute those responsible. These are serious issues that require serious attention and such criticisms must be addressed. Concessions will have to be made, that is how in processes of transitional justice you manage to get the armed groups to lay down their weapons and engage in dialogue towards peace; and any such concessions should be critiqued, discussed and debated.

Yet, I cannot read and listen to these debates over the past few weeks without thinking of those most affected by the violence that has become part of Colombian life. It has been over a year since I was speaking with a fifteen-year-old internally displaced Colombian girl, but I don't think I'll ever forget the conversation. We had been discussing how young people in Colombia experience violence and our conversation turned to discussing the prospect of peace. She paused, stared straight at me, and said, "I can't tell you what peace is. I can't define it because we have only ever known violence here".

When a fifteen-year-old tells me she can't define peace, can't imagine what it might look like, this points to a deeper problem that needs to be resolved by all Colombians, not just those in politician’s offices and judge’s robes. Other young people emphatically agreed that “lack of opportunity” was the number one problem facing them in their

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community; and many told me exactly what they'd do if they had those opportunities, and not a single one said they'd join a gang or rob or attack someone. They wanted to be doctors, to be accountants, to be teachers, to become a singer “like Juanes,” to become a football star, or simply to find a way to provide for their families so their “mother doesn't have to work until she is sick.”

Young people are not passive in the face of marginality and oppression, but all Colombians must be committed to giving them something to dream for, something to fight for and a path towards a way of defining peace.

This is not a call to "think of the children" in emotive, hand-wringing terms, or solely in terms of their future potential. Rather, we should be thinking of the children as stakeholders in the present. Colombia's constitution demands that the rights of children are put before all else. However, at the moment children are growing up in Colombia with no confidence in the ability of the government to secure their rights. Their parents and peers do not only teach them this but they see it happening right in front of them daily.

Although recent laws have been passed to supposedly assure restitution of lands, to criminalize the discrimination of Afro-Colombians, to provide assistance and services to those displaced by the conflict, to protect children from recruitment by armed groups, still multiple government and non-governmental organizations report the continued

violation of the most basic human rights of all these marginalized groups. If we were to genuinely 'think of the children,' we would have to question the ability of any law that is passed to supposedly provide justice to actually do that.

To achieve Santos' goal of actually transitioning to peace, those with power in the country must put aside the politicking, the self-preservation, and instead take this prime opportunity to discuss what a broader peace might look like. And, while it should be asked, the most important question should not be “how many years should 'those most responsible' receive”?

Peace, true peace, not just the absence of conflict, does not emerge from a courtroom. Of course justice in the courtroom can facilitate peace. But peace does not hinge on whether or not a particular leader does or does not get an 'adequate' punishment. Peace hinges on the ability of all Colombians in their everyday lives to re-conceptualize what it means to live without conflict. Peace starts with respect for yourself, respect for all those around you, and a commitment to live, day by day, with the goal of understanding what has happened, how it has happened, and what can be done differently to make lasting change. It means peace without impunity and justice without negating peace.

Just imagine for a moment the opportunities that would appear for young people in Colombia if politicians and the media focused as much attention, and had such a rigorous debate about

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improvements to the quality and provision of public education, or to the support and creation of jobs, as they are currently giving to debates over impunity and protecting their own interests.

Just imagine if half the amount of money spent on military force and failed-justice mechanisms was spent on building and supplying schools across Colombia, particularly in the areas most at risk of recruitment into armed groups, or delinquency due to lack of opportunities.

What if every child had three proper meals a day, had access to healthcare when they needed it and clean, running water in their homes? What if every child had the attention of a teacher who was not distracted by 40 other students in one insufficiently equipped classroom? What if all children could complete all their years of schooling without having to find work to help support their family?

Perhaps then every child wouldn't have to struggle to define peace, because they would have the support and tools to contribute to creating peace themselves.

Debate around the proposed Framework for Peace should not end in legal tangles, but rather should prompt a discussion of what a framework for everyday peace might look like from the point of view of those who have the most to lose, but also the most to gain. That is what is really at stake here.Source:http://colombiareports.com/opinion/helen-berents/24424-thinking-

beyond-formal-frameworks-for-peace.html

Water use by livestock: A global perspective for a regional issue?Michel Doreau*, Michael S. Corson and Stephen G. Wiedemann

Implications (Abstract)

Water scarcity, a function of supply and demand, is a regional issue with global repercussions, given that 1) the increasing human population and demand for animal products will increase water demand and influence international trade in agricultural products and that 2) global climate change is altering rainfall patterns worldwide.

Water can be divided into the following types: blue (i.e., surface and groundwater), green (i.e., soil water used in evapotranspiration), and gray (i.e., water necessary to dilute pollutants). On a global scale, agriculture represents 70% of blue water use.

One main difference among all methods for assessing water use is whether and how they include green and gray water. The “water footprint” approach includes green water, whereas life cycle assessment approaches tend to exclude green

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water or to include only the variation in green water resulting from changes in land use. A second difference is whether water use is reported as a volume of water or as an index of water-use impact (e.g., H2O equivalents). A third is whether water that returns to the same location (e.g., in urine) is considered to have been consumed.

Because of these differences and the fact that existing studies have analyzed only a limited number of different livestock production systems, methods give wildly different results for the same livestock product. For example, estimations of water use to produce 1 kg of beef range from 3 to 540 L of H2O or H2O equivalents for the life cycle assessment approach and from 10,000 to 200,000 L of H2O for the water footprint.

Ultimately, water scarcity depends on blue water use. Decreasing the contribution of livestock to water scarcity can be achieved by decreasing feed irrigation. Livestock farming also has positive impacts on the environment related to water use.

Water Scarcity: Is It a Global Issue?

Water scarcity is a function of freshwater supply and demand, both of which vary greatly in time and space around the world. By one definition, human populations face water scarcity when annual renewable water supplies in a region fall below 1,000 m3/person, which currently occurs throughout most countries in Northern Africa and the Arabian Peninsula (United Nations Environment Programme, 2008). Although such arid and semiarid regions are the most vulnerable to water scarcity, the demand side of the equation can have a strong, if not stronger, influence. Indeed, water stress, defined as annual water withdrawals exceeding 20% of the annual renewable water supply, has occurred in temperate-climate countries such as Belgium, Korea, and the United Kingdom (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2004). Thus, a definition of water scarcity that emphasizes the important role of water demand is, “the point at which the aggregate impact of all users impinges on the supply or quality of water... to the extent that the demand by all sectors, including the environment, cannot be satisfied fully” (UN-Water/FAO, 2007). Even if water demand does not lead to water scarcity (e.g., in wet regions), it can increase groundwater depth, potentially decreasing water flow to rivers and causing ecosystem changes.

Global water demand is expected to increase greatly in the future, by 50% between 1995 and 2025 (United Nations Environment Programme, 2008), especially in developing countries, not only because of larger human

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populations, but also because of overall increases in industrial production and human affluence, which lead to greater consumption of energy, consumer goods, and food, especially animal products. This increase in domestic, industrial, and agricultural water use is expected to expand the areas affected by water scarcity (Figure 1). This may happen even in regions with high rainfall, where population density and economic activity are high. Areas suffering from water scarcity may change from year to year. It has been estimated that 64% of the world population will live in water-deprived zones in 2025 (Rosegrant et al., 2002). For the remaining 36%, especially those living in temperate zones, livestock farming could be performed without strong water restrictions. For example, grassland irrigation, a common practice in “wet” countries such as New Zealand and the Netherlands, can be a useful strategy for increasing grass production.

The supply side of freshwater is a function not only of regional rainfall, which can vary greatly within and between years, but also water management and distribution systems and water pollution, which renders freshwater nonpotable. Unfortunately, global climate change is modifying the supply side of the equation (rainfall patterns), and not in a uniform manner. Simulations of global climate change by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) with 21 different models predicted an average increase of at least 14%

in annual rainfall in polar regions (above 60°N) and northern Asia; in contrast, they predicted at least a 12% decrease in annual rainfall in southern Europe and the Mediterranean Basin. Seasonal changes in rainfall are predicted to be even greater, with the greatest increases in December to February in the Tibetan Plateau (+19%) and northern Europe (+15%) and in June to August in southern Asia (+11%), and the greatest decreases in December to February in the Sahara (–18%) and central America (–14%) and in June to August in the Mediterranean (–29%) and southern Africa (–23%; IPCC, 2007).

Recent studies have highlighted the large amounts of water used for agriculture, especially for livestock production [e.g., Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), 2006]. No evidence exists that the presence of livestock is related to the risk of water scarcity; for example, in France there is little overlap between regions with high livestock density and those with water-availability problems in summer, some of the latter being areas with irrigated crops. With sustainability becoming or already representing a keystone of resource management and policy in many regions, it is necessary to consider how water use for livestock production influences water scarcity. However, we recommend a holistic approach, in which the role of livestock in human societies is evaluated as a whole instead of considering the effect on water alone.

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Blue, Green, or Gray Water: Which One Is Critical to Calculate Water Use?

Concepts have been defined in the last 2 decades to differentiate water in the environment depending on its location. Blue water represents surface and groundwater, whereas green water represents water lost from soils by evaporation and transpiration from plants derived directly from rainfall (Falkenmark, 2003). Gray water, a theoretical estimate of the amount of water necessary to dilute pollutants, varies widely depending on the pollutant (e.g., nitrate, synthetic organic chemicals) and the thresholds selected for their concentrations.

The global water cycle is complex. Water evaporated from one location generally returns to the surface as rainfall at another location. On global landmasses, rainfall exceeds evapotranspiration by an average of 70%, whereas on the ocean, evaporation exceeds rainfall. Some blue water returns to the location where it was consumed; for example, a part of the water consumed by livestock (including water contained in feeds) returns to the farm in feces and urine; however, a minor part returns to groundwater by infiltration (Table 1). The remaining water, in animals and their products, leaves the farm. Irrigation water and rainfall are taken up by plants and then transpired, moving to another location via the atmosphere. When rainfall exceeds evapotranspiration, excess water

infiltrates into the groundwater and runs off into rivers and then oceans, where it evaporates. Blue and green water are thus closely interwoven. As a theoretical amount of water, gray water does not influence water scarcity. Because this article is devoted to the risks of water shortage, we thus examine only the effects of livestock on blue and green water.

Nature of blue water used for livestock farming

Direct water consumption by human activities depletes blue water (i.e., makes it less available). This includes all nonagricultural activities, including industry, services, and domestic purposes, as well as some agricultural activities, such as crop irrigation, livestock drinking water use, use in factories producing inputs (e.g., seeds, fertilizers, animal feeds), or those producing animal products (e.g., dairy factories, slaughterhouses, tanneries). In arid areas, water may be sprayed on animals to improve animal performance, but this is a marginal practice. Worldwide, agriculture represents 70% of total blue water use and 86% of blue + green water use (World Water Assessment Programme, 2009), whereas livestock farming uses 15% of the evapotranspiration of irrigated crops, 33% of that of rain-grown crops, and 68% of that of permanent pastures and rangelands (FAO, 2006).

Water scarcity is related to water depletion, not to total water outflow from agricultural systems. Indeed, evapotranspiration, the main water outflow, is positively

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correlated with rainfall, and areas with high rainfall usually do not suffer from water scarcity problems. Decreasing evapotranspiration (i.e., green water loss) is related to a decrease in photosynthesis and thus in biomass production because transpiration is related to carbon dioxide uptake, with both exchanges occurring through plant stomata. However, this relationship may weaken when biomass production is low because the proportion of evaporation from soil in total evapotranspiration increases; a decrease in biomass may also be due to a shortage of nutrients, such as nitrogen. This means that a change in green water use for rain-grown crops and forages has no impact on water scarcity. For example, Peters et al. (2010) noted that water flows did not substantially change in Australia from native pastoral systems to the current improved systems, so livestock farming did not influence water scarcity in this case. In conclusion, total water outflow indicates the influence of agriculture on the global water cycle and highlights the role of water in ecosystems, whereas blue water use has an impact on water depletion.

Which Method(s) Should Be Used to Assess Water Use by Livestock?

Knowing how much water livestock species consume directly in food and drinking water is one indicator of their water use, but a more comprehensive indicator comes from estimating how much water was used on or before livestock farms to grow and

process their feed or forage and after farms to transform them or their output (e.g., milk, eggs, fleece) into marketable products. Including these “upstream” and “downstream” uses of water by the livestock-product supply chain creates an indicator of the total water used by the production system, which can then be expressed on a per-kilogram basis for each product from that animal. Here we describe 3 methods of classification for water use: 1) “virtual water and water footprints (which include blue, green, and gray water use),” 2) assessments of blue water use only, and 3) assessments of stress-weighted water use. For agricultural systems, blue water “use” can be regarded as any form of consumption (after Owens, 2002), which includes irrigation for crop or forage production, drinking water use, and in some instances, evaporation losses associated with the supply of drinking water. Additionally, differences in which management and environmental processes are included in system boundaries need to be considered when comparing methods. Extensive scientific reviews of methods for estimating virtual water use exist (e.g., Berger and Finkbeiner, 2010), so in this article, we focus on those that target water use of agricultural products (particularly livestock), describe the most recent ones, and highlight their most significant differences.

The Water FootprintMethods for estimating the virtual water in livestock products began with virtual water accounting in 1993, which focused on imports of agricultural products as one way

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for water-scarce countries to compensate for a relatively limited potential for agricultural production. This method inspired the appearance of the “water footprint” in 2002 (Hoekstra et al., 2011; Hoekstra, 2012), which expanded the concept to estimate the total domestic- and foreign-based water use of a country and to inform consumers and policy makers about the volumes of water used. Both methods sum blue, green, and gray water use into a single indicator. Green water use by crops is calculated from crop yield and evapotranspiration, which is a function of crop characteristics and climatic parameters in the FAO Penman-Monteith method (Chapagain and Hoekstra, 2004). Deutsch et al. (2010) calculated a modified water footprint by excluding green water from pastures (but not for harvested forages) with grazing-based systems, in particular because grazing systems provide ecosystem services (e.g., grassland biodiversity support) and because there is often no alternative use for grazed grasslands. These indicators, oriented toward estimating total water use by-products, are useful for tallying international trade in virtual water and discussing the use of volumes of blue, green, and gray water in water resource management. When used to indicate the environmental impacts of such water use, however, the relevance of these methods is questionable. For example, the use of green water does not have the same impact on competitive blue water resources in a river system as the direct consumption of blue water has.

Additionally, water use may be more detrimental in one region compared with another, depending on the level of water stress in each region (Figure 3). In any case, the conceptual chain from estimating water use to estimating its potential impact is not built explicitly into the water footprint concept. Although this permits multiple interpretations about impacts to be made by those who understand water resource management well, it leaves determination of the potential impacts associated with water footprints open to uncertainty and misinterpretation by those who do not.

Life Cycle Assessment MethodsResearch to develop indicators that inherently represent environmental impacts of water use has flourished in the past few years, specifically in the framework of life cycle assessment (LCA). Life cycle assessment is an internationally standardized approach for estimating the environmental impacts (in multiple impact categories) of goods and services throughout their life cycle, from extraction of raw materials and production to (in the most complete studies) their use and disposal (International Organization for Standardization, 2006). Several LCA approaches to estimate water use and its impacts have been developed since 2009, each differing (to greater or lesser extents) in the types of water included, the upstream and downstream processes considered, and the characterization of environmental impacts [e.g., at midpoint(s), endpoint(s), or both in the chain of

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cause and effect]. A few approaches use water-engineering models to provide farm-level estimates of water use. Some convergence in methodology has already occurred among LCA approaches, but certain differences remain. Most agricultural LCA studies focus on blue water use only, defined as consumption (evaporative use) at the inventory stage.

All LCA approaches include water used for crop (i.e., feed and forage) production, with some minor differences in which upstream processes are included (some excluding water used in infrastructure or transportation). As with most agricultural LCA, most existing studies stop at the farm gate, some continue to the slaughterhouse or food-processing factory, and at least one continues to the end consumer. All LCA approaches include on-farm water used for irrigation, drinking water, and animal servicing (e.g., cleaning out buildings).

All LCA approaches include blue water (e.g., irrigation), and the most recent (e.g., Ridoutt et al., 2011) focus on consumption of blue water leading to freshwater depletion, meaning that water ingested by livestock but returned to the same location (e.g., as urine) is excluded from the total water use. In contrast, few LCA approaches include gray water, most considering that it is already addressed in the LCA impact indicators for aquatic toxicity (related to pesticide and heavy-metal emissions) and potential eutrophication (related to nitrate

and phosphate emissions, among others). In the case of aquaculture, “water dependency” has been considered an “impact” in LCA studies. The amount of water that flows through an aquaculture farm represents the majority of water dependency and can be a management indicator for river-based farms, although it has little practical use for sea-based farms (Aubin and van der Werf, 2009). Life cycle assessment approaches tend either to exclude green water (considering that the evapotranspiration of soil water by crops has no more impact than that by the vegetation they replaced) or to include only the variation in green water attributable to changes in land use (e.g., from pasture to cropland; e.g., de Boer et al., 2011). The effect of on-farm water management is sometimes calculated by comparing it with the effect of natural vegetation, for which evapotranspiration is estimated as a simple function of rainfall (Ridoutt et al., 2011). Most LCA approaches consider that green water is partially or entirely addressed by the impact indicator for land occupation (considering that soil water, like sunlight or oxygen, is an inherent property of land). As for impact indicators, all LCA approaches define midpoint indicators of water-use impact. Some of these employ characterization factors based on water-stress indices of the catchment from which blue water was taken, which results in virtual water use expressed in H2O equivalents (e.g., Ridoutt and Pfister, 2010), similar to the CO2 equivalents of the carbon footprint. Some LCA approaches

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also include endpoint indicators that estimate the impact on human health, ecosystem quality, or resource depletion (e.g., Milà I Canals et al., 2009).

The 2 groups of methods thus differ greatly. The water footprint takes into account different types of water, including virtual water, but is limited to on-farm flows, whereas LCA is limited mainly to blue water but includes off-farm uses (e.g., “from cradle to farm gate”).

Does Livestock Production Contribute to Water Scarcity?

The total water used to produce human foods is generally calculated per unit of product, the most common of which are kilograms, kilocalories, or a monetary unit. Because one of the main roles in animal products is to provide protein, kilograms of protein may be a more relevant unit when several foods are compared. However, the main criticism of between-food comparisons is that each food has specific nutritional (e.g., hemic iron in beef, lycopene in tomatoes), hedonic, or cultural properties that are difficult to compare.

At the global scale, when total water use is expressed per kilograms of product, crop products almost always have less use than animal products (Hoekstra and Chapagain, 2007). The same pattern holds for total use of other resources, such as fossil energy, phosphorus, or land. However, the present trend in food consumption is a rapid increase in animal products at the

expense of crops in emerging and developing countries (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2009). This is due mainly to demography and a change in consumer habits. It is likely that the growing idea in developed countries that animal-product consumption should decrease will not influence this trend.

Because freshwater availability depends greatly on geographic location (Figure 4), water use should be calculated for a specific area, either per hectare or per kilogram of product within that area. In the same location, crops and pastures have similar evapotranspiration rates, related to net primary production, which is less than that for forest. For this reason, land use (e.g., crops vs. pastures) is not a major determinant of water scarcity. Among existing studies, water use per kilogram of beef ranges from 27 to 200,000 L (Peters et al., 2010; Wiedemann et al., 2010). As described above, the results depend on the methodology and the coefficients used (e.g., for evapotranspiration). For the same methodology, results also depend on the boundaries of the systems; for example, the total water use for 1 kg of beef may or may not include the contribution of nursing cows. Pimentel et al. (1997), who reported 200,000 L/kg of beef, did not specify the method used, but the calculation was based on extensive rangeland systems, which require a large area for animal production. If this value is considered, the total water used to produce the 60 million tons of beef every year is greater than the total

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freshwater reserves of the planet. Hoekstra and Chapagain (2007) estimated a water footprint of approximately 15,000 L/kg of beef. If green water is included in estimates (as in water footprints), the total water used by low-producing animals in pastoral rangelands, such as those in arid plains or high mountains, would be extremely high. For pastures with similar evapotranspiration per hectare, if animal productivity (e.g., daily body weight gain) is divided by 10 and grazing area per animal is multiplied by 10, the water footprint of the animal could increase 50 to 100 times, whereas the true impact of animals on water scarcity would be relatively low. When less extreme cases are considered, between-country differences exist, for example, ranging from 11,000 L/kg of beef in Japan to 37,800 L/kg of beef in Mexico. The variation probably arises from differences in local evapotranspiration, production systems, and animal productivity. Because food sovereignty should be a target for each country, an increase in animal productivity can be an objective; however, this is often difficult to achieve because of environmental, social, and economic constraints. For the same region, total water uses for beef depend greatly on the production system. When beef is produced by culled cows from a dairy herd, the amount of water necessary to produce 1 kg of beef is divided between milk and beef products. In contrast, because beef meat is the only product of a beef herd, the calculation of total water use of 1 kg of beef includes the water use by both bulls and steers, but also that of nursing cows. As a consequence,

livestock in these systems use significantly different amounts of water.

When blue water alone is considered, total water use is much less: 27 to 540 L/kg of carcass-weight beef produced in Australia (Peters et al., 2010). These differences are mainly due to characteristics of the production systems (i.e., an organic system without irrigation vs. a more intensive system with irrigation), and significant between-year differences were observed. Similar ranges (25 to 234 L/kg of body weight of beef) were observed by Ridoutt et al. (2012) for 6 Australian beef systems, which correspond to blue water use, weighted by water-stress indices, ranging from 3 to 221 L/kg of body weight of beef. Similarly, Ridoutt et al. (2010) estimated weighted blue water use of milk solids as 108 and 14 L/kg (i.e., approximately 830 and 108 L/kg of milk, respectively). Under Dutch conditions, de Boer et al. (2011) estimated weighted blue water use as 61 L, of which 75% arose from on-farm forage irrigation. Such weighted values in blue water use for livestock products, although sometimes much less than the amount of water they drink during their lifetimes, have been designed to reflect the impact of livestock on water scarcity. The blue water uses calculated by Mekonnen and Hoekstra (2010) represent approximately 3% of the green water use of beef, and 10% of the green water use of pork, chicken, eggs, and milk (Table 2), but the average values hide large differences between countries and between systems. For example,

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the mean blue water use for chicken meat equals 30 L/kg in Brazil and 873 L/kg in India. For pork, the system that requires the most blue water in Brazil and Australia is grazing, whereas in India, it is industrial production. Large differences are observed for beef blue water use: 1,471 L/kg for industrial systems in India and 0 for grazing in India and China. The absence of blue water is due to the estimation method, which does not account for uses besides direct use by animals and the feeds they consumed. Despite a huge variability in estimates according to the method used, it is clear that blue water use is the best criterion for estimating the contribution of livestock to the risk of water scarcity.

Which Livestock Farming Practices Help Decrease Water Use?

Numerous reports describe ways to conserve green water with cropping and management practices. Among others, agronomic and genetic improvements have been detailed in an expert evaluation by INRA (2006). Improvements in livestock management, such as croplivestock integration with the use of crop by-products by livestock, have been proposed (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2006; van Breugel et al., 2010). These techniques can increase water recycling or percolation in soils and decrease runoff. Despite these possible improvements, it is noteworthy that the green water content of grasslands and crops used for animals lies in the same range as

that of crops used for human food or biofuels. Because the risk of water scarcity in agriculture is related to blue water use, we have focused on how it can be decreased in livestock farming, from cradle to farm gate. The 2 main options include decreasing the amount of irrigated feeds and reducing water intake by animals.

The most efficient practice may be to decrease irrigation of feeds grown in areas where rainfall is too low to avoid freshwater depletion, at least during certain periods of the year (Figure 5). Irrigation increases human food security in many countries, but may deplete groundwater and, in extreme cases, lower water levels of inland seas and increase their salinity. Several possibilities exist for increasing irrigation efficiency by optimizing the timing and amount of water application or by applying technological improvements (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2003, 2006). For example, corn, which is widely used for livestock feeding, is highly sensitive to water scarcity, requiring irrigation for maximum biomass production when rainfall is insufficient. Several solutions have been proposed to reduce corn irrigation. Early-maturity varieties may be sown to synchronize maximal growth with freshwater availability, but their yields are less than those of normal varieties. Cropbreeding companies have been working for years to develop corn with better drought resistance, using either genetic engineering or traditional selection in dry countries, but these varieties are not expected to be available on the market in the

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near future. Alternately, farmers could purchase corn from regions where it requires no irrigation, but other environmental impacts may increase because of changes in land use and, to a lesser extent, increased transportation distances. Another possibility is to replace corn with other cereals, although their nutritional characteristics (e.g., amino acid composition) may differ. Corn can be replaced by sorghum, which grows in the same area and produces more biomass in the absence of irrigation; consequently, sorghum has a greater green water footprint than corn (Hoekstra and Chapagain, 2007).

Direct water intake by animals is composed of drinking water, water contained in feeds, and a small amount of metabolic water produced by nutrient metabolism. For ruminants, total water intake is generally between 3.5 and 5.5 L/kg of dry matter intake in temperate countries; it is greater for dairy cows than for growing animals or animals at maintenance. The greater the water content of feed, the less drinking water they require. For example, when early-stage fresh grass is fed, animals do not require drinking water. Increasing the proportion of fresh grass or silage in the diet thus decreases drinking water intake. Water intake can be 50% greater in tropical countries than in temperate countries, especially for chickens. Water intake is also increased by the consumption of salty feeds. There are several means to decrease water intake. Some breeds adapted to drought, such as goats and camels,

consume less water because of better water recycling. In hot countries, the use of shelters reduces heat stress and leads to a decrease in water intake (Morand-Fehr and Doreau, 2001). When an LCA approach is considered, an efficient way to decrease water intake per kilogram of product is to decrease the total amount of feeds necessary to obtain the final product or to improve the productivity of the animal production system. Thus, water intake per kilogram of meat decreases when age at slaughter, and thus total feed intake, decreases, such as for chicken or for beef produced from culled dairy cows rather than from young beef cattle. But this approach is sectorial and does not account for other criteria of livestock sustainability or land use for animal production. For example, extensive beef-cattle systems generate animal products by using rainfall on land that is suitable for few other agricultural purposes (except for forests in mountain regions). Nonetheless, the methods mentioned in this paragraph may decrease water intake by animals only slightly.

Conclusion

Water is a precious resource that must be conserved globally by all sectors of the economy, including agriculture and thus livestock farming. Tools such as the water footprint and LCA are available, but their interpretation by policy makers has to be refined. In addition, it is necessary to remember that freshwater availability is only one of the major

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environmental issues for the planet. Fossil fuel depletion and greenhouse gas emissions are other urgent priorities that have to be taken into account in a global approach for assessing environmental impacts of farming systems. This multiple-criteria approach is one of the advantages of LCA.

In this article, we have focused on negative impacts of livestock on water reserves; however, livestock can also have neutral or positive influences on water resources. For example, animal use of marshes damages biodiversity less than draining marshes to convert them to agriculture. In arid zones, the use of draft animals for drilling, hydraulic works, water extraction, and transport supports human settlements (Blanfort et al., 2011). More than 1 billion people depend on livestock farming, and animal products are an essential component of human diets. Livestock farming plays a major role in many communities, especially for smallholders in developing countries. Although the debate on the consumption of animal products in developed countries remains open, the interaction between livestock and water resources should be considered with the objective of establishing sustainable farming systems.

Source:http://animalfrontiers.fass.org/content/2/2/9.full

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UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL DE COLOMBIASEDE PALMIRA

CENTRO DE IDIOMAS ALEXFACULTAD DE INGENIERIAS

DEPARTAMENTO DE CIENCIAS SOCIALES

GRAMMAR

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LEVEL III

INSTRUCTIONS

Instructions, or directions, are given in both academic an occupational English discourse. They appear in texts such as technical manuals, laboratory manuals, textbooks assignments, etc.Instructions can be roughly defined as the rhetoric of telling someone ´what to do´ and ´how to do it´ in order to achieve or attain a certain goal. Instructions usually express two notions: 1. The actual telling someone what to do and how to do it, and 2: Instructional information, that is to say, that additional information that usually accompanies most sets of instructions and which provides the reader with explanations, theory, purposes, conditions, etc.In relation to their form, instructions are of two types:

A. Direct Instructions , Which are stated in the imperative, and, are the more common in manuals.

B. Indirect instructions, which often sound more like suggestions than commands. These usually contain a modal verb such as 'can' 'may, 'should' and less often 'must' and also can also be expressed in the passive voice.An instruction (command or order) is used to give directions or procedures to be followed. An instruction may have the following markers:MARKERS OF DIRECT INSTRUCTIONS

MARKERS OF INDIRECT INSTRUCTIONS

-Don’t stare the screen for .-may be + verb (p.p.)-may + verb

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long periods of time-Position your keyboard at the same height as your elbows.-Keep out of reach of children

-should be + verb (p.p.)-should + verb-can be + verb (p.p.) -must be + ,verb (p.p.) -must + verb

Language used in InstructionsConnectors of Sequence: Sequence, or order, is important in giving instructions. The table blow shows some common expressions used.

Firstly, First of all, To begin with, The first step is, The first stage is Simultaneously, While ,Secondly, Thirdly Next, Then, Later, The next step is, the last step is Finally, etc.

SEE MORE INSTRUCTIONS: http://www.johnsoncookbook.com/indirect.htm

MODAL VERBS

Modal verbs are special verbs which behave very differently from normal verbs. Here are some important differences: 1. Modal verbs do not take "-s" in the third person. Examples:

He can speak Chinese. She should be here by 9:00.

2. You use "not" to make modal verbs negative, even in Simple Present and Simple Past. Examples:

He should not be late. They might not come to the party.

3. Many modal verbs cannot be used in the past tenses or the future tenses. Examples:

He will can go with us. Not Correct She musted study very hard. Not Correct

Common Modal Verbs Can Could May Might Must

Ought to Shall Should Will Would

For the purposes of this manual, we have included some expressions which are not modal verbs including had better, have to, and have got to. These expressions are closely related to modals in meaning and are often interchanged with them.

Exercise on instructions1. Recognize the direct and indirect instructions in the text below.

Underline the markers of instruction.

Listed below are steps to help you get started using a handset as a wireless modem:

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First, you must have an AT&T handset that can be used as a wireless modem. Then you have to select an AT&T Data Connect service plan. Download and install the free AT&T Communication Manager software. This software

runs on a laptop and allows a user to control how and when a laptop connects to AT&T's wireless network.

Connect your handset to your laptop. If you are using Bluetooth to tether, refer to your device user manuals to find specific information about how to pair your device.

Click Connect on the Communication Manager interface to connect to the AT&T wireless data network.

Source: http://www.611connect.com/content/cell-phone-modem-how-use-cell-phone-wireless-modem

ARGUMENTATION/PERSUASION

It is a type of discourse in speech or writing that debates or develops a topic in a persuasive way. Argumentation is an appeal predominantly to logic and reason. In this Rhetorical Function, the author explores a problem or issue by investigating all sides of it in order to achieve persuasion through reason.Therefore Argumentation implies: Debate, Reasoning, Discussion state pros and cons of the topic or

issue, trying to establish the truth and convince. The key components of Argumentation:

The presentation of an idea argument, (what is the author stating) The logical evidence that supports the ideas or opinions of the

author (in order to convince the reader) Identifying the conclusion and the premises from which the

conclusion is derived

This is simple model for an argumentative text.

I. The Introduction of the topic briefly in general terms and then the author state the point of view. e.g. why it is a particularly relevant topic nowadays

II. Reasons against The argument, DISADVANTAGES, CONS, NEGATIVE SIDES OF THE TOPIC, THE PROBLEMS. State the position, the evidence and the reasons.

III. Reasons for your argument, the arguments to support your own view; ADVANTAGES, PROS, OR POSITIVE SIDES OF THE TOPIC,THE SOLUTIONSState the position with evidence, reasons and examples.

IV. Conclusion – It is not the repetition of the author again. It is the summary of the two sides, the author could ask direct a question, use a quotation or emphasize the importance of the topic.

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Connectors used In argumentation: Some connectors of summary, cause, effect, sequence, contrast, addition are usually employed to argument.Summary: In Brief, On The Whole, Summing Up, To Conclude, In Conclusion, As I Have Shown, As I Have Said, Accordingly, Thus, As A Result, Consequently, In Summary. Effect: Therefore, Hence, Consequently, As A Result, So That, For This Reason, As A Consequence, Resulting In, Perhaps, With The Result That, Indeed, In This Sense, Thus, So. Sequence: Prior to, First, Second, Third, And So Forth, After. Next , Lastly, A, B, C, And So fort, Next, Then, Following This, At This Time, Now, , At This Point, After, Afterward, Subsequently, Finally, Consequently, Contrast: Whereas, But, Yet, On The Other Hand, However, Nevertheless, On The Other Hand, On The Contrary And, Addition: And, Again, And Then, In Addition to , Besides, Furthermore. Markers that express the opinion of the author

In my view/ I consider/ I think/ I believe/ It is the view of X/ The opinion of / is It can be argued/It has been suggested/It might be said/ * I think that/* We can assume/* In my opinion/The first reason why … is … /First of all, …/The second reason why … is … /Secondly, …/The most important/ POSITIVE: One advantage of/ Another point in favor of / A further argument supporting/One other advantage of/ One of the main arguments in favor / NEGATIVE: One disadvantage of/ Another point against/ A further argument against/ One other disadvantage of/ the drawbacks of/

THE ZERO CONDITIONAL

We can make a zero conditional sentence with two present simple verbs

(one in the 'if clause' and one in the 'main clause'):

If + present simple, .... present simple.This conditional is used when the result will always happen. So, if water reaches 100 degrees, it always boils. It's a fact. I'm talking in general, not about one particular situation. The result of the 'if clause' is always the main cluase.

The 'if' in this conditional can usually be replaced by 'when' without changing

the meaning.

For example: If water reaches 100 degrees, it boils. (It is always true, there

can't be a different result sometimes). If I eat peanuts, I am sick. (This is

true only for me, maybe, not for everyone, but it's still true that I'm sick every

time I eat peanuts)Here are some more examples:

If people eat too much, they get fat.

If you touch a fire, you get burned.

People die if they don't eat.

You get water if you mix hydrogen and oxygen.

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Snakes bite if they are scared

If babies are hungry, they crySource:http://www.perfect-english-grammar.com/zero-conditional.html

Exercise: Write sentences using zero conditionals: For example: (not / rain / the flowers / die) If it doesn’t rain, the flowers die.______________________________________ 1. (I / wake up late / I / be late for work) _______________________________________________________________ 2. (my husband / cook / he / burn the food) _______________________________________________________________ 3. (Julie / not wear a hat / she / get sunstroke) _______________________________________________________________ 4. (children / not eat well / they / not be healthy) _______________________________________________________________ 5. (you / mix water and electricity / you / get a shock) _______________________________________________________________ 6. (people / eat / too many sweets / they / get fat) _______________________________________________________________ 7. (you / smoke / you / get yellow fingers) _______________________________________________________________ 8. (children / play outside / they / not get overweight) _______________________________________________________________ 9. (you / heat ice / it / melt) _______________________________________________________________ 10. (I / speak to John / he / get annoyed) _______________________________________________________________

THE FIRST CONDITIONAL

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The first conditional has the present simple after 'if', then the future

simple in the other clause:

if + present simple, ... will + infinitive

It's used to talk about things which might happen in the future. Of course,

we can't know what will happen in the future, but this describes possible

things, which could easily come true.

If it rains, I won't go to the park.

If I study today, I'll go to the party tonight.

If I have enough money, I 'll buy some new shoes.

She'll be late if the train is delayed.

She'll miss the bus if she doesn't leave soon.

If I see her, I'll tell her.

First vs. Zero Conditional

The first describes a particular situation, whereas the zero conditional

describes what happens in general.

For example (zero conditional): if you sit in the sun, you get burned (here I'm

talking about every time a person sits in the sun - the burning is a natural

consequence of the sitting)

But (first conditional): if you sit in the sun, you'll get burned (here I'm talking

about what will happen today, another day might be different)

First vs. Second Conditional

The first conditional describes things that I think are likely to happen in the

future, whereas the second conditional talks about things that I don't think

will really happen. It's subjective; it depends on my point of view.

For example (first conditional): If she studies harder, she'll pass the exam (I

think it's possible she will study harder and so she'll pass)

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But (second conditional): If she studied harder, she would pass the exam (I

think that she won't study harder, or it's very unlikely, and so she won't pass)Source: http://www.perfect-english-grammar.com/first-conditional.htmlExercise: Write sentences using the first conditional1) If I___________ (go) out tonight, I ___________ (go) to the cinema.2) If you__________ (get) back late, I_____________ (be) angry.3) If we________________ (not/see) each other tomorrow, we___________________ (see) each other next week.4) If he____________________ (come), I_______________________ (be) surprised.5) If we _____________________ (wait) here, we __________________ (be) late.

Source: http://www.perfect-english-grammar.com/zero-conditional.html

PRESENT PERFECT[has/have + past participle]Examples:

You have seen that movie many times. Have you seen that movie many times? You have not seen that movie many times.

We use Present Perfect: Unspecified Time Before NowWe use the Present Perfect to say that an action happened at an unspecified time before now. The exact time is not important. You CANNOT use the Present Perfect with specific time expressions such as: yesterday, one year ago, last week, when I was a child, when I lived in Japan, at that moment, that day, one day, etc. We CAN use the Present Perfect with unspecific expressions such as: ever, never, once, many times, several times, before, so far, already, yet, etc.Examples:

I have seen that movie twenty times. I think I have met him once before. There have been many earthquakes in California. People have traveled to the Moon. People have not traveled to Mars. Have you read the book yet? Nobody has ever climbed that mountain. A: Has there ever been a war in the United States?

B: Yes, there has been a war in the United States.

Source: http://www.englishpage.com/verbpage/presentperfect.html

PAST PERFECT[had + past participle]Examples:

You had studied English before you moved to New York. Had you studied English before you moved to New York? You had not studied English before you moved to New York.

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We use Past Perfect: Completed Action Before Something in the Past

The Past Perfect expresses the idea that something occurred before another action in the past. It can also show that something happened before a specific time in the past.Examples:

I had never seen such a beautiful beach before I went to Kauai. I did not have any money because I had lost my wallet. Tony knew Istanbul so well because he had visited the city several

times. Had Susan ever studied Thai before she moved to Thailand? She only understood the movie because she had read the book. Kristine had never been to an opera before last night. We were not able to get a hotel room because we had not booked in

advance. A: Had you ever visited the U.S. before your trip in 2006?

B: Yes, I had been to the U.S. once before.

Source: http://www.englishpage.com/verbpage/pastperfect.html

SIMPLE FUTURE

Simple Future has two different forms in English: "will" and "be going to." Although the two forms can sometimes be used interchangeably, they often express two very different meanings. These different meanings might seem too abstract at first, but with time and practice, the differences will become clear. Both "will" and "be going to" refer to a specific time in the future.FORM [will + verb]Examples:

You will help him later. Will you help him later? You will not help him later.

FORM Be Going To[am/is/are + going to + verb]Examples:

You are going to meet Jane tonight. Are you going to meet Jane tonight? You are not going to meet Jane tonight.

USE 1 "Will" to Express a Voluntary Action"Will" often suggests that a speaker will do something voluntarily. A voluntary action is one the speaker offers to do for someone else. Often, we use "will" to respond to someone else's complaint or request for help. We also use "will" when we request that someone help us or volunteer to do something for us. Similarly, we use "will not" or "won't" when we refuse to voluntarily do something.Examples:

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I will send you the information when I get it. I will translate the email, so Mr. Smith can read it. Will you help me move this heavy table? Will you make dinner? I will not do your homework for you. I won't do all the housework myself! A: I'm really hungry.

B: I'll make some sandwiches. A: I'm so tired. I'm about to fall asleep.

B: I'll get you some coffee. A: The phone is ringing.

B: I'll get it.

USE 2 "Will" to Express a Promise"Will" is usually used in promises.Examples:

I will call you when I arrive. If I am elected President of the United States, I will make sure

everyone has access to inexpensive health insurance. I promise I will not tell him about the surprise party. Don't worry, I'll be careful. I won't tell anyone your secret.

USE 3 "Be going to" to Express a Plan"Be going to" expresses that something is a plan. It expresses the idea that a person intends to do something in the future. It does not matter whether the plan is realistic or not.Examples:

He is going to spend his vacation in Hawaii. She is not going to spend her vacation in Hawaii. A: When are we going to meet each other tonight?

B: We are going to meet at 6 PM. I'm going to be an actor when I grow up. Michelle is going to begin medical school next year. They are going to drive all the way to Alaska. Who are you going to invite to the party? A: Who is going to make John's birthday cake?

B: Sue is going to make John's birthday cake.

USE 4 "Will" or "Be Going to" to Express a PredictionBoth "will" and "be going to" can express the idea of a general prediction about the future. Predictions are guesses about what might happen in the future. In "prediction" sentences, the subject usually has little control over the future and therefore USES 1-3 do not apply. In the following examples, there is no difference in meaning.Examples:

The year 2222 will be a very interesting year.

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The year 2222 is going to be a very interesting year. John Smith will be the next President. John Smith is going to be the next President. The movie "Zenith" will win several Academy Awards. The movie "Zenith" is going to win several Academy Awards.

Source: http://www.englishpage.com/verbpage/simplefuture.html

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guia ingles iii unal 2012b

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