herbal medicine in aquaculture
TRANSCRIPT
March | April 2011
Feature title: Herbal medicine in aquaculture
The International magazine for the aquaculture feed industry
International Aquafeed is published five times a year by Perendale Publishers Ltd of the United Kingdom.All data is published in good faith, based on information received, and while every care is taken to prevent inaccuracies, the publishers accept no liability for any errors or omissions or for the consequences of action taken on the basis of information published. ©Copyright 2009 Perendale Publishers Ltd. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means without prior permission of the copyright owner. Printed by Perendale Publishers Ltd. ISSN: 1464-0058
With the contin-ued expansion of cultured fish and shellfish species,
aquaculture has become a key com-ponent of the animal health industry. Aquaculture is the fastest growing industry around the world with around 80 million tones produced annually.
“In the decade to 2015, world aquac-ulture production will at least double, an average annual growth rate of not less than 7.0 percent per annum, and poten-tially much more.” (as quoted by State One Stockbroking Ltd in June 2007).
Antibiotics in aquacultureDue to the intensification of rearing
methods and systems, diseases and patho-gens have been an integral part and formi-dable obstacle to the aquaculture industry worldwide.
Moreover, antibiotic resistance has become a major issue affecting the aquac-ulture industry.
As early as 1994 it was being reported by the American Society of Microbiology Task Force on Antibiotic Resistance (ASM) that, “the increasing problems associated with infectious diseases in fish, the limited number of drugs available for treatment and prevention of these diseases, and the rapid increase in resistance to these antibiotics represent major challenges for this source of food production worldwide.”
Currently, almost every section in the aquaculture industry from fish, crustaceans and shellfish is using some sort of chemo-therapeotic agents including antibiotics and many other chemicals.
The ASM antibiotic resistance task force report targets aquaculture as representing “one of the biggest concerns.”
Both the task force and the FAO (2005) made several points regarding the use of antibiotics:
• Although aquaculture production is
growing rapidly, disease prevention and treatment practices are far from standardized or regulated
• When antibiotics are used in aquac-ulture, the drugs typically remain in the open environment and may flow out of production facilities into open waterways or sewage systems, where they may also interact with other environmental contaminants
• The antibiotics typically used are also important in treating human disease and infection
Impacts of all these factors on the emergence of antibiotic resistance are unknown, however, we do know the following:
• Studies demonstrate an increase in resistant bacteria in the intestines of fish receiving antibiotic drugs (ASM, 1994 citing Ervik, 1994; Frost and Thwaites, 1998; Threlfall et al., 2000; Tollefson, L. 2000)
• Studies indicate the level of resistant bacteria in the gut of wild fish is affected during antibiotic treatment of farmed fish (ASM, 1994 citing Ervik, 1994)
• A total of 74-100 percent of wild fish in close proximity to treated ponds contained quinolone resi-dues – a group of antibiotics (for example, CIPRO) important in human health (ASM, 1994 citing Ervik, 1994; Hernández Serrano, 2005)
• Prior to medication 0.6-1 percent of the fecal bacteria in wild fish were resistant to oxacillin and oxytetracy-cline, respectively (ASM, 1994 citing Ervik, 1994)
Significant progressEuropean researchers have made signifi-
cant progress in understanding the mecha-nisms through which antibiotic resistant bacteria that emerge on fish farms can move to humans.
A team of British and Irish scientists documented the distinct movement of
resistant bacterial pieces of DNA from fish hatcheries into E. coli and Aeromonas species isolated from patients in hospitals (Rhodes et al. 2000). They concluded that, “Collectively, these findings provide evi-dence to support the hypothesis that the aquaculture and human compartments of the environment behave as a single interac-tive compartment.” (Rhodes et al. 2000)
The FAO estimated that nearly 170kg of antibiotics are applied per hectare of salmon harvested in the USA and since cages are placed in natural seawaters, antibi-otics and the resultant resistant bacteria are in contact with the environment.
Some countries, such as Norway, utilise natural structures like fjords for salmon farming and for this reason there are con-cerns about the wastes that collect in fjord bottoms (FAO/NACA/WHO, 1997).
All drugs legally used in aquaculture must be approved by the designated authorities (FDA’s Centre for Veterinary Medicine in the US, APMVA in Australia).
The most common route of delivery of these legal antibiotics to fish occurs through mixing with specially formulated feed.
However, fish do not effectively metabo-lise antibiotics and will pass them largely unused back into the environment in the faeces. It has been estimated that 75 per-cent of the antibiotics fed to fish are then put into the water through excretion (Goldburg and Triplett 1997).
Since 2006, the EU has banned com-pletely the use of antibiotics as growth promoters in aquaculture (as well as any other domestic animal). Banning and rejection of seafood imported to US and EU countries due to antibiotic and other chemotherapeutics residues are almost a daily occurrence and yet, currently, there is no alternative solution to antibiotics and other chemotherapeutics.
Diseases and aquacultureDuring the past decade, several out-
breaks of diseases devastated the aquacul-ture industry around the world. The global
Herbal medicine in aquaculture
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shrimp industry suffered major outbreaks in South East Asia and South America due to poor management, as well as, uncontrolled use of antibiotics resulting in resistance developed by pathogens.
Recently, the Chilean salmon industry suffered (and still does) a devastated out-break of infectious salmon anaemia (ISA) virus that cause loss of hundred of mil-lions of dollars. This outbreak followed another outbreak during 2008-09 of sea lice that again resulted in major losses to the industry. These outbreaks drove the authorities to review and revise the use of chamotherapeutics in this industry.
In India, Marine Product Export Development Authority (MPEDA) has instructed the hatcheries operators and farm-ers not to use antibiotics such as chloram-phenicol, nitrofurans and all their derivatives, as well as many other antibiotic groups.
However, sulfadimethoxine, sulfabro-momethazine and sulfaethoxyrpyiadine, floroquinolones and glycopeptides, which are presently used in hatcheries and farms, are still approved for use in aquaculture (Sanandakumar, 2002).
Considering the overall misuse of antibiotics in all areas - human medicine, veterinary medicine, animal production and plant protection – FAO, in 2005, pub-lished ‘The responsible use of antibiotics in aquaculture’ to raise awareness of the antibiotic resistance problem in fish farming and related sectors.
The document focuses on antibiotics misuse and the concomitant threat of resistance development, which is a seen as a public health concern affecting the popula-tion worldwide.
In its opening statement the authors stated that, “Antibiotic resistance as a phe-nomenon is, in itself, not surprising. Nor is it new. It is however, newly worrying because it is accumulating and accelerating, while the
world’s tools for combating it decrease in power and number.”
Diseases and pathogens are part of every intensive culture.
In aquaculture ‘natural mortality’ of 10-25 percent is considered to be normal in grow-out systems.
Marine finfish larvae (such as sea bream, sea bass, yellowtail kingfish, etc) survival in intensive hatcheries is 5-15 percent (Kolkovski, personal comment). These low survival rates are usually the result of combined factors such as, environmental conditions, non-specific pathogens, larvae susceptibility and low immune system development.
In fact, this situation is true to most marine and fresh water organisms reared in intensive systems.
In many cases, and although banned in most countries, to combat this problem, antibiotics are used as growth promoters and/or specifically against bacteria infection (Hernández Serrano, 2005). For example, in many hatcheries, fish juveniles are supple-mented with antibiotics several days prior and few days after transferred to sea cages.
Alternative therapyLow immune system and responses may
result in very high mortalities due to spe-cific pathogens that antibiotics are helpless against. For example, White Spot Syndrome Virus (WSSV) is one of the most devastat-ing viruses in the shrimp industry. It has caused the collapse of the shrimp industry in many countries both in South America and South East Asia (FAO, 2006).
Phytotherapy such as the use of herbal extracts in herbal medicine for humans is known for thousands of years. In some countries such as China, India, SEA and some countries in South and Central America phytotherapy considered mainstream while in Western medicine,
naturopathy and herbal medicine are more and more acknowledged.
Different medicinal plants and herbs and/or combinations of them known to have properties such as anti-bactria, anti-fungal, physiological systems (immune system, digestive system,) supporting, hormonal balancing and many other properties.
Strategies for prophylaxis and control of WSSV include improvement of envi-ronmental conditions, stocking of specific pathogen free (SPF) shrimp post-larvae and enhancement of disease resistance by using immuno-stimulants.
Immuno stimulants are substances, which enhance the non-specific defense mechanism and provide resistance against pathogenic organisms (Citarasu et al., 2006).
There are many scientific publications looking at different mechanisms and ways to enhance the specific and non-specific immune systems in fish and crustaceans. Many plant-derived compounds have been found to have non-specific immuno-stimulating effects in animals, of which more than a dozen have been evaluated in fish and shrimp (Citarasu et al. 2002, 2006, Sakai, 1999).
Many herbs and plants have been used for millennia as home remedies in many cultures around the world for both human and animals. Some of these remedies have potent anti-viral as well as anti-bacterial and anti-fungal properties.
These natural plant products have been reported to have various properties such as anti-stress, growth promoters, appetisers, tonic and immuno-stimulants.
Moreover, these substances also possess other valuable properties; they are non-toxic, biodegradable and biocompatible. No herbal-resistance immunity has been found by any pathogen to date.
Although the properties of herbs and plants are well known, documented, and in use in human herbal medicine around the world, currently very few commercial remedy
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somnifera, Mucuna pruita, Ferula asafoetida and Piper longum extracts.
Recently, commercial maturation semi-moist diet (NutraFeed, Nutrakol) that included herbal extracts fed to p. vanamei resulted in over 40percent increase in total nauplii produced with 44percent reduce in mortality compared to the normal fresh feed
Adiguzel et al. (2005) control-led infection of Aspergillus flavus and Fusarium oxyspoum with
extract of O. basilicum. Other herbal extracts are very effective against gills and skin flukes such as Benedenia seri-olae (Kolkovski, personal comment, Nutrakol Pty Ltd).
Herbal compounds have the ability to inhibit the generation of oxygen anions and scavenge free radical, hence reducing stress effects. Herbal antioxident effect was dem-onstrated by Citrasu et al. (2006) when P. kurroa (picrorhiza) was used as antis-tress compound for black tiger shrimp.
Other herbs such as, Astragalus mem-branaceus, Portulaca oleracea, Flavescent ophora and A. paniculata and many other are know to have specific and none specific anti stress affects.
Medicinal plants are also know to have hormonal boosting affects with some herbs are been used in herbal medicine as natural ‘viagra’ and in hormonal replacement therapy for menopause woman.
Babu (1999) demonstrated sig-nificant increase in fecundity, gonadal weight and reduced intermoult period in P. mondon when the shrimp fed maturation diet containing W.
exists for use in large-scale aquaculture in the world.
Medicinal plants in aquaculture
It is well known and documented that medicinal plants have strong antibacterial effects. Phenolics, polysaccharides, prote-oglycans and flavonoids known to play an important role in preventing and/or controlling bacterial infections.
Herbs such as S. triblobatum, A. pan-iculata and P. corylifolia were found to reduce vibrio in P. monodon three time when supplied in enriched Artemia (Citrasu et al. 2002, 2009). Many other studies with different species and with different herbal extracts and medicinal plants were published.
Several plant products found to have potent antiviral activity against fish and shrimp viruses.
For example, Direkbusarakom et al. 1996 found that shrimp fed ethanol extract of Clinacanthus nutans had 95 percent survival rates when exposed to Yellow head virus (YHV) compared to only 25 percent survival in control group of black tiger shrimp.
Antifungal properties were also found in many plants.
Table 1: The use of herbal extracts in shrimp boodstock diets
Botanical name Family Distribution Useful parts Biological effect in
aquaculture Reference
Cinnamonumzeylanicum Lauraceae India, Sri
Lanka Bark Endocrine system,Growth promoter
Punitha,2003
Elettariacardomomum Scitaminaceae India, Burma,
Sri LankaDried ripe
seedsEndocrine system,Growth promoter
Punitha,2003
Eugeniacaryophyllata Myrtaceae India, Sri
Lanka
Fruits anddried flower
buds
Endocrine system,Growth promoter
Punitha,2003
Mesuaferrea Guttiferae
India, Burma,Andaman,NicobarIslands
Flowe buds,seeds and
bark
Endocrine system,Growth promoter
Punitha,2003
Asparagusracemous Liliaceae India Leaves and
Root Endocrine system Devi, 1995
Mucunapruriens Papilionaceae Tropics Seeds, roots
and legumes Endocrine systemBabu andMarian,2001
Witaniasomnifera Solanaceae India Root and
leaves Endocrine system
Babu, 1999;Citrasu,2008
Table 2: Herbs, plants and algae incorporated into diets
Plant’s Name Parts used for the extraction
Withania somnifera Roots and leaves
Mucuna pruriens Seeds and roots
Myristica malabarica Seeds
Mimosa pudica Roots and leaves
Ipomea digitata Tuberous root
Asparagus racemosa Leaves, bark and juice
Hygrophila spinosa` Whole herb
Phasedus roxburghii Seeds
Moringa tinctoria Inflorescence and gum
Hemidermus indicus Root
Algae Parts used
Nannochloropsis occulata Whole cells
Chlorella salina Whole cells
Dunaliella salina Whole cells
Skeletonema costatum Whole cells
Spirulina salina Whole cells
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now banned for use in the EU, USA and many other countries.
Natural plant products present a viable alternative to antibiotics and other banned drugs being safer for the reared organism and humans, as well as, the environment.
Authorities should review the current legislation regarding the use of herbal and natural remedies in aquaculture taking the above issues into consideration and allow-ing more flexibility in the use of herbal medicine in aquaculture.
tions. Legislation regarding the addition of herbal extracts, as feed additives need to be reviewed and allowed.
ConclusionThe development of drug-resistant
pathogens has been reported from all areas of aquaculture. Treating microbial infections in fish and crustaceans involves dissolving high quantities of broad-spectrum chemo-therapeutic agents in the culture medium or supplying it in the food.
Most of these antibiotics and drugs are
and nutritional boosters used (Kolkovski et al., 2010).
IssuesAlthough herbal remedies have been in
us for human therapy for millennia, there has been relatively little research into the use of medicinal plants in aquaculture.
Standardisation is an issue when whole plant or herb is use during the extrac-tion process. Moreover, in many countries including the EU, US and Australia, the same herbals extracts approved for use in human naturopathy and herbal medicine are treated as drugs when used in aquaculture, forcing the registration of herbal remedies, a process that cost hundreds of thousands or even millions of dollars and can takes years.
A review of this legislation should be carried out taking into account the benefits of herbal remedies over currently used chemotherapeutic agents.
Herbals can be used not only as remedies but even more so, as growth promoters, stress resistance boosters and preventatives of infections.
Therefore, the use of herbal extract as feed additives can significantly benefit any organism cultured under intensive condi-
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AuthorsDr Sagiv Kolkovski is the principal scientist, marine aquaculture, at the Department of Fisheries, western Australia. He is also the R&D director at Nutrakol Pty Ltd.
Judith Kolkovski, ND is a nutritionist and herbalist and the general manager of Nutrakol Pty Ltd.
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The University of Stirling, in Scotland, is to host a major international shell-
fish conference ‘Shellfish - Our undervalued resource’ in August this year.
This is the 14th International Con fe rence on She l l f i s h Restoration, and it is being held in the United Kingdom for the first time with scientists from around the world expected to attend.
Dr Janet Brown, Head of the Shellfish Unit at the Institute of Aquaculture at Stirling, says: “In the UK the perception of shell-fish is that it is something we eat, possibly in upmarket restau-rants.
“However, shellfish reefs form an environment that can provide a myr iad of ecological and economic benefits but they have been under such over fishing pressure that these benefits have largely been lost.
“On a world stage shellfish reefs are considered among the most threatened habitats. This conference hopes to change per-ceptions, bringing scientists from all over the world to discuss how we can benefit from the experi-ence elsewhere, particularly from the USA where there has been considerable investment and
community work in shellfish res-toration.”
Holding the conference in Stirling is appropriate, as the city is on the River Forth, once the most productive oyster fishery in Scotland where recently there was significant news coverage when Dr Liz Ashton found two live oysters where they had been, till then, considered extinct.
As a conference base the University offers both com-for table hotel-type accommo-dation plus student-style more economic choices, and also the possibility for family-style chalet accommodation for scientists who may take the opportunity to bring their families and enjoy a Scottish holiday.
The conference will run from the evening of Tuesday August 23 to Saturday August 27, 2011 with a gala ‘ceilidh’ on August 26. Please note the dates and further details will be available shortly on the University website.
More inforMation:Andy Mitchell / Lesley Wilkinson Head of Communications & Media University of Stirling Stirling FK9 4LA Scotland, UKTel: +44 1786 467058 Email: [email protected] Website: www.stir.ac.uk
Shellfish conference in Stirling, Scotland
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endless screw or oil expeller that presses it and squeezes out most of the remaining water and oils.
Pressed fish coming out of the press (press cakes) then cut into smaller portions and placed into a dryer on a steam heated surface. During the drying period, the mash is in constant motion and subject to an air jet that removes all the steam emitted. The dried mash obtained is now called 'fish meal' and contains from 8 to 10 percent of water.
However, if the moisture level is more than 11 -12 percent, there is a risk of the fish meal developing moulds. Generally, antioxidants are added when fish meal is introduced and taken out of the dryer, and by so doing ensuring the stability of the oils remaining within the fish meal.
Soy proteinNot all fish species have easy digestibility
of soy protein, primarily due to increased carbohydrate content fraction. It is usually used as supportive additive with other eas-ily digestible protein like fish meal which is rich in fish proteins.
Bean processing consists essentially of extracting the oil so as to concentrate the proteins. This process provides a very important by-product, namely soya oil, which is widely used as a raw material and oil for human consumption. This proc-ess also contributes to the elimination of certain anti-nutritional factors present in the raw bean.
The first step in processing involves the removal of the shell (cellulose) from the grain. The ‘bare’ beans are then heated, on the one hand to reduce the activity of certain enzymes, and on the other to break the cellulose strands and facilitate the following steps. The heated beans are then mashed to form thin paste-like slices, which further facilitates the destruction of the cellulose structure and oil extraction.
The product, now termed ‘whole soya cake’, still contains its oil and has around 40 percent protein, and as such is sold directly for animal feeding.
Next, the oil can be extracted from the whole cake by means of a solvent (such as hexane). After total evaporation of the solvent, there remains the solvent extracted soya cake, which in turn is widely used for animal feeding, and contains 45 - 50 percent protein.
BloodmealAbattoirs or slaughterhouses produce
many important by-products, such as
blood and bones, etc which are often difficult to commercialize.
N o w a d a y s , however, these by-products constitute the basic raw mate-rial of the bone and blood meals widely used in industry for animal feeding.
Cons iderab le amounts of blood are produced by abattoirs, and this product is usu-ally transported to drying ovens and converted into blood meal. Blood from differ-ent origins such as, sheep, goat, and poultry are usually stored and proc-essed separately. However, so as to comply with basic sanitary measures, it is generally com-pulsory to store blood within cool-ing chambers and to ensure that the level of bacteria is kept within pre-scribed maximum limits.
The manufacture of bloodmeal
Fresh blood is kept cool at the factory, and sizeable particles filtered and the blood mass stirred so as to separate the fibrillar phase from the liquid mass. The fibrin is then heated up to coagulation and the coagulated mass divided and dried through a hot air stream (that is by spray drying). This method is particu-
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