history of e-learning

HISTORY OF E-LEARNING

The Open University’s distance learning Degrees are a well-known

example of effective Virtual learning / e-learning. HEIs have been

using virtual MLE environments for some time with varying degrees

of affectivity. Virtual learning is a relativly ‘new’ initiative in schools,

however, e-learning has been used for training and development in

industry for some years. Cuthell’s research into the historical

developments in e-learning largely fall into the following three

categories:

Political influences in the form of Government agenda / White

Papers and their impacts on teaching in schools;

Technological developments and

The social shift towards the normalisation of the inclusion of

information communication technologies and systems in peoples’

lives.

Since the Government realised the importance of computers in

schools and they have committed to investment through the

National Grid, whose focus has been online learning and the

management of change in the uses of new technology for

Teachers /educators students and their parents. The introduction of

ICT in the classroom challenged the current pedagogical approaches

to learning and teaching information and communicative

technologies. Many teachers were left struggling to introduce ICT in

to their classrooms. ICT across the curriculum (ICTAC) has been a

strand of the National Curriculum that was neatly integrated into

assessment frameworks with opportunities for teachers to be

assessed on their ability to integrate ICT in to their own teaching

patterns. The rise in student access to computers through more

students owning their own computers and the affordances that ICT

brings also brings attention to those who are disadvantaged by no

access at all. i

In the Acron Micro Computers Era (1980s) computers were used as

1 KELLY DOOLEY November 2009


aids for learning maths and sciences, for presenting final drafts and

used in Business Studies for studying databases. At this time,

teachers were generally struggling to fit ICT and computers into

their teaching schemes so instead they taught about computers.

Educators were concerned with how students could undertake work

using this tool; and how ICT would or could change the work

students do. Cuthell explains that ‘the dominant approach from

teachers was to learn how to use dominant programs to achieve

particular outcomes relating to their curriculum, and then teach the

students how to use the programmes in order to achieve those

outcomes’ (2002).

In looking at Cuthell’s reflections on ICT usage in schools, how

different is our approach to ICT in the classroom today? In my

intuition:

Much of the software is based on game formats which

students are awarded scores to signify success (similar to the

instant test features in Fronter – managed learning

environment.

The most successful learning experiences involving ICT

happened when computers where innate to the students

learning experience.

Increased provision has not guaranteed that teachers will use

more ICT.

By the 1990s there was more ownership of home computers

amongst students and the quality and scope of their work began to

change and the software that students had a home was broadly

compatible with that available in school. The software allowed

students to analyse data and generate graphical analysis with

relative ease. Students became the expert and the leader in

knowledge and understanding of the technology and acting as the

mentor to other students and teachers (Cuthell 2002).



Although the use of computers by young people has been a subject

of debate for some time, much of the research has focused on how

computers might enhance or transform learning and schooling

(Cuthell 2002). In this project I intend to explore the

virtual/(e)learning experiences for students studying the Creative

and Media Diploma. I will act as both a ‘participant and observer’ as

at the same time as collecting data from the students and teachers I

would also be extending my own understanding of the interpersonal

dynamism of virtual platforms (social learning) and which later

helped me to interrogate my data. I will do this through my

membership of an employment-based (school) working group who

support the implementation of Fronter (chosen Virtual Managed

Learning Environment) in my school.

The initial reaction to Fronter’s linear, text-bias interface that it was

contrary to the ‘de facto standard graphical user interface’ that

students recognised and is described in Cuthell’s research (2002).

When studying student usage of ICT and virtual learning

environments I will consider the following concepts and

methodologies outlined by Cuthell (2002). He explains:

the concept of Cyborgs as ‘the interlaced man-machine

technology that provides a route for us to stand aside from the

limitations imposed on our bodies by restrictions of age, gender,

class and socio-economic status.’ Current political thinking

strengthens the need for ICT being an integral in all aspects of

education, whether for collating and sharing student information

to use in the classroom as a tool to enhance the learning

experience;

the process of D.I.Y with the notion that the computer is a tool

that supports students ‘creations of their own artefacts and

systems of understanding’. As teachers we regularly set Internet-



based research tasks and or they are often asked to create

PowerPoint presentations to summarise or provide evidence of

learning;

that hegemony exists, in particular he states that there are a ‘the

set of assumptions and practices that dominanate the praxis and

thinking of staff and students’. For example, the dominant

assumption made by Network Managers, when we are upgrading

a new ICT room to facilitate the delivery the creative and media

diploma was that we would buying computers running Windows

operating systems (only).

How ICT promotes production through the acquisition of

knowledge, understanding and capability in the use of ICT. This

thought has been embedded into the accredited for a level 2

Diploma (all learning lines); students must achieve a level 2 in all

three Functional Skills (Mathematics, Literacy and ICT) and

display knowledge and understanding of process.

The relevance of Cyber Theory

In investigating the affordances and limitations of e-learning

environments, I will need to outline the theories that influence these

discourses. Cyber-society and virtual ideologies as summarised in

Bunyan’s 1999 thesis are acutely relevant. He explains that

“Cyberspace” is the commonly accepted term for the realm of

Computer Mediated Communication (CMC) and discourse. It is the

conceptual space one is said to be ‘in’ whilst using the Internet. He

continues to explain that the term relates to the “non physical” or

real world presence of the subject in question, or of what is being

experienced through cyberspace. Thus the terms “virtual” and

“cyber” are to some extent interchangeable. He continues to outline

that the term “community” is more problematic to define as it has

different connotations dependant on the context it is used in.

Bunyan refers to Jones’ definition for community as being “bounded

territory of sorts (whether physical or ideological), but it can also



refer to a sense of common character, identity, or interests as with

the ‘gay community’ or the ‘virtual community’” (Jones, 1997, 39).

“There is an apparent juxtaposition between individuality and

collectivity in cyberspace. Jan Fernback (Jones 1997, 36-54)

suggests that cyber-existence in post-industrial societies is partially

characterised by emergent tensions between the individual and the

collective (Bunyan 1999).” This is perhaps most prevalent in the

case of discussion groups and listserved discussion, where

messages may either be posted to an individual or the collective

‘list’ where all may view the post. Similar to Facebook’s ‘wall’

feature where friends or group members can publicly publish

messages or use the internal individual (person to person) private

message features (similar to email).

Education as both a collective and individual experience appears to

be, through the proliferation of information and communication

technologies. Education is struggling to position itself in the

emerging virtual societies and communities as schools in particular

are currently not underpinned with appropriate e-pedagogy.

Bunyan continues to argue that the virtual or online community

gives rise to a notion of that the group as a new type of collective

meta-consciousness, reasoning with itself internally as though

engaged in a meta-form of intra-personal communication. It is

within a relationship to this group identity that individual identity is

formed. Jones (1997) notes that identity is derived from both our

understanding of group identity and identification within a

collective. The individual experiences can come about through the

user’s ability to personalise their spaces through the use of a set of

tools provided within the environment. Virtual spaces are becoming

as equally prominent as the physical space; business and schools

alike have spaces on the web. The spaces present as a marketing

tool as well as a virtual platform to convergence, share and



disseminate information relevant to the community it serves. An

allure of virtual interactions in cyberspace allow participants to (with

some degree of privacy) contribute to public life from the comfort of

their own home (Bunyan, 1999). This allure is not a feature of

education-based virtual learning environments; all activity in rooms

is controlled by the room owner (the teacher). The importance of

identity and community is important criteria for successful virtual

learning interaction, and I will consider this in my research

methodology and lesson design strategy.

DISTANCE LEARNING

In John Cuthell’s’ 1999 research into ICT and distance, he argues

that traditional course scheduling becomes one of life’s fixed point

and we tend to fix everything else around it. The effort of getting to

the classroom can often be a strain particularly when the learning is

an addition to what the individual does day to day or they are

compelled to travel from one place to the next for the learning to

take place. Distance learning is attractive as there is an option of

completing the course in your own time but successful completion

of the course is more to do with will-power needed to fit the

coursework around the pressure of life. The advantages of distance

learning far out-weigh the disadvantages, in the coming years

things will become much faster with technology developments,

through broadband and satellite communications now coming

through the home, more content will transform the nature of virtual

education. Paralinguistic fillers, such as ‘ums’ and ‘errs’, which

disrupt the fluency delivery and often distort transmission meaning

are removed (can be particularly useful for early stage learners of

English language and other groups whose accent may inhibit their

contributions in a traditional learning environment) – learning

conversation are re-defined.

VIRTUAL MANAGED LEARNING ENVIRONMENT – PAN LONDON



PROGRAMME

The managed learning environment being introduced in my

institution is Fronter. Each centre must define their own admin

structure (see example of admin structure below. In my institution

this is being decided by the senior leadership team and the network

manager, who consult a working group who contribute the views of

the whole school (which I am a member of). The example below

shows a typical structure of a secondary MLE. Different users have

different permission codes which dictate whether they are able to

read (see), write (add content) or whether the room/space is public

(anyone with the correct access rights can see it). The permissions

of a user are determined by where they are in the structure, which

is hierarchical. Student users have the least restricted access a

number of different rooms; they can either read or write (add). In

the sample structure below, students have write access in one area;

Tutor rooms and will be able to read all room curriculum /

department created rooms.

ii



E-PEDAGOGIES AND LEARNING STYLES

In Cuthell’s research paper on Learning theory and e-pedagogy, he

explains the term ICT affordances as being concerned with the

facilitating of enhanced learning opportunities independent of

content or preferred teaching styles.

He argues that the current systems that British schools work within

do not facilitate the process of knowledge building and focuses

heavily on ‘means and ends of delivery; and content and

information transmission are favoured.

He continues to argue that Piagetian theory which expects the

learner to pass through certain stages of development is a

‘developmental folk myth’. This is based on the ideas that: there are

two pillars of received wisdom: learner readiness and competence

stage and students are unable to cope with concepts and

applications which have been determined to lie outside the bounds

of their developmental stage; and each stage needs to be

consolidated by practice. I agree with the suggestion that

developmental stages are not as fixed in contemporary educational

paradigms.

Piaget’s research and methodology has been questioned by a

number of researchers (Donaldson, 1978; Gardener, 1983; Seigel &

Brainerd, 1978) but the original thesis has retained its’ power over

pedagogy and the National Curriculum until 2008 when a focus on

thinking and learning as a tool to building knowledge and

understanding has taken precedence.iiiThe concept of ICT affordance was developed by Wersch (1998),

who said computers as a tool, was a vehicle for combining motor

skills, language, and image symbolic manipulation

through practical activities.

Teaching and Learning models and ICT



affordances:

Behaviourist Teaching and Learning theory is based on behaviour

modification and classroom management. Change as an agent of

learning (Atherton, J) The operant conditioning - learning by

consequencesiv was largely led by Skinner (1957).

The support provided by ICT in terms of feedback to the learner,

error messages, prompts, templates and wizards provides powerful

reinforcement of learning. These affordances underpin independent

learning systems and many managed learning environments

(Cuthell).

Constructivist theory is based on cognitive theories and there is

an emphasis on the learner in constructing an individual view from

previous experiences. Or the learner making connections between

facts and then developing new understandings.v Multiple

intelligences theory is based on Gardener (1983) his notions, that

traditional IQ testing was/is too narrow. Gardener argued that there

we have eight intelligences (word, number/logic, picture, music,

self-reflection, physical experiences, social experiences and

experiences in the natural world). Learning Styles is an approach

that originated in 1980s and puts emphasis on styles of learning

(Visual, Auditory and Kinaesthetic). This approach has been adopted

as exemplar practise in UK secondary schoolsvi

ICT has the affordance to utilise the rich learning theories provided

by the use of diverse materials and collaborative working where

knowledge is inseparable from practice.

Three powerful elements of ICT provide drivers for e-

learning:

1. They are highly ostensive; and are able to support lexical

understanding through the act of pointing at things. Cuthell

explains, that this supports and reinforces the development of



language learning. ICT systems reinforce this through the use of

the mouse, interactive whiteboards with the stylus or the finger

and in gaming (i.e. Nintendo DS uses both a stylus, fingers, audio

commands and joystick/keypad). Rosetta Stone’s vii language

learning e-learning system which relies on learners to click on the

correct visual example when an audio (voice) prompts them

through the software.

2. Visualisation and the ability to move backwards and forwards

through different stages of a process or a learning objective,

enable learners to recall stages of learning.

3. Ludic elements built into lesson : through games, competitive

elements and constant feedback, learning becomes fun. In

developing suitable resources I will attempt to include these

three ‘powerful elements’.

Mover over the success of e-learning depends on teachers’

recognition and action towards the dynamic nature of a new

pedagogy in which continual change must be embraced. Students

will be an existential reality of living on the edge of cutting edge

technology, where the tools they use and the concepts they forge

are an integral part of the learning process. The successful

implementation of e-learning into our education system will depend,

to an extent, on teachers’ personal uses of ICT and e-learning,

whether for access to resources, CPD, communities of practice or

communities of social networks (Cuthell, 1999).

Kolb (1983) saw learning as an active process its stages formed as

a continuum; this model for teaching and learning argues that

learners should be immersed in experiences, reflect on them and

then use these, to through experimentation create, or develop their

understanding of a concept or concept skill. From concrete

experience / involvement; through watching others or developing

conversations about their own experience, through abstract

conceptualisation there is a creation of ideas that explain their



observations. Often a feature in Creative and Media education is

simulation projects which provide students with opportunities to

have an experience of working within an industry/work related

environment. In reflective observation – watching others or

developing conversations about one’s own experience through

abstract conceptualisation – learners perform evaluative tasks and

engage in discussions, observer and comment on others work. In

active experimentation students use theories to solve problems and

make decisions (Cuthell).

The combination of elements of play – the ludic, ostensive and

visual stimuli means that computers provide a focus for different

types of learning. Computers are still only artefacts that reinforce

intuitive understanding and ways of knowing and learning. Distance

learning and the use of ICT, Learning Theories, The affordances of

ICT for learning, the problems for learning and teaching in an age of

new technologies and new pedagogy (e-pedagogy / e-learning).

CONTEMPORARY USE OF INFORMATION COMMUNICATION

TECHNOLOGIES

The emergence and subsequent proliferation of social networking

sites where people interact with each other easily. The user

developed games, sharing original and found content by providing

information about themselves on profile pages. Users of such

virtual meeting places agree to a set of agreed behaviour imposed

by the community. An agreed numeric-phonetic abbreviated

language is used to write on your friends’ wall, comments of

photographs or any other content the owner has decided to share.

From my own experiences and through data gathered in my student

and teacher questionnaire Facebook appeared to be a most popular

virtual social network and Microsoft Messenger was very popular

with students who used it to ‘Chat’ with friends. Other popular

virtual communities or immersive virtual worlds include second life.



Second life is described as a 3D virtual world where you encounter

both people and objects you can interact with (through the use of

your mouse) by utilising ‘contextual menus’ for ‘objects’ , ‘yourself’

and ‘others’. You can also move around, see people and objects in

less/closer details or from different angles. Second life is most well

known for the users creation of avatars. Avatars not only act as a

form of fun but when considered with social constructivist

conceptual framework such as those adopted by the Appalachian

State University Reich College of Education; we begin to see that

the use of avatars are much more significant to the community

practice. Bronack, Tashner et al (2008) argue that:

(1)Learning occurs in communities of practice;

(2)Knowledge is socially constructed and learning is social in nature;

(3)The development of educators proceeds through stages of

Novice to Expert under the guidance of more experienced and

Knowledgeable mentors in the community of practice;

(4)Cognition is distributed; that is, individual thinking and problem

solving are revealed through socially contextual practices.

The need for e-learning in schools or not?

The systemic normalisation of the need for and harvesting Cyborgs

and other forms of virtual learning communities and platforms have

become an integral part of what is considered exemplar learning

and teaching in British secondary education. The arguments put

forward by Raymond Williams in his essay Ideas of Nature question

the role and importance of progress. When applying his exploration

of the concepts of nature he argues that ‘nature’ is a mere

ideological and often-hegemonic construct, I have further explored

his ideas with an epistemological framework to question the need

for e-learning in schools (ed. During 1993).


i Cuthell, J Virtual Learning - The Impact of ICT on the Way Young People Work www.virtuallearning.org.uk/virtuallearning ii http://api.ning.com/files/9i*QBkry3p6qdg37pHGS1Pswh*1aN*UrmudJPXPKyGmiR7Z1CeaZwLtSPqU4UKAPNPV8XIC4l1mszbr40YEEWdXMAqdt2RzW/MLEStructureFeb2009.jpg iiihttp://www.learningandteaching.info/learning/behaviour.htm iv http://www.funderstanding.com/content/behaviorism v http://www.emtech.net/construc.htm vi Pedagogy and Practice: Teaching and Learning in Secondary schools / Unit 19 (learning styles). www.dcsf.gov.uk viiRosetta Stone – is a language learning e-learning system which relies on learners to click on the correct visual example when an audio (voice) prompt through the software www.rosettastone.co.uk/.

http://www.emtech.net/construc.htm

http://www.funderstanding.com/content/behaviorism

http://www.learningandteaching.info/learning/behaviour.htm

http://api.ning.com/files/9i*QBkry3p6qdg37pHGS1Pswh*1aN*UrmudJPXPKyGmiR7Z1CeaZwLtSPqU4UKAPNPV8XIC4l1mszbr40YEEWdXMAqdt2RzW/MLEStructureFeb2009.jpg

http://api.ning.com/files/9i*QBkry3p6qdg37pHGS1Pswh*1aN*UrmudJPXPKyGmiR7Z1CeaZwLtSPqU4UKAPNPV8XIC4l1mszbr40YEEWdXMAqdt2RzW/MLEStructureFeb2009.jpg

http://www.virtuallearning.org.uk/virtuallearning

history of e-learning

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