Hittites and KassitesHittites and Kassites

Old Babylon fell (approximately 1595 B.C.E.) to Old Babylon fell (approximately 1595 B.C.E.) to bands of Hittite raiders from Asia Minor (modern bands of Hittite raiders from Asia Minor (modern Turkey). The Turkey). The HittitesHittites withdrew, leaving withdrew, leaving Mesopotamia to the Mesopotamia to the KassitesKassites. The Kassites ruled . The Kassites ruled Mesopotamia until 1000 B.C.E. Mesopotamia until 1000 B.C.E.

BACKGROUND BACKGROUND INFORMATION Hittites and INFORMATION Hittites and

KassitesKassites Anatolia has been a land Anatolia has been a land bridge between Europe and bridge between Europe and Asia, a highway for armies, Asia, a highway for armies, and a melting pot of nations and a melting pot of nations for six thousand years.for six thousand years.

The ancient world called it The ancient world called it Asia Minor because it Asia Minor because it resembled the larger resembled the larger continent of Asia.continent of Asia.

Its central part consists of a Its central part consists of a plateau surrounded by the plateau surrounded by the high Taurus Mountains in the high Taurus Mountains in the south and the Anti-Taurus south and the Anti-Taurus Mountains in the east with the Mountains in the east with the land gradually sloping land gradually sloping towards the coastal plains in towards the coastal plains in the west and south.the west and south.

In area, it is comparable to In area, it is comparable to the state of California, but the state of California, but there is little arable land. there is little arable land.

Many diverse peoples lived in Many diverse peoples lived in Anatolia in 400 BCE.Anatolia in 400 BCE.

Organized into tribes, hostile to Organized into tribes, hostile to each other, they spent their lives each other, they spent their lives farming or fighting. farming or fighting.

In 800 B.C., the Hittites, an Indo In 800 B.C., the Hittites, an Indo European people, migrated into European people, migrated into Anatolia from the region north of Anatolia from the region north of the Black Sea, conquered the the Black Sea, conquered the indigenous population, and indigenous population, and formed the ruling class for one of formed the ruling class for one of the great empires of the ancient the great empires of the ancient world.world.

Hittites and KassitesHittites and Kassites With a highly developed With a highly developed

military machine, the Hittites military machine, the Hittites conquered Babylonia and Syria, conquered Babylonia and Syria, and fought successfully against and fought successfully against Egypt. Egypt.

They maintained their They maintained their superiority through strategy, superiority through strategy, good weapons, and by skill in good weapons, and by skill in diplomacy. diplomacy.

Their government was a federal Their government was a federal state under a centralized state under a centralized administration ruled by a king administration ruled by a king whose power was controlled by whose power was controlled by a council of nobles.a council of nobles.

The king, nobles, and people The king, nobles, and people had rights and duties had rights and duties guaranteed them by law. guaranteed them by law.

The law code substituted the The law code substituted the revengeful principle of an eye revengeful principle of an eye for an eye for the milder for an eye for the milder principle of reparation.principle of reparation.

Hittites and KassitesHittites and Kassites There was no literature, no There was no literature, no

single language, and few single language, and few works of art. works of art.

They did use iron, as early They did use iron, as early as 1600 BC., but mostly for as 1600 BC., but mostly for jewelry and not for jewelry and not for weapons.weapons.

They were known They were known throughout the ancient throughout the ancient world for their ability to world for their ability to train horses. They wrote train horses. They wrote the first book on horse the first book on horse training.training.

They also perfected the They also perfected the two-wheeled war chariot.two-wheeled war chariot.

Hittites and KassitesHittites and Kassites

Soon after 1200 B.C., the remnants Soon after 1200 B.C., the remnants of the Hittite population moved into of the Hittite population moved into the plains of northern Syria where the plains of northern Syria where they intermarried with Arameans, they intermarried with Arameans, Hurrians, and Syrians. After 1000 Hurrians, and Syrians. After 1000 B.C., they were completely B.C., they were completely assimilated by the advancing assimilated by the advancing Assyrian Empire.Assyrian Empire.

HATTUSASHATTUSASCAPITAL CITY OF THE HITTITESCAPITAL CITY OF THE HITTITES

The center of Hittite The center of Hittite power was their capital power was their capital city of Hattusas, built city of Hattusas, built by King Hattusilis I, by King Hattusilis I, (1650-1620 B.C.). (1650-1620 B.C.).

It was at Hattusas that It was at Hattusas that the Hittite kings the Hittite kings conducted the affairs conducted the affairs of government, of government, administered their administered their diverse empire, and diverse empire, and built their royal built their royal palaces and temples. palaces and temples.

HATTUSASHATTUSAS Hattusas was located on the top of a steep cliff overlooking a wide, Hattusas was located on the top of a steep cliff overlooking a wide,

cultivated valley. cultivated valley. Surrounded by a double wall, the city stretched for four miles and Surrounded by a double wall, the city stretched for four miles and

was impregnable. was impregnable. The walls were the central feature of Hattusas and show a great The walls were the central feature of Hattusas and show a great

ability to construct massive brick and stone fortifications. ability to construct massive brick and stone fortifications. The outer wall was twenty feet high; the inner was thirty feet high, The outer wall was twenty feet high; the inner was thirty feet high,

and both were constructed with massive, irregular stones fitted and both were constructed with massive, irregular stones fitted together without mortar to support an upper structure of brick together without mortar to support an upper structure of brick covered with stucco. covered with stucco.

Towers were placed at one hundred foot intervals as an added Towers were placed at one hundred foot intervals as an added defense. defense.

Entrance to the city was through three gates — the Lion’s Gate, the Entrance to the city was through three gates — the Lion’s Gate, the King’s Gate, and the Sphinx Gate. King’s Gate, and the Sphinx Gate.

The only sculptures found in the city were discovered at the gates. The only sculptures found in the city were discovered at the gates. Two fierce stone lions guarded the Lion’s Gate; a warrior dressed in Two fierce stone lions guarded the Lion’s Gate; a warrior dressed in

a kilt and a helmet, and carrying a battle ax, guarded the King’s a kilt and a helmet, and carrying a battle ax, guarded the King’s Gate, while two sphinxes protected the third gate. Gate, while two sphinxes protected the third gate.

Inside the walls, four buildings have been identified as temples, Inside the walls, four buildings have been identified as temples, others as storerooms, and one as the library for the royal archives.others as storerooms, and one as the library for the royal archives.

HITTITE EXPANSIONHITTITE EXPANSION The next period of Hittite history was The next period of Hittite history was

one of wars and expansion, one of wars and expansion, culminating in the Hittite domination culminating in the Hittite domination of both Palestine and Syria. of both Palestine and Syria.

Two great warrior kings, Two great warrior kings, Suppiluliumas, (1374-1355 B.C.), and Suppiluliumas, (1374-1355 B.C.), and Muwatallis. (1306- 1282 B.C.), were Muwatallis. (1306- 1282 B.C.), were greatly responsible for creating this greatly responsible for creating this large empire. large empire.

Suppiluliumas conquered the cities of Suppiluliumas conquered the cities of Aleppo, Damascus, and Carchemish in Aleppo, Damascus, and Carchemish in Syria, and added the coastal plain of Syria, and added the coastal plain of Lebanon, so that the empire stretched Lebanon, so that the empire stretched from the Euphrates in the east, to from the Euphrates in the east, to Palestine in the south, to the Palestine in the south, to the Mediterranean in the west, and the Mediterranean in the west, and the Black Sea in the north. Black Sea in the north.

His power was so great that the His power was so great that the Egyptian queen, widow of Egyptian queen, widow of Tutankhamen, asked to marry Tutankhamen, asked to marry Suppiluliumas’s son. Suppiluliumas’s son.

The king considered the request, but The king considered the request, but the plans for the wedding miscarried the plans for the wedding miscarried when the Hittite envoys were when the Hittite envoys were murdered by irate Egyptian nobles.murdered by irate Egyptian nobles.

HITTITE EXPANSIONHITTITE EXPANSION Muwatallis, (1306-1282 Muwatallis, (1306-1282

B.C.), faced a renewed B.C.), faced a renewed and vigorous Egyptian and vigorous Egyptian attempt to recover attempt to recover Syria and reassert Syria and reassert Egyptian influence in Egyptian influence in the Near East. the Near East.

He met and defeated He met and defeated the Egyptian army at the Egyptian army at Kadesh and maintained Kadesh and maintained Hittite supremacy in Hittite supremacy in the south.the south.

After his reign, Hittite After his reign, Hittite power declined.power declined.

HITTITE RELIGIONHITTITE RELIGIONTHE TEMPLE AT YNZILIKAYATHE TEMPLE AT YNZILIKAYA

Hittite theology was Hittite theology was not greatly developed. not greatly developed.

The gods were The gods were invisible and immortal, invisible and immortal, but their needs and but their needs and interests were human. interests were human.

They had to be fed, They had to be fed, appeased, and appeased, and flattered.flattered.

Evil spirits and demons Evil spirits and demons were always ready to were always ready to cause misfortune. cause misfortune.

THE TEMPLE AT YNZILIKAYATHE TEMPLE AT YNZILIKAYA There was no single, unified, Hittite There was no single, unified, Hittite

religion, as each city-state kept religion, as each city-state kept local gods.local gods.

The Hittite kings assumed the office The Hittite kings assumed the office of supreme priest of the realm. of supreme priest of the realm.

During the Empire period (1400-During the Empire period (1400-1200 B.C.), a number of gods and 1200 B.C.), a number of gods and goddesses were designated as goddesses were designated as national deities and worshiped at national deities and worshiped at the capital with elaborate rituals. the capital with elaborate rituals.

It was during this period also that It was during this period also that Yazilikaya, one of the most Yazilikaya, one of the most important religious shrines, was important religious shrines, was built at a great rock sanctuary two built at a great rock sanctuary two miles from Hattusas. miles from Hattusas.

Here a natural outcrop of limestone Here a natural outcrop of limestone cliffs formed an enclosed grove. cliffs formed an enclosed grove.

Worshippers would pass through the Worshippers would pass through the building and find themselves in the building and find themselves in the rock sanctuary with gods and rock sanctuary with gods and goddesses carved in bas-relief upon goddesses carved in bas-relief upon its walls.its walls.

THE TEMPLE AT YNZILIKAYATHE TEMPLE AT YNZILIKAYA Yaziltkaya represents the official pantheon in its final form, Yaziltkaya represents the official pantheon in its final form,

but unfortunately only a few of the gods and goddesses but unfortunately only a few of the gods and goddesses have been identified. have been identified.

The most important god seen in the temple was the The most important god seen in the temple was the weather god, Teshub.weather god, Teshub.

Teshub was worshipped as the “King of Heaven, Lord of the Teshub was worshipped as the “King of Heaven, Lord of the Land of the Hatti.” Land of the Hatti.”

Another recognizable deity is Telipinu, the son of the Another recognizable deity is Telipinu, the son of the weather god, and the patron god of vegetation. weather god, and the patron god of vegetation.

He is shown holding a twig or an ear of corn. He is shown holding a twig or an ear of corn. One of the winged figures in the procession was the Moon One of the winged figures in the procession was the Moon

god from Mesopotamia. god from Mesopotamia. The final figure, dressed in the robes of a king, has been The final figure, dressed in the robes of a king, has been

identified as a sun god or a deified king.identified as a sun god or a deified king.

HITTITE WARFAREHITTITE WARFARE Hittite military superiority over Hittite military superiority over

the other peoples of the ancient the other peoples of the ancient world lay in the perfection of a world lay in the perfection of a new weapon, the light, horse- new weapon, the light, horse- drawn, battle chariot. drawn, battle chariot.

The chariot had been invented The chariot had been invented by tile Sumenians, but their by tile Sumenians, but their chariot was little more than a chariot was little more than a cart on solid disc wheels pulled cart on solid disc wheels pulled by an onager, where as the by an onager, where as the Hittite vehicle was a buggy with Hittite vehicle was a buggy with two-spoked wheels pulled by two-spoked wheels pulled by two horses. two horses.

This chariot revolutionized This chariot revolutionized military strategy because it military strategy because it gave the Hittites great speed gave the Hittites great speed and mobility in moving into and mobility in moving into battle, and it demoralized foot-battle, and it demoralized foot-soldiers who had to stand soldiers who had to stand against charging horses and against charging horses and vehicles.vehicles.

HITTITE WARFAREHITTITE WARFARE

Three men usually rode in a Hittite chariot: Three men usually rode in a Hittite chariot: a driver and two warriors, one on either a driver and two warriors, one on either side of the driver. side of the driver.

The warriors were armed with a lance, a The warriors were armed with a lance, a bow, and a rectangular or ax-shaped bow, and a rectangular or ax-shaped shield. shield.

The infantry comprised the rest of the The infantry comprised the rest of the military force, and it was used only to mop military force, and it was used only to mop up after the chariot had done its work; up after the chariot had done its work; there was no cavalry or navy.there was no cavalry or navy.

HITTITE WARFAREHITTITE WARFARE Strategy was simple — catch the enemy’s army Strategy was simple — catch the enemy’s army

in the open and cut it to pieces with the chariots. in the open and cut it to pieces with the chariots. The tactical genius of the Hittite kings is best The tactical genius of the Hittite kings is best

known from the battle of Kadesh. known from the battle of Kadesh. The Hittites invaded Syria in 1296 B.C. to The Hittites invaded Syria in 1296 B.C. to

counteract increased Egyptian activity there counteract increased Egyptian activity there under Ramses II. under Ramses II.

The Hittite army was encamped north of the city The Hittite army was encamped north of the city of Kadesh on the Orontes River when word came of Kadesh on the Orontes River when word came that the Egyptian army was advancing northward that the Egyptian army was advancing northward towards Kadesh, The Hittite king, Muwatalus, laid towards Kadesh, The Hittite king, Muwatalus, laid his trap carefully. his trap carefully.

Two soldiers posing as deserters were sent to Two soldiers posing as deserters were sent to Ramses to lure him northward with the false Ramses to lure him northward with the false information that the Hittite army was many miles information that the Hittite army was many miles away at Aleppo. away at Aleppo.

Ramses, with one-third of his army, rushed Ramses, with one-third of his army, rushed northward and camped to the west of Kadesh, northward and camped to the west of Kadesh, completely unaware that the Hittite army had completely unaware that the Hittite army had crossed the Orontes.crossed the Orontes.

Hidden by the city, the Hittites were now Hidden by the city, the Hittites were now opposite him, and in a brilliant movement, the opposite him, and in a brilliant movement, the Hittite army re-crossed the Orontes and closed in Hittite army re-crossed the Orontes and closed in on the Egyptian camp from the southeast, cutting on the Egyptian camp from the southeast, cutting off Ramses communication with the rest of his off Ramses communication with the rest of his army.army.

HITTITE WARFAREHITTITE WARFARE

Ramses realized his desperate situation only when he captured Ramses realized his desperate situation only when he captured two genuine Hittite spies who admitted, under beating, that two genuine Hittite spies who admitted, under beating, that the Hittite army was behind Kadesh and moving up from the the Hittite army was behind Kadesh and moving up from the southeast rather than the north as Ramses expected. southeast rather than the north as Ramses expected.

With darkness approaching, Muwatallis retired into Kadesh and With darkness approaching, Muwatallis retired into Kadesh and prepared for a siege, but Ramses retreated without attempting prepared for a siege, but Ramses retreated without attempting to take the city.to take the city.

HITTITE WARFAREHITTITE WARFARE Kadesh was a decisive battle Kadesh was a decisive battle

of history because with the of history because with the Egyptian retreat from Syria, Egyptian retreat from Syria, the entire balance of power in the entire balance of power in the Near East shifted from the Near East shifted from them to the Hittites. them to the Hittites.

Kadesh is also the first battle Kadesh is also the first battle in history that can be in history that can be reconstructed from written reconstructed from written documents, it is interesting to documents, it is interesting to note that all the documents note that all the documents are Egyptian accounts of the are Egyptian accounts of the battle, and so Ramses battle, and so Ramses becomes the victor. becomes the victor.

Yet historians know from Yet historians know from other sources, particularly other sources, particularly from the provisions of the from the provisions of the peace treaty, that the war peace treaty, that the war was a Hittite victory.was a Hittite victory.

The Assyrians The Assyrians (1100-612 B.C.E.)(1100-612 B.C.E.)

The The AssyriansAssyrians were a were a fierce, warlike people who fierce, warlike people who originated in Asia Minor. originated in Asia Minor.

By 665 B.C.E., Assyrian By 665 B.C.E., Assyrian warriors had conquered warriors had conquered Syria and Palestine and Syria and Palestine and much of Mesopotamia. much of Mesopotamia.

Their southern border was Their southern border was Egypt. Egypt.

The Assyrians used terror The Assyrians used terror to govern subject peoples. to govern subject peoples.

Their soldiers were among Their soldiers were among the first to carry weapons the first to carry weapons made of iron. made of iron.

The Assyrian EmpireThe Assyrian Empire The The AssyrianAssyrian political development was political development was

unlike that of any of the other Mesopotamian unlike that of any of the other Mesopotamian peoples. peoples.

Their relative isolation until 1300 B.C.E. and Their relative isolation until 1300 B.C.E. and the necessities of waging constant warfare the necessities of waging constant warfare after this date led them to develop an after this date led them to develop an extremely militaristic system. extremely militaristic system.

The Assyrians disseminated stories of their The Assyrians disseminated stories of their cruelty and brutality in order to terrorize their cruelty and brutality in order to terrorize their subject peoples. subject peoples.

Archaeologists disagree on how much Archaeologists disagree on how much influence the Sumerians and Old Babylonians influence the Sumerians and Old Babylonians had on the Assyrians. had on the Assyrians.

Some parts of the Some parts of the Code of HammurabiCode of Hammurabi were maintained. were maintained.

Significant changes were made in the Significant changes were made in the lex lex talionistalionis and the Babylonian system of and the Babylonian system of punishment which was based on social class. punishment which was based on social class.

Finally, where the Babylonians reserved the Finally, where the Babylonians reserved the most severe penalties for treason, the most severe penalties for treason, the Assyrians prescribed the greatest penalties Assyrians prescribed the greatest penalties for homosexuality and abortion. for homosexuality and abortion.

Some contend that the reason the Assyrians Some contend that the reason the Assyrians considered these acts so grave was because considered these acts so grave was because they might lead to a lower birthrate and they might lead to a lower birthrate and adversely affect the size of the military. adversely affect the size of the military.

The Chaldeans The Chaldeans (New Babylonians 612-538 B.C.E.)(New Babylonians 612-538 B.C.E.)

The The ChaldeansChaldeans drove the drove the Assyrians out of the lower Assyrians out of the lower Tigris- Euphrates Valley in Tigris- Euphrates Valley in 612 B.C.E. In 587 B.C.E. the 612 B.C.E. In 587 B.C.E. the Chaldeans conquered Syria Chaldeans conquered Syria and Palestine. and Palestine.

Their king, Their king, NebuchadnezzarNebuchadnezzar, , destroyed the Temple of destroyed the Temple of Solomon and ordered that Solomon and ordered that the leading Jews in the leading Jews in Jerusalem should be Jerusalem should be brought to Babylon as brought to Babylon as slaves (Babylonian Captivity slaves (Babylonian Captivity in the Book of Daniel). in the Book of Daniel).

CyrusCyrus, King of the , King of the MedesMedes and and PersiansPersians, defeated the , defeated the Chaldeans in 538 B.C.E. Chaldeans in 538 B.C.E.

The Chaldean ReligionThe Chaldean Religion The Chaldeans tried to revive The Chaldeans tried to revive

the Old Babylonian precepts. the Old Babylonian precepts. They restored They restored MardukMarduk as the as the chief of the gods. chief of the gods.

In fact, the Chaldeans practiced In fact, the Chaldeans practiced an essentially astral religion. an essentially astral religion.

The gods were envisioned as The gods were envisioned as forces beyond human forces beyond human understanding which were understanding which were centered in the heavenly centered in the heavenly bodies.bodies.

Chief among the Chaldean Chief among the Chaldean beliefs was the necessity of beliefs was the necessity of submitting to fate. submitting to fate.

Surviving texts and temple Surviving texts and temple ornaments indicate that the ornaments indicate that the Chaldeans were uninterested in Chaldeans were uninterested in questions about life after deathquestions about life after death

The Babylonian EmpireThe Babylonian Empire The The AmoriteAmorite victory over the victory over the AkkadiansAkkadians

(ca. 2000 BCE.) catalyzed a series of (ca. 2000 BCE.) catalyzed a series of important political and cultural important political and cultural developments. developments.

Through trade, the Through trade, the BabyloniansBabylonians influenced influenced much of the ancient world. much of the ancient world. The Code of The Code of HammurabiHammurabi (ca. 1750) elaborated a way of (ca. 1750) elaborated a way of life that had developed for centuries. life that had developed for centuries.

The Code presents a compilation of traditions The Code presents a compilation of traditions and laws that were shared by many of the and laws that were shared by many of the Mesopotamian peoples.Mesopotamian peoples.

The Babylonian EmpireThe Babylonian Empire The administration of justice is unequal.The administration of justice is unequal. Membership in a social class determines Membership in a social class determines

the punishment for a crime. the punishment for a crime. In OldIn Old Babylon there were three classes. Babylon there were three classes.

The highest class consisted of the King, The highest class consisted of the King, his retinue, priests, and wealthy his retinue, priests, and wealthy individuals. individuals.

The second class was made up of free The second class was made up of free individuals; Slaves belonged to the individuals; Slaves belonged to the lowest class. lowest class.

The Babylonian EmpireThe Babylonian Empire

The administration of justice was The administration of justice was semi-private. semi-private.

Individuals and families bore much of Individuals and families bore much of the responsibility for enforcing the the responsibility for enforcing the Code. Code.

The Babylonian EmpireThe Babylonian Empire

The idea of justice was based on a The idea of justice was based on a concept of retribution or concept of retribution or lex lex talionistalionis (law of reciprocal (law of reciprocal punishment in kind “an eye for an punishment in kind “an eye for an eye”).eye”).

Babylonian GovernmentBabylonian Government

Recent archaeological research has Recent archaeological research has called into question the long-held called into question the long-held belief that the Babylonian belief that the Babylonian government was a theocracy government was a theocracy (government by priests). (government by priests).

Priests controlled a substantial Priests controlled a substantial amount of property but individual amount of property but individual owners predominated. owners predominated.

The King The King (lugal)(lugal) exercised power exercised power independently from the temple.independently from the temple.

The PersiansThe Persians Cyrus, king of the southern Persians, led his Cyrus, king of the southern Persians, led his

satrapiessatrapies (vassals) in a successful campaign (vassals) in a successful campaign against the Medes in 559 B.C.Eagainst the Medes in 559 B.C.E

In the next twenty years his armies created a In the next twenty years his armies created a vast empire. vast empire.

In 539 B.C.E.. Cyrus conquered the In 539 B.C.E.. Cyrus conquered the Chaldeans. Chaldeans. CambysesCambyses, Cyrus’s son, , Cyrus’s son, conquered Egypt in 525 B.C.E. conquered Egypt in 525 B.C.E.

Cambyses’s successor was Cambyses’s successor was Darius the Darius the GreatGreat..

Darius governed between 522 and 486 B.C.E.Darius governed between 522 and 486 B.C.E. He extended the Persian Empire, bringing the He extended the Persian Empire, bringing the

Persians into conflict with the Greeks. Persians into conflict with the Greeks. XerxesXerxes, Darius’s successor, failed in his , Darius’s successor, failed in his

attempt to conquer the Greeks in 479 B.C.E. attempt to conquer the Greeks in 479 B.C.E. The Persians constructed a network of roads The Persians constructed a network of roads

which provided a communications system for which provided a communications system for the government. the government.

The Royal Road ran for more than 1600 miles The Royal Road ran for more than 1600 miles from Susa (on the Persian Gulf) to Sardis (in from Susa (on the Persian Gulf) to Sardis (in Asia Minor).Asia Minor).

The Persian ReligionThe Persian Religion ZoroastrianismZoroastrianism was the Persian was the Persian

religion. religion. The prophet The prophet Zoroaster Zoroaster established established

the essentials of this religion shortly the essentials of this religion shortly before 600 B.C.E. before 600 B.C.E.

Zoroastrianism is known primarily as a Zoroastrianism is known primarily as a monotheistic religionmonotheistic religion characterized characterized by worship of the holy god by worship of the holy god Ahura Ahura MazdaMazda, who seeks to enlist the , who seeks to enlist the goodness of humankind in his cosmic goodness of humankind in his cosmic struggle against the evil spirit struggle against the evil spirit AhrimanAhriman. .

After death, humans are rewarded or After death, humans are rewarded or punished on the basis of how punished on the basis of how responsibly they conduct their lives.responsibly they conduct their lives.

Those who sin are sentenced to a Those who sin are sentenced to a period of retribution in hell. period of retribution in hell.

Unlike in Christianity, however, all Unlike in Christianity, however, all Zoroastrians eventually do find a place Zoroastrians eventually do find a place in heaven. in heaven.

REASONS FOR DECLINEREASONS FOR DECLINE

Mesopotamia possessed no natural Mesopotamia possessed no natural boundaries. boundaries.

A near-constant state of warfare existed in A near-constant state of warfare existed in the region. the region.

This prevented any city-state or group of This prevented any city-state or group of city-states from developing enough power city-states from developing enough power to hold off its rivals. to hold off its rivals.

After 538 B.C.E., Mesopotamia was After 538 B.C.E., Mesopotamia was absorbed into the larger empires that had absorbed into the larger empires that had appeared in the East (Persian) and West appeared in the East (Persian) and West (Alexander after 330 B.C.E.). (Alexander after 330 B.C.E.).