hobbes leviathan 66

8/8/2019 Hobbes Leviathan 66

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1651

LEVIATHAN

byThomasHobbesINTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

NATURE(theartwherebyGodhathmadeandgovernstheworld)isbytheartofman,asinmanyotherthings,sointhisalsoimitated,thatitcanma eanartificialanimal.Forseeinglifeisbutamotionoflimbs,thebeginningwhereofisinsomeprincipalpartwithin,whymaywenotsaythatallautomata(enginesthatmovethemselvesbyspringsandwheelsasdothawatch)haveanartificiallife?Forwhatistheheart,butaspring;andthenerves,butsomanystrings;andthejoints,butsomanywheels,givingmotiontothewholebody,suchaswasintendedbytheArtificer?Artgoesyetfurther,imitatingthatrationalandmostexcellentwor ofNature,man.ForbyartiscreatedthatgreatLEVIATHANcalledaCOMMONWEALTH,orSTATE(inLatin,CIVITAS),whichisbutanartificialman,thoughofgreaterstatureandstrengththanthenatural,forwhoseprotectionanddefenceitwasintended;andinwhichthesovereigntyisanartificialsoul,asgivinglifeandmotiontothewholebody;the

magistratesandotherofficersofjudicatureandexecution,artificialjoints;rewardandpunishment(bywhichfastenedtotheseatofthesovereignty,everyjointandmemberismovedtoperformhisduty)arethenerves,thatdothesameinthebodynatural;thewealthandrichesofalltheparticularmembersarethestrength;saluspopuli(thepeople'ssafety)itsbusiness;counsellors,bywhomallthingsneedfulforitto nowaresuggesteduntoit,arethememory;equityandlaws,anartificialreasonandwill;concord,health;sedition,sic ness;andcivilwar,death.Lastly,thepactsandcovenants,bywhichthepartsofthisbodypoliticwereatfirstmade,settogether,andunited,resemblethatfiat,ortheLetusma eman,pronouncedbyGodintheCreation.

Todescribethenatureofthisartificialman,Iwillconsider

First,thematterthereof,andtheartificer;bothwhichisman.

Secondly,how,andbywhatcovenantsitismade;whataretherightsandjustpowerorauthorityofasovereign;andwhatitisthatpreservethanddissolvethit.

Thirdly,whatisaChristianCommonwealth.

Lastly,whatistheKingdomofDar ness.

Concerningthefirst,thereisasayingmuchusurpedoflate,that

wisdomisacquired,notbyreadingofboo s,butofmen.Consequentlywhereunto,thosepersons,thatforthemostpartcangivenootherproofofbeingwise,ta egreatdelighttoshowwhattheythin theyhavereadinmen,byuncharitablecensuresofoneanotherbehindtheirbac s.Butthereisanothersayingnotoflateunderstood,bywhichtheymightlearntrulytoreadoneanother,iftheywouldta ethepains;andthatis,Nosceteipsum,Readthyself:whichwasnotmeant,asitisnowused,tocountenanceeitherthebarbarousstateofmeninpowertowardstheirinferiors,ortoencouragemenoflowdegreetoasaucybehaviourtowardstheir


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betters;buttoteachusthatforthesimilitudeofthethoughtsandpassionsofoneman,tothethoughtsandpassionsofanother,whosoeverloo ethintohimselfandconsiderethwhathedothwhenhedoesthin ,opine,reason,hope,fear,etc.,anduponwhatgrounds;heshalltherebyreadand nowwhatarethethoughtsandpassionsofallothermenupontheli eoccasions.Isaythesimilitudeofpassions,whicharethesameinallmen,-desire,fear,hope,etc.;notthesimilitudeoftheobjectsofthepassions,whicharethethingsdesired,feared,hoped,etc.:forthesetheconstitutionindividual,andparticulareducation,dosovary,andtheyaresoeasytobe eptfromour nowledge,thatthecharactersofman'sheart,blottedandconfoundedastheyarewithdissembling,lying,counterfeiting,anderroneousdoctrines,arelegibleonlytohimthatsearchethhearts.Andthoughbymen'sactionswedodiscovertheirdesignsometimes;yettodoitwithoutcomparingthemwithourown,anddistinguishingallcircumstancesbywhichthecasemaycometobealtered,istodecipherwithouta ey,andbeforthemostpartdeceived,bytoomuchtrustorbytoomuchdiffidence,ashethatreadsishimselfagoodorevilman.

Butletonemanreadanotherbyhisactionsneversoperfectly,itserveshimonlywithhisacquaintance,whicharebutfew.Hethatistogovernawholenationmustreadinhimself,notthis,orthatparticularman;butman ind:whichthoughitbehardtodo,harder

thantolearnanylanguageorscience;yet,whenIshallhavesetdownmyownreadingorderlyandperspicuously,thepainsleftanotherwillbeonlytoconsiderifhealsofindnotthesameinhimself.Forthis indofdoctrineadmittethnootherdemonstration.

THEFIRSTPART

OFMAN

CHAPTERI

OFSENSE

CONCERNINGthethoughtsofman,Iwillconsiderthemfirstsingly,andafterwardsintrainordependenceupononeanother.Singly,theyareeveryonearepresentationorappearanceofsomequality,orotheraccidentofabodywithoutus,whichiscommonlycalledanobject.Whichobjectwor ethontheeyes,ears,andotherpartsofman'sbody,andbydiversityofwor ingproducethdiversityofappearances.

Theoriginalofthemallisthatwhichwecallsense,(forthereisnoconceptioninaman'smindwhichhathnotatfirst,totallyorbyparts,beenbegottenupontheorgansofsense).Therestarederivedfromthatoriginal.

To nowthenaturalcauseofsenseisnotverynecessarytothe

businessnowinhand;andIhaveelsewherewrittenofthesameatlarge.Nevertheless,tofilleachpartofmypresentmethod,Iwillbrieflydeliverthesameinthisplace.

Thecauseofsenseistheexternalbody,orobject,whichpresseththeorganpropertoeachsense,eitherimmediately,asinthetasteandtouch;ormediately,asinseeing,hearing,andsmelling:whichpressure,bythemediationofnervesandotherstringsandmembranesofthebody,continuedinwardstothebrainandheart,causeththerearesistance,orcounter-pressure,orendeavouroftheheartto


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deliveritself:whichendeavour,becauseoutward,seemethtobesomematterwithout.Andthisseeming,orfancy,isthatwhichmencallsense;andconsisteth,astotheeye,inalight,orcolourfigured;totheear,inasound;tothenostril,inanodour;tothetongueandpalate,inasavour;andtotherestofthebody,inheat,cold,hardness,softness,andsuchotherqualitiesaswediscernbyfeeling.Allwhichqualitiescalledsensibleareintheobjectthatcauseththembutsomanyseveralmotionsofthematter,bywhichitpressethourorgansdiversely.Neitherinusthatarepressedaretheyanythingelsebutdiversemotions(formotionproducethnothingbutmotion).Buttheirappearancetousisfancy,thesamewa ingthatdreaming.Andaspressing,rubbing,orstri ingtheeyema esusfancyalight,andpressingtheearproducethadin;sodothebodiesalsowesee,orhear,producethesamebytheirstrong,thoughunobservedaction.Forifthosecoloursandsoundswereinthebodiesorobjectsthatcausethem,theycouldnotbeseveredfromthem,asbyglassesandinechoesbyreflectionweseetheyare:wherewe nowthethingweseeisinoneplace;theappearance,inanother.Andthoughatsomecertaindistancetherealandveryobjectseeminvestedwiththefancyitbegetsinus;yetstilltheobjectisonething,theimageorfancyisanother.Sothatsenseinallcasesisnothingelsebutoriginalfancycaused(asIhavesaid)bythepressurethatis,bythemotionofexternalthingsuponoureyes,ears,andotherorgans,thereuntoordained.

Butthephilosophyschools,throughalltheuniversitiesofChristendom,groundeduponcertaintextsofAristotle,teachanotherdoctrine;andsay,forthecauseofvision,thatthethingseensendethforthoneverysideavisiblespecies,(inEnglish)avisibleshow,apparition,oraspect,orabeingseen;thereceivingwhereofintotheeyeisseeing.Andforthecauseofhearing,thatthethingheardsendethforthanaudiblespecies,thatis,anaudibleaspect,oraudiblebeingseen;which,enteringattheear,ma ethhearing.Nay,forthecauseofunderstandingalso,theysaythethingunderstoodsendethforthanintelligiblespecies,thatis,anintelligiblebeingseen;which,comingintotheunderstanding,ma esusunderstand.Isaynotthis,asdisapprovingtheuseof

universities:butbecauseIamtospea hereafteroftheirofficeinaCommonwealth,Imustletyouseeonalloccasionsbythewaywhatthingswouldbeamendedinthem;amongstwhichthefrequencyofinsignificantspeechisone.

CHAPTERII

OFIMAGINATION

THATwhenathingliesstill,unlesssomewhatelsestirit,itwillliestillforever,isatruththatnomandoubtsof.Butthatwhenathingisinmotion,itwilleternallybeinmotion,unlesssomewhatelsestayit,thoughthereasonbethesame(namely,that

nothingcanchangeitself),isnotsoeasilyassentedto.Formenmeasure,notonlyothermen,butallotherthings,bythemselves:andbecausetheyfindthemselvessubjectaftermotiontopainandlassitude,thin everythingelsegrowswearyofmotion,andsee sreposeofitsownaccord;littleconsideringwhetheritbenotsomeothermotionwhereinthatdesireofresttheyfindinthemselvesconsisteth.Fromhenceitisthattheschoolssay,heavybodiesfalldownwardsoutofanappetitetorest,andtoconservetheirnatureinthatplacewhichismostproperforthem;ascribingappetite,andnowledgeofwhatisgoodfortheirconservation(whichismorethan


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manhas),tothingsinanimate,absurdly.

Whenabodyisonceinmotion,itmoveth(unlesssomethingelsehinderit)eternally;andwhatsoeverhindrethit,cannotinaninstant,butintime,andbydegrees,quiteextinguishit:andasweseeinthewater,thoughthewindcease,thewavesgivenotoverrollingforalongtimeafter;soalsoithappenethinthatmotionwhichismadeintheinternalpartsofaman,then,whenhesees,dreams,etc.Foraftertheobjectisremoved,ortheeyeshut,westillretainanimageofthethingseen,thoughmoreobscurethanwhenweseeit.AndthisisittheLatinscallimagination,fromtheimagemadeinseeing,andapplythesame,thoughimproperly,toalltheothersenses.ButtheGree scallitfancy,whichsignifiesappearance,andisaspropertoonesenseastoanother.Imagination,therefore,isnothingbutdecayingsense;andisfoundinmenandmanyotherlivingcreatures,aswellsleepingaswa ing.

Thedecayofsenseinmenwa ingisnotthedecayofthemotionmadeinsense,butanobscuringofit,insuchmannerasthelightofthesunobscureththelightofthestars;whichstarsdonolessexercisetheirvirtuebywhichtheyarevisibleinthedaythaninthenight.Butbecauseamongstmanystro eswhichoureyes,ears,andotherorgansreceivefromexternalbodies,thepredominantonlyissensible;thereforethelightofthesunbeingpredominant,wearenot

affectedwiththeactionofthestars.Andanyobjectbeingremovedfromoureyes,thoughtheimpressionitmadeinusremain,yetotherobjectsmorepresentsucceeding,andwor ingonus,theimaginationofthepastisobscuredandmadewea ,asthevoiceofamanisinthenoiseoftheday.Fromwhenceitfolloweththatthelongerthetimeis,afterthesightorsenseofanyobject,thewea eristheimagination.Forthecontinualchangeofman'sbodydestroysintimethepartswhichinsenseweremoved:sothatdistanceoftime,andofplace,hathoneandthesameeffectinus.Forasatagreatdistanceofplacethatwhichweloo atappearsdim,andwithoutdistinctionofthesmallerparts,andasvoicesgrowwea andinarticulate:soalsoaftergreatdistanceoftimeourimaginationofthepastiswea ;andwelose,forexample,ofcitieswehaveseen,

manyparticularstreets;andofactions,manyparticularcircumstances.Thisdecayingsense,whenwewouldexpressthethingitself(Imeanfancyitself),wecallimagination,asIsaidbefore.Butwhenwewouldexpressthedecay,andsignifythatthesenseisfading,old,andpast,itiscalledmemory.Sothatimaginationandmemoryarebutonething,whichfordiverseconsiderationshathdiversenames.

Muchmemory,ormemoryofmanythings,iscalledexperience.Again,imaginationbeingonlyofthosethingswhichhavebeenformerlyperceivedbysense,eitherallatonce,orbypartsatseveraltimes;theformer(whichistheimaginingthewholeobject,asitwaspresentedtothesense)issimpleimagination,aswhenone

imaginethaman,orhorse,whichhehathseenbefore.Theotheriscompounded,whenfromthesightofamanatonetime,andofahorseatanother,weconceiveinourmindacentaur.Sowhenamancompoundeththeimageofhisownpersonwiththeimageoftheactionsofanotherman,aswhenamanimagineshimselfaHerculesoranAlexander(whichhappenethoftentothemthataremuchta enwithreadingofromances),itisacompoundimagination,andproperlybutafictionofthemind.Therebealsootherimaginationsthatriseinmen,thoughwa ing,fromthegreatimpressionmadeinsense:asfromgazinguponthesun,theimpressionleavesanimageofthesun


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beforeoureyesalongtimeafter;andfrombeinglongandvehementlyattentupongeometricalfigures,amanshallinthedar ,thoughawa e,havetheimagesoflinesandanglesbeforehiseyes;which indoffancyhathnoparticularname,asbeingathingthatdothnotcommonlyfallintomen'sdiscourse.

Theimaginationsofthemthatsleeparethosewecalldreams.Andthesealso(asallotherimaginations)havebeenbefore,eithertotallyorbyparcels,inthesense.Andbecauseinsense,thebrainandnerves,whicharethenecessaryorgansofsense,aresobenumbedinsleepasnoteasilytobemovedbytheactionofexternalobjects,therecanhappeninsleepnoimagination,andthereforenodream,butwhatproceedsfromtheagitationoftheinwardpartsofman'sbody;whichinwardparts,fortheconnexiontheyhavewiththebrainandotherorgans,whentheybedistempereddo eepthesameinmotion;wherebytheimaginationsthereformerlymade,appearasifamanwerewa ing;savingthattheorgansofsensebeingnowbenumbed,soasthereisnonewobjectwhichcanmasterandobscurethemwithamorevigorousimpression,adreammustneedsbemoreclear,inthissilenceofsense,thanareourwa ingthoughts.Andhenceitcomethtopassthatitisahardmatter,andbymanythoughtimpossible,todistinguishexactlybetweensenseanddreaming.Formypart,whenIconsiderthatindreamsIdonotoftennorconstantlythin ofthesamepersons,places,objects,andactions

thatIdowa ing,norremembersolongatrainofcoherentthoughtsdreamingasatothertimes;andbecausewa ingIoftenobservetheabsurdityofdreams,butneverdreamoftheabsurditiesofmywa ingthoughts,Iamwellsatisfiedthat,beingawa e,I nowIdreamnot;thoughwhenIdream,Ithin myselfawa e.

Andseeingdreamsarecausedbythedistemperofsomeoftheinwardpartsofthebody,diversedistempersmustneedscausedifferentdreams.Andhenceitisthatlyingcoldbreedethdreamsoffear,andraiseththethoughtandimageofsomefearfulobject,themotionfromthebraintotheinnerparts,andfromtheinnerpartstothebrainbeingreciprocal;andthatasangercausethheatinsomepartsofthebodywhenweareawa e,sowhenwesleepthe

overheatingofthesamepartscausethanger,andraisethupinthebraintheimaginationofanenemy.Inthesamemanner,asnaturalindnesswhenweareawa ecausethdesire,anddesirema esheatin

certainotherpartsofthebody;soalsotoomuchheatinthoseparts,whilewesleep,raisethinthebrainanimaginationofsome indnessshown.Insum,ourdreamsarethereverseofourwa ingimaginations;themotionwhenweareawa ebeginningatoneend,andwhenwedream,atanother.

Themostdifficultdiscerningofaman'sdreamfromhiswa ingthoughtsis,then,whenbysomeaccidentweobservenotthatwehaveslept:whichiseasytohappentoamanfulloffearfulthoughts;andwhoseconscienceismuchtroubled;andthatsleepethwithoutthe

circumstancesofgoingtobed,orputtingoffhisclothes,asonethatnoddethinachair.Forhethatta ethpains,andindustriouslylayshimselftosleep,incaseanyuncouthandexorbitantfancycomeuntohim,cannoteasilythin itotherthanadream.WereadofMarcusBrutus(onethathadhislifegivenhimbyJuliusCaesar,andwasalsohisfavorite,andnotwithstandingmurderedhim),howatPhilippi,thenightbeforehegavebattletoAugustusCaesar,hesawafearfulapparition,whichiscommonlyrelatedbyhistoriansasavision,but,consideringthecircumstances,onemayeasilyjudgetohavebeenbutashortdream.Forsittinginhistent,pensiveand


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troubledwiththehorrorofhisrashact,itwasnothardforhim,slumberinginthecold,todreamofthatwhichmostaffrightedhim;whichfear,asbydegreesitmadehimwa e,soalsoitmustneedsma etheapparitionbydegreestovanish:andhavingnoassurancethatheslept,hecouldhavenocausetothin itadream,oranythingbutavision.Andthisisnoveryrareaccident:foreventheythatbeperfectlyawa e,iftheybetimorousandsuperstitious,possessedwithfearfultales,andaloneinthedar ,aresubjecttotheli efancies,andbelievetheyseespiritsanddeadmen'sghostswal inginchurchyards;whereasitiseithertheirfancyonly,orelsethenaveryofsuchpersonsasma euseofsuchsuperstitiousfeartopass

disguisedinthenighttoplacestheywouldnotbe nowntohaunt.

Fromthisignoranceofhowtodistinguishdreams,andotherstrongfancies,fromvisionandsense,didarisethegreatestpartofthereligionoftheGentilesintimepast,thatworshippedsatyrs,fauns,nymphs,andtheli e;andnowadaystheopinionthatrudepeoplehaveoffairies,ghosts,andgoblins,andofthepowerofwitches.For,asforwitches,Ithin notthattheirwitchcraftisanyrealpower,butyetthattheyarejustlypunishedforthefalsebelieftheyhavethattheycandosuchmischief,joinedwiththeirpurposetodoitiftheycan,theirtradebeingnearertoanewreligionthantoacraftorscience.Andforfairies,andwal ingghosts,theopinionofthemhas,Ithin ,beenonpurposeeithertaught,ornot

confuted,to eepincredittheuseofexorcism,ofcrosses,ofholywater,andothersuchinventionsofghostlymen.Nevertheless,thereisnodoubtbutGodcanma eunnaturalapparitions:butthatHedoesitsooftenasmenneedtofearsuchthingsmorethantheyfearthestay,orchange,ofthecourseofNature,whichhealsocanstay,andchange,isnopointofChristianfaith.Butevilmen,underpretextthatGodcandoanything,aresoboldastosayanythingwhenitservestheirturn,thoughtheythin ituntrue;itisthepartofawisemantobelievethemnofurtherthanrightreasonma esthatwhichtheysayappearcredible.Ifthissuperstitiousfearofspiritswereta enaway,andwithitprognosticsfromdreams,falseprophecies,andmanyotherthingsdependingthereon,bywhichcraftyambitiouspersonsabusethesimplepeople,menwouldbewouldbe

muchmorefittedthantheyareforcivilobedience.

Andthisoughttobethewor oftheschools,buttheyrathernourishsuchdoctrine.For(not nowingwhatimagination,orthesensesare)whattheyreceive,theyteach:somesayingthatimaginationsriseofthemselves,andhavenocause;othersthattheyrisemostcommonlyfromthewill;andthatgoodthoughtsareblown(inspired)intoamanbyGod,andevilthoughts,bytheDevil;orthatgoodthoughtsarepoured(infused)intoamanbyGod,andevilonesbytheDevil.Somesaythesensesreceivethespeciesofthings,anddeliverthemtothecommonsense;andthecommonsensedeliversthemovertothefancy,andthefancytothememory,andthememorytothejudgement,li ehandingofthingsfromonetoanother,withmany

wordsma ingnothingunderstood.

Theimaginationthatisraisedinman(oranyothercreatureenduedwiththefacultyofimagining)bywords,orothervoluntarysigns,isthatwegenerallycallunderstanding,andiscommontomanandbeast.Foradogbycustomwillunderstandthecallortheratingofhismaster;andsowillmanyotherbeasts.Thatunderstandingwhichispeculiartomanistheunderstandingnotonlyhiswill,buthisconceptionsandthoughts,bythesequelandcontextureofthenamesofthingsintoaffirmations,negations,and


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otherformsofspeech:andofthis indofunderstandingIshallspeahereafter.

CHAPTERIII

OFTHECONSEQUENCEORTRAINOFIMAGINATIONS

BYCONSEQUENCE,ortrainofthoughts,Iunderstandthatsuccessionofonethoughttoanotherwhichiscalled,todistinguishitfromdiscourseinwords,mentaldiscourse.

Whenamanthin ethonanythingwhatsoever,hisnextthoughtafterisnotaltogethersocasualasitseemstobe.Noteverythoughttoeverythoughtsucceedsindifferently.Butaswehavenoimagination,whereofwehavenotformerlyhadsense,inwholeorinparts;sowehavenotransitionfromoneimaginationtoanother,whereofweneverhadtheli ebeforeinoursenses.Thereasonwhereofisthis.Allfanciesaremotionswithinus,relicsofthosemadeinthesense;andthosemotionsthatimmediatelysucceededoneanotherinthesensecontinuealsotogetheraftersense:insomuchastheformercomingagaintota eplaceandbepredominant,thelatterfolloweth,bycoherenceofthemattermoved,insuchmanneraswateruponaplaintableisdrawnwhichwayanyonepartofitisguidedbythefinger.Butbecauseinsense,tooneandthesamethingperceived,sometimes

onething,sometimesanother,succeedeth,itcomestopassintimethatintheimaginingofanything,thereisnocertaintywhatweshallimaginenext;onlythisiscertain,itshallbesomethingthatsucceededthesamebefore,atonetimeoranother.

Thistrainofthoughts,ormentaldiscourse,isoftwosorts.Thefirstisunguided,withoutdesign,andinconstant;whereinthereisnopassionatethoughttogovernanddirectthosethatfollowtoitselfastheendandscopeofsomedesire,orotherpassion;inwhichcasethethoughtsaresaidtowander,andseemimpertinentonetoanother,asinadream.Sucharecommonlythethoughtsofmenthatarenotonlywithoutcompany,butalsowithoutcareofanything;thougheventhentheirthoughtsareasbusyasatothertimes,butwithout

harmony;asthesoundwhichaluteoutoftunewouldyieldtoanyman;orintune,toonethatcouldnotplay.Andyetinthiswildrangingofthemind,amanmayoft-timesperceivethewayofit,andthedependenceofonethoughtuponanother.Forinadiscourseofourpresentcivilwar,whatcouldseemmoreimpertinentthantoas ,asonedid,whatwasthevalueofaRomanpenny?Yetthecoherencetomewasmanifestenough.ForthethoughtofthewarintroducedthethoughtofthedeliveringuptheKingtohisenemies;thethoughtofthatbroughtinthethoughtofthedeliveringupofChrist;andthatagainthethoughtofthe30pence,whichwasthepriceofthattreason:andthenceeasilyfollowedthatmaliciousquestion;andallthisinamomentoftime,forthoughtisquic .

Thesecondismoreconstant,asbeingregulatedbysomedesireanddesign.Fortheimpressionmadebysuchthingsaswedesire,orfear,isstrongandpermanent,or(ifitceaseforatime)ofquicreturn:sostrongitissometimesastohinderandbrea oursleep.Fromdesireariseththethoughtofsomemeanswehaveseenproducetheli eofthatwhichweaimat;andfromthethoughtofthat,thethoughtofmeanstothatmean;andsocontinually,tillwecometosomebeginningwithinourownpower.Andbecausetheend,bythegreatnessoftheimpression,comesoftentomind,incaseourthoughtsbegintowandertheyarequic lyagainreducedintotheway:which,


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observedbyoneofthesevenwisemen,madehimgivementhisprecept,whichisnowwornout:respicefinem;thatistosay,inallyouractions,loo oftenuponwhatyouwouldhave,asthethingthatdirectsallyourthoughtsinthewaytoattainit.

Thetrainofregulatedthoughtsisoftwo inds:one,whenofaneffectimaginedwesee thecausesormeansthatproduceit;andthisiscommontomanandbeast.Theotheris,whenimagininganythingwhatsoever,wesee allthepossibleeffectsthatcanbyitbeproduced;thatistosay,weimaginewhatwecandowithitwhenwehaveit.OfwhichIhavenotatanytimeseenanysign,butinmanonly;forthisisacuriosityhardlyincidenttothenatureofanylivingcreaturethathasnootherpassionbutsensual,suchasarehunger,thirst,lust,andanger.Insum,thediscourseofthemind,whenitisgovernedbydesign,isnothingbutsee ing,orthefacultyofinvention,whichtheLatinscallsagacitas,andsolertia;ahuntingoutofthecausesofsomeeffect,presentorpast;oroftheeffectsofsomepresentorpastcause.Sometimesamansee swhathehathlost;andfromthatplace,andtime,whereinhemissesit,hismindrunsbac ,fromplacetoplace,andtimetotime,tofindwhereandwhenhehadit;thatistosay,tofindsomecertainandlimitedtimeandplaceinwhichtobeginamethodofsee ing.Again,fromthence,histhoughtsrunoverthesameplacesandtimestofindwhatactionorotheroccasionmightma ehimloseit.Thiswecall

remembrance,orcallingtomind:theLatinscallitreminiscentia,asitwereare-conningofourformeractions.

Sometimesaman nowsaplacedeterminate,withinthecompasswhereofheistosee ;andthenhisthoughtsrunoverallthepartsthereofinthesamemannerasonewouldsweeparoomtofindajewel;orasaspanielrangesthefieldtillhefindascent;orasamanshouldrunoverthealphabettostartarhyme.

Sometimesamandesiresto nowtheeventofanaction;andthenhethin ethofsomeli eactionpast,andtheeventsthereofoneafteranother,supposingli eeventswillfollowli eactions.Ashethatforeseeswhatwillbecomeofacriminalre-conswhathehasseen

followontheli ecrimebefore,havingthisorderofthoughts;thecrime,theofficer,theprison,thejudge,andthegallows.Which indofthoughtsiscalledforesight,andprudence,orprovidence,andsometimeswisdom;thoughsuchconjecture,throughthedifficultyofobservingallcircumstances,beveryfallacious.Butthisiscertain:byhowmuchonemanhasmoreexperienceofthingspastthananother;bysomuchalsoheismoreprudent,andhisexpectationstheseldomerfailhim.Thepresentonlyhasabeinginnature;thingspasthaveabeinginthememoryonly;butthingstocomehavenobeingatall,thefuturebeingbutafictionofthemind,applyingthesequelsofactionspasttotheactionsthatarepresent;whichwithmostcertaintyisdonebyhimthathasmostexperience,butnotwithcertaintyenough.Andthoughitbecalled

prudencewhentheeventanswerethourexpectation;yetinitsownnatureitisbutpresumption.Fortheforesightofthingstocome,whichisprovidence,belongsonlytohimbywhosewilltheyaretocome.Fromhimonly,andsupernaturally,proceedsprophecy.Thebestprophetnaturallyisthebestguesser;andthebestguesser,hethatismostversedandstudiedinthemattersheguessesat,forhehathmostsignstoguessby.

Asignistheeventantecedentoftheconsequent;andcontrarily,theconsequentoftheantecedent,whentheli econsequenceshavebeen


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observedbefore:andtheoftenertheyhavebeenobserved,thelessuncertainisthesign.Andthereforehethathasmostexperienceinany indofbusinesshasmostsignswherebytoguessatthefuturetime,andconsequentlyisthemostprudent:andsomuchmoreprudentthanhethatisnewinthat indofbusiness,asnottobeequalledbyanyadvantageofnaturalandextemporarywit,thoughperhapsmanyyoungmenthin thecontrary.

Nevertheless,itisnotprudencethatdistinguishethmanfrombeast.Therebebeaststhatatayearoldobservemoreandpursuethatwhichisfortheirgoodmoreprudentlythanachildcandoatten.

Asprudenceisapresumptionofthefuture,contractedfromtheexperienceoftimepast:sothereisapresumptionofthingspastta enfromotherthings,notfuture,butpastalso.Forhethathathseenbywhatcoursesanddegreesaflourishingstatehathfirstcomeintocivilwar,andthentoruin;uponthesightoftheruinsofanyotherstatewillguesstheli ewarandtheli ecourseshavebeentherealso.Butthisconjecturehasthesameuncertaintyalmostwiththeconjectureofthefuture,bothbeinggroundedonlyuponexperience.

Thereisnootheractofman'smind,thatIcanremember,naturallyplantedinhim,soastoneednootherthingtotheexercise

ofitbuttobebornaman,andlivewiththeuseofhisfivesenses.Thoseotherfaculties,ofwhichIshallspea byandby,andwhichseempropertomanonly,areacquiredandincreasedbystudyandindustry,andofmostmenlearnedbyinstructionanddiscipline,andproceedallfromtheinventionofwordsandspeech.Forbesidessense,andthoughts,andthetrainofthoughts,themindofmanhasnoothermotion;thoughbythehelpofspeech,andmethod,thesamefacultiesmaybeimprovedtosuchaheightastodistinguishmenfromallotherlivingcreatures.

Whatsoeverweimagineisfinite.Thereforethereisnoideaorconceptionofanythingwecallinfinite.Nomancanhaveinhismindanimageofinfinitemagnitude;norconceiveinfiniteswiftness,

infinitetime,orinfiniteforce,orinfinitepower.Whenwesayanythingisinfinite,wesignifyonlythatwearenotabletoconceivetheendsandboundsofthethingnamed,havingnoconceptionofthething,butofourowninability.AndthereforethenameofGodisused,nottoma eusconceiveHim(forHeisincomprehensible,andHisgreatnessandpowerareunconceivable),butthatwemayhonourHim.Alsobecausewhatsoever,asIsaidbefore,weconceivehasbeenperceivedfirstbysense,eitherallatonce,orbyparts,amancanhavenothoughtrepresentinganythingnotsubjecttosense.Nomanthereforecanconceiveanything,buthemustconceiveitinsomeplace;andenduedwithsomedeterminatemagnitude;andwhichmaybedividedintoparts;northatanythingisallinthisplace,andallinanotherplaceatthesametime;northattwoormorethingscanbe

inoneandthesameplaceatonce:fornoneofthesethingseverhaveorcanbeincidenttosense,butareabsurdspeeches,ta enuponcredit,withoutanysignificationatall,fromdeceivedphilosophersanddeceived,ordeceiving,Schoolmen.

CHAPTERIV

OFSPEECH

THEINVENTIONofprinting,thoughingenious,comparedwiththe


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inventionoflettersisnogreatmatter.Butwhowasthefirstthatfoundtheuseoflettersisnot nown.HethatfirstbroughtthemintoGreece,mensay,wasCadmus,thesonofAgenor,KingofPhoenicia.Aprofitableinventionforcontinuingthememoryoftimepast,andtheconjunctionofman inddispersedintosomanyanddistantregionsoftheearth;andwithaldifficult,asproceedingfromawatchfulobservationofthediversemotionsofthetongue,palate,lips,andotherorgansofspeech;wherebytoma easmanydifferencesofcharacterstorememberthem.Butthemostnobleandprofitableinventionofallotherwasthatofspeech,consistingofnamesorappellations,andtheirconnexion;wherebymenregistertheirthoughts,recallthemwhentheyarepast,andalsodeclarethemonetoanotherformutualutilityandconversation;withoutwhichtherehadbeenamongstmenneitherCommonwealth,norsociety,norcontract,norpeace,nomorethanamongstlions,bears,andwolves.ThefirstauthorofspeechwasGodhimself,thatinstructedAdamhowtonamesuchcreaturesasHepresentedtohissight;fortheScripturegoethnofurtherinthismatter.Butthiswassufficienttodirecthimtoaddmorenames,astheexperienceanduseofthecreaturesshouldgivehimoccasion;andtojointheminsuchmannerbydegreesastoma ehimselfunderstood;andsobysuccessionoftime,somuchlanguagemightbegottenashehadfoundusefor,thoughnotsocopiousasanoratororphilosopherhasneedof.ForIdonotfindanythingintheScriptureoutofwhich,directlyorbyconsequence,canbegathered

thatAdamwastaughtthenamesofallfigures,numbers,measures,colours,sounds,fancies,relations;muchlessthenamesofwordsandspeech,asgeneral,special,affirmative,negative,interrogative,optative,infinitive,allwhichareuseful;andleastofall,ofentity,intentionality,quiddity,andotherinsignificantwordsoftheschool.

Butallthislanguagegotten,andaugmentedbyAdamandhisposterity,wasagainlostatthetowerofBabel,whenbythehandofGodeverymanwasstric enforhisrebellionwithanoblivionofhisformerlanguage.Andbeingherebyforcedtodispersethemselvesintoseveralpartsoftheworld,itmustneedsbethatthediversityoftonguesthatnowis,proceededbydegreesfromtheminsuchmanner

asneed,themotherofallinventions,taughtthem,andintractoftimegreweverywheremorecopious.

Thegeneraluseofspeechistotransferourmentaldiscourseintoverbal,orthetrainofourthoughtsintoatrainofwords,andthatfortwocommodities;whereofoneistheregisteringoftheconsequencesofourthoughts,whichbeingapttoslipoutofourmemoryandputustoanewlabour,mayagainberecalledbysuchwordsastheyweremar edby.Sothatthefirstuseofnamesistoserveformar sornotesofremembrance.Anotheriswhenmanyusethesamewordstosignify,bytheirconnexionandorderonetoanother,whattheyconceiveorthin ofeachmatter;andalsowhattheydesire,fear,orhaveanyotherpassionfor.Andforthisusetheyarecalledsigns.

Specialusesofspeecharethese:first,toregisterwhatbycogitationwefindtobethecauseofanything,presentorpast;andwhatwefindthingspresentorpastmayproduce,oreffect;which,insum,isacquiringofarts.Secondly,toshowtoothersthatnowledgewhichwehaveattained;whichistocounselandteachone

another.Thirdly,toma e nowntoothersourwillsandpurposesthatwemayhavethemutualhelpofoneanother.Fourthly,topleaseanddelightourselves,andothers,byplayingwithourwords,forpleasureorornament,innocently.


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Totheseuses,therearealsofourcorrespondentabuses.First,whenmenregistertheirthoughtswrongbytheinconstancyofthesignificationoftheirwords;bywhichtheyregisterfortheirconceptionsthatwhichtheyneverconceived,andsodeceivethemselves.Secondly,whentheyusewordsmetaphorically;thatis,inothersensethanthattheyareordainedfor,andtherebydeceiveothers.Thirdly,whenbywordstheydeclarethattobetheirwillwhichisnot.Fourthly,whentheyusethemtogrieveoneanother:forseeingnaturehatharmedlivingcreatures,somewithteeth,somewithhorns,andsomewithhands,togrieveanenemy,itisbutanabuseofspeechtogrievehimwiththetongue,unlessitbeonewhomweareobligedtogovern;andthenitisnottogrieve,buttocorrectandamend.

Themannerhowspeechservethtotheremembranceoftheconsequenceofcausesandeffectsconsistethintheimposingofnames,andtheconnexionofthem.

Ofnames,someareproper,andsingulartooneonlything;asPeter,John,thisman,thistree:andsomearecommontomanythings;asman,horse,tree;everyofwhich,thoughbutonename,isneverthelessthenameofdiverseparticularthings;inrespectofallwhichtogether,itiscalledauniversal,therebeingnothingintheworlduniversalbutnames;forthethingsnamedareeveryoneofthem

individualandsingular.

Oneuniversalnameisimposedonmanythingsfortheirsimilitudeinsomequality,orotheraccident:andwhereasapropernamebringethtomindonethingonly,universalsrecallanyoneofthosemany.

Andofnamesuniversal,someareofmoreandsomeoflessextent,thelargercomprehendingthelesslarge;andsomeagainofequalextent,comprehendingeachotherreciprocally.Asforexample,thenamebodyisoflargersignificationthanthewordman,andcomprehendethit;andthenamesmanandrationalareofequalextent,comprehendingmutuallyoneanother.Butherewemustta enoticethatbyanameisnotalwaysunderstood,asingrammar,one

onlyword,butsometimesbycircumlocutionmanywordstogether.Forallthesewords,Hethatinhisactionsobserveththelawsofhiscountry,ma ebutonename,equivalenttothisoneword,just.

Bythisimpositionofnames,someoflarger,someofstrictersignification,weturntherec oningoftheconsequencesofthingsimaginedinthemindintoarec oningoftheconsequencesofappellations.Forexample,amanthathathnouseofspeechatall,(suchasisbornandremainsperfectlydeafanddumb),ifhesetbeforehiseyesatriangle,andbyittworightangles(suchasarethecornersofasquarefigure),hemaybymeditationcompareandfindthatthethreeanglesofthattriangleareequaltothosetworightanglesthatstandbyit.Butifanothertrianglebeshownhim

differentinshapefromtheformer,hecannot nowwithoutanewlabourwhetherthethreeanglesofthatalsobeequaltothesame.Buthethathaththeuseofwords,whenheobservesthatsuchequalitywasconsequent,nottothelengthofthesides,nortoanyotherparticularthinginhistriangle;butonlytothis,thatthesideswerestraight,andtheanglesthree,andthatthatwasall,forwhichhenameditatriangle;willboldlyconcludeuniversallythatsuchequalityofanglesisinalltriangleswhatsoever,andregisterhisinventioninthesegeneralterms:Everytrianglehathitsthreeanglesequaltotworightangles.Andthustheconsequencefoundin


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oneparticularcomestoberegisteredandrememberedasauniversalrule;anddischargesourmentalrec oningoftimeandplace,anddeliversusfromalllabourofthemind,savingthefirst;andma esthatwhichwasfoundtruehere,andnow,tobetrueinalltimesandplaces.

Buttheuseofwordsinregisteringourthoughtsisinnothingsoevidentasinnumbering.Anaturalfoolthatcouldneverlearnbyhearttheorderofnumeralwords,asone,two,andthree,mayobserveeverystro eofthecloc ,andnodtoit,orsayone,one,one,butcannever nowwhathouritstri es.Anditseemstherewasatimewhenthosenamesofnumberwerenotinuse;andmenwerefaintoapplytheirfingersofoneorbothhandstothosethingstheydesiredto eepaccountof;andthatthenceitproceededthatnowournumeralwordsarebutten,inanynation,andinsomebutfive,andthentheybeginagain.Andhethatcantellten,ifherecitethemoutoforder,willlosehimself,andnot nowwhenhehasdone:muchlesswillhebeabletoadd,andsubtract,andperformallotheroperationsofarithmetic.Sothatwithoutwordsthereisnopossibilityofrec oningofnumbers;muchlessofmagnitudes,ofswiftness,offorce,andotherthings,therec oningswhereofarenecessarytothebeingorwell-beingofman ind.

Whentwonamesarejoinedtogetherintoaconsequence,or

affirmation,asthus,Amanisalivingcreature;orthus,Ifhebeaman,heisalivingcreature;ifthelatternamelivingcreaturesignifyallthattheformernamemansignifieth,thentheaffirmation,orconsequence,istrue;otherwisefalse.Fortrueandfalseareattributesofspeech,notofthings.Andwherespeechisnot,thereisneithertruthnorfalsehood.Errortheremaybe,aswhenweexpectthatwhichshallnotbe,orsuspectwhathasnotbeen;butinneithercasecanamanbechargedwithuntruth.

Seeingthenthattruthconsistethintherightorderingofnamesinouraffirmations,amanthatsee ethprecisetruthhadneedtorememberwhateverynameheusesstandsfor,andtoplaceitaccordingly;orelsehewillfindhimselfentangledinwords,asa

birdinlimetwigs;themorehestruggles,themorebelimed.Andthereforeingeometry(whichistheonlysciencethatithathpleasedGodhithertotobestowonman ind),menbeginatsettlingthesignificationsoftheirwords;whichsettlingofsignifications,theycalldefinitions,andplacetheminthebeginningoftheirrec oning.

Bythisitappearshownecessaryitisforanymanthataspirestotrue nowledgetoexaminethedefinitionsofformerauthors;andeithertocorrectthem,wheretheyarenegligentlysetdown,ortoma ethemhimself.Fortheerrorsofdefinitionsmultiplythemselves,accordingastherec oningproceeds,andleadmenintoabsurdities,whichatlasttheysee,butcannotavoid,without

rec oninganewfromthebeginning;inwhichliesthefoundationoftheirerrors.Fromwhenceithappensthattheywhichtrusttoboo sdoastheythatcastupmanylittlesumsintoagreater,withoutconsideringwhetherthoselittlesumswererightlycastupornot;andatlastfindingtheerrorvisible,andnotmistrustingtheirfirstgrounds, nownotwhichwaytoclearthemselves,spendtimeinflutteringovertheirboo s;asbirdsthatenteringbythechimney,andfindingthemselvesenclosedinachamber,flutteratthefalselightofaglasswindow,forwantofwittoconsiderwhichwaytheycamein.Sothatintherightdefinitionofnamesliesthefirstuse


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ofspeech;whichistheacquisitionofscience:andinwrong,ornodefinitions,liesthefirstabuse;fromwhichproceedallfalseandsenselesstenets;whichma ethosementhatta etheirinstructionfromtheauthorityofboo s,andnotfromtheirownmeditation,tobeasmuchbelowtheconditionofignorantmenasmenenduedwithtruescienceareaboveit.Forbetweentruescienceanderroneousdoctrines,ignoranceisinthemiddle.Naturalsenseandimaginationarenotsubjecttoabsurdity.Natureitselfcannoterr:andasmenaboundincopiousnessoflanguage;sotheybecomemorewise,ormoremad,thanordinary.Norisitpossiblewithoutlettersforanymantobecomeeitherexcellentlywiseor(unlesshismemorybehurtbydisease,orillconstitutionoforgans)excellentlyfoolish.Forwordsarewisemen'scounters;theydobutrec onbythem:buttheyarethemoneyoffools,thatvaluethembytheauthorityofanAristotle,aCicero,oraThomas,oranyotherdoctorwhatsoever,ifbutaman.

Subjecttonamesiswhatsoevercanenterintoorbeconsideredinanaccount,andbeaddedonetoanothertoma easum,orsubtractedonefromanotherandleavearemainder.TheLatinscalledaccountsofmoneyrationes,andaccounting,ratiocinatio:andthatwhichweinbillsorboo sofaccountcallitems,theycallednomina;thatis,names:andthenceitseemstoproceedthattheyextendedthewordratiotothefacultyofrec oninginallotherthings.TheGree s

havebutoneword,logos,forbothspeechandreason;notthattheythoughttherewasnospeechwithoutreason,butnoreasoningwithoutspeech;andtheactofreasoningtheycalledsyllogism;whichsignifiethsummingupoftheconsequencesofonesayingtoanother.Andbecausethesamethingsmayenterintoaccountfordiverseaccidents,theirnamesare(toshowthatdiversity)diverselywrestedanddiversified.Thisdiversityofnamesmaybereducedtofourgeneralheads.

First,athingmayenterintoaccountformatter,orbody;asliving,sensible,rational,hot,cold,moved,quiet;withallwhichnamesthewordmatter,orbody,isunderstood;allsuchbeingnamesofmatter.

Secondly,itmayenterintoaccount,orbeconsidered,forsomeaccidentorqualitywhichweconceivetobeinit;asforbeingmoved,forbeingsolong,forbeinghot,etc.;andthen,ofthenameofthethingitself,byalittlechangeorwresting,wema eanameforthataccidentwhichweconsider;andforlivingputintotheaccountlife;formoved,motion;forhot,heat;forlong,length,andtheli e:andallsuchnamesarethenamesoftheaccidentsandpropertiesbywhichonematterandbodyisdistinguishedfromanother.Thesearecallednamesabstract,becausesevered,notfrommatter,butfromtheaccountofmatter.

Thirdly,webringintoaccountthepropertiesofourownbodies,

wherebywema esuchdistinction:aswhenanythingisseenbyus,werec onnotthethingitself,butthesight,thecolour,theideaofitinthefancy;andwhenanythingisheard,werec onitnot,butthehearingorsoundonly,whichisourfancyorconceptionofitbytheear:andsucharenamesoffancies.

Fourthly,webringintoaccount,consider,andgivenames,tonamesthemselves,andtospeeches:for,general,universal,special,equivocal,arenamesofnames.Andaffirmation,interrogation,commandment,narration,syllogism,sermon,oration,andmanyother


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sucharenamesofspeeches.Andthisisallthevarietyofnamespositive;whichareputtomar somewhatwhichisinnature,ormaybefeignedbythemindofman,asbodiesthatare,ormaybeconceivedtobe;orofbodies,thepropertiesthatare,ormaybefeignedtobe;orwordsandspeech.

Therebealsoothernames,callednegative;whicharenotestosignifythatawordisnotthenameofthethinginquestion;asthesewords:nothing,noman,infinite,indocible,threewantfour,andtheli e;whichareneverthelessofuseinrec oning,orincorrectingofrec oning,andcalltomindourpastcogitations,thoughtheybenotnamesofanything;becausetheyma eusrefusetoadmitofnamesnotrightlyused.

Allothernamesarebutinsignificantsounds;andthoseoftwosorts.One,whentheyarenew,andyettheirmeaningnotexplainedbydefinition;whereoftherehavebeenabundancecoinedbySchoolmenandpuzzledphilosophers.

Another,whenmenma eanameoftwonames,whosesignificationsarecontradictoryandinconsistent;asthisname,anincorporealbody,or,whichisallone,anincorporealsubstance,andagreatnumbermore.Forwhensoeveranyaffirmationisfalse,thetwonamesofwhichitiscomposed,puttogetherandmadeone,signifynothingatall.For

example,ifitbeafalseaffirmationtosayaquadrangleisround,thewordroundquadranglesignifiesnothing,butisameresound.Soli ewiseifitbefalsetosaythatvirtuecanbepoured,orblownupanddown,thewordsinpouredvirtue,inblownvirtue,areasabsurdandinsignificantasaroundquadrangle.AndthereforeyoushallhardlymeetwithasenselessandinsignificantwordthatisnotmadeupofsomeLatinorGree names.FrenchmanseldomhearsourSaviourcalledbythenameofParole,butbythenameofVerbeoften;yetVerbeandParolediffernomorebutthatoneisLatin,theotherFrench.

Whenaman,uponthehearingofanyspeech,haththosethoughtswhichthewordsofthatspeech,andtheirconnexion,wereordainedand

constitutedtosignify,thenheissaidtounderstandit:understandingbeingnothingelsebutconceptioncausedbyspeech.Andthereforeifspeechbepeculiartoman,asforoughtI nowitis,thenisunderstandingpeculiartohimalso.Andthereforeofabsurdandfalseaffirmations,incasetheybeuniversal,therecanbenounderstanding;thoughmanythin theyunderstandthen,whentheydobutrepeatthewordssoftly,orconthemintheirmind.

What indsofspeechessignifytheappetites,aversions,andpassionsofman'smind,andoftheiruseandabuse,Ishallspea whenIhavespo enofthepassions.

Thenamesofsuchthingsasaffectus,thatis,whichpleaseand

displeaseus,becauseallmenbenotali eaffectedwiththesamething,northesamemanatalltimes,areinthecommondiscoursesofmenofinconstantsignification.Forseeingallnamesareimposedtosignifyourconceptions,andallouraffectionsarebutconceptions;whenweconceivethesamethingsdifferently,wecanhardlyavoiddifferentnamingofthem.Forthoughthenatureofthatweconceivebethesame;yetthediversityofourreceptionofit,inrespectofdifferentconstitutionsofbodyandprejudicesofopinion,giveseverythingatinctureofourdifferentpassions.Andthereforeinreasoning,amanmustta eheedofwords;which,


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besidesthesignificationofwhatweimagineoftheirnature,haveasignificationalsoofthenature,disposition,andinterestofthespea er;suchasarethenamesofvirtuesandvices:foronemancallethwisdomwhatanothercallethfear;andonecrueltywhatanotherjustice;oneprodigalitywhatanothermagnanimity;andonegravitywhatanotherstupidity,etc.Andthereforesuchnamescanneverbetruegroundsofanyratiocination.Nomorecanmetaphorsandtropesofspeech:butthesearelessdangerousbecausetheyprofesstheirinconstancy,whichtheotherdonot.

CHAPTERV

OFREASONANDSCIENCE

WHENmanreasoneth,hedoesnothingelsebutconceiveasumtotal,fromadditionofparcels;orconceivearemainder,fromsubtractionofonesumfromanother:which,ifitbedonebywords,isconceivingoftheconsequenceofthenamesofalltheparts,tothenameofthewhole;orfromthenamesofthewholeandonepart,tothenameoftheotherpart.Andthoughinsomethings,asinnumbers,besidesaddingandsubtracting,mennameotheroperations,asmultiplyinganddividing;yettheyarethesame:formultiplicationisbutaddingtogetherofthingsequal;anddivision,butsubtractingofonething,asoftenaswecan.Theseoperationsarenotincidentto

numbersonly,buttoallmannerofthingsthatcanbeaddedtogether,andta enoneoutofanother.Forasarithmeticiansteachtoaddandsubtractinnumbers,sothegeometriciansteachthesameinlines,figures(solidandsuperficial),angles,proportions,times,degreesofswiftness,force,power,andtheli e;thelogiciansteachthesameinconsequencesofwords,addingtogethertwonamestoma eanaffirmation,andtwoaffirmationstoma easyllogism,andmanysyllogismstoma eademonstration;andfromthesum,orconclusionofasyllogism,theysubtractonepropositiontofindtheother.Writersofpoliticsaddtogetherpactionstofindmen'sduties;andlawyers,lawsandfactstofindwhatisrightandwrongintheactionsofprivatemen.Insum,inwhatmattersoeverthereisplaceforadditionandsubtraction,therealsoisplaceforreason;and

wherethesehavenoplace,therereasonhasnothingatalltodo.

Outofallwhichwemaydefine(thatistosaydetermine)whatthatiswhichismeantbythiswordreasonwhenwerec onitamongstthefacultiesofthemind.Forreason,inthissense,isnothingbutrec oning(thatis,addingandsubtracting)oftheconsequencesofgeneralnamesagreeduponforthemar ingandsignifyingofourthoughts;Isaymar ingthem,whenwerec onbyourselves;andsignifying,whenwedemonstrateorapproveourrec oningstoothermen.

Andasinarithmeticunpractisedmenmust,andprofessorsthemselvesmayoften,err,andcastupfalse;soalsoinanyothersubjectof

reasoning,theablest,mostattentive,andmostpractisedmenmaydeceivethemselves,andinferfalseconclusions;notbutthatreasonitselfisalwaysrightreason,aswellasarithmeticisacertainandinfallibleart:butnooneman'sreason,northereasonofanyonenumberofmen,ma esthecertainty;nomorethananaccountisthereforewellcastupbecauseagreatmanymenhaveunanimouslyapprovedit.Andtherefore,aswhenthereisacontroversyinanaccount,thepartiesmustbytheirownaccordsetupforrightreasonthereasonofsomearbitrator,orjudge,towhosesentencetheywillbothstand,ortheircontroversymusteithercometoblows,orbe


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undecided,forwantofarightreasonconstitutedbyNature;soisitalsoinalldebatesofwhat indsoever:andwhenmenthatthinthemselveswiserthanallothersclamouranddemandrightreasonforjudge,yetsee nomorebutthatthingsshouldbedeterminedbynoothermen'sreasonbuttheirown,itisasintolerableinthesocietyofmen,asitisinplayaftertrumpisturnedtousefortrumponeveryoccasionthatsuitwhereoftheyhavemostintheirhand.Fortheydonothingelse,thatwillhaveeveryoftheirpassions,asitcomestobearswayinthem,tobeta enforrightreason,andthatintheirowncontroversies:bewrayingtheirwantofrightreasonbytheclaimtheylaytoit.

Theuseandendofreasonisnotthefindingofthesumandtruthofone,orafewconsequences,remotefromthefirstdefinitionsandsettledsignificationsofnames;buttobeginatthese,andproceedfromoneconsequencetoanother.Fortherecanbenocertaintyofthelastconclusionwithoutacertaintyofallthoseaffirmationsandnegationsonwhichitwasgroundedandinferred.Aswhenamasterofafamily,inta inganaccount,castethupthesumsofallthebillsofexpenseintoonesum;andnotregardinghoweachbillissummedup,bythosethatgivetheminaccount,norwhatitishepaysfor,headvantageshimselfnomorethanifheallowedtheaccountingross,trustingtoeveryoftheaccountant'ss illandhonesty:soalsoinreasoningofallotherthings,hethatta esupconclusions

onthetrustofauthors,anddothnotfetchthemfromthefirstitemsineveryrec oning(whicharethesignificationsofnamessettledbydefinitions),loseshislabour,anddoesnot nowanything,butonlybelieveth.

Whenamanrec onswithouttheuseofwords,whichmaybedoneinparticularthings,aswhenuponthesightofanyonething,weconjecturewhatwasli elytohavepreceded,orisli elytofollowuponit;ifthatwhichhethoughtli elytofollowfollowsnot,orthatwhichhethoughtli elytohaveprecededithathnotprecededit,thisiscallederror;towhicheventhemostprudentmenaresubject.Butwhenwereasoninwordsofgeneralsignification,andfalluponageneralinferencewhichisfalse;thoughitbecommonly

callederror,itisindeedanabsurdity,orsenselessspeech.Forerrorisbutadeception,inpresumingthatsomewhatispast,ortocome;ofwhich,thoughitwerenotpast,ornottocome,yettherewasnoimpossibilitydiscoverable.Butwhenwema eageneralassertion,unlessitbeatrueone,thepossibilityofitisinconceivable.Andwordswherebyweconceivenothingbutthesoundarethosewecallabsurd,insignificant,andnonsense.Andthereforeifamanshouldtal tomeofaroundquadrangle;oraccidentsofbreadincheese;orimmaterialsubstances;orofafreesubject;afreewill;oranyfreebutfreefrombeinghinderedbyopposition;Ishouldnotsayhewereinanerror,butthathiswordswerewithoutmeaning;thatistosay,absurd.

Ihavesaidbefore,inthesecondchapter,thatamandidexcelallotheranimalsinthisfaculty,thatwhenheconceivedanythingwhatsoever,hewasapttoenquiretheconsequencesofit,andwhateffectshecoulddowithit.AndnowIaddthisotherdegreeofthesameexcellence,thathecanbywordsreducetheconsequenceshefindstogeneralrules,calledtheorems,oraphorisms;thatis,hecanreason,orrec on,notonlyinnumber,butinallotherthingswhereofonemaybeaddeduntoorsubtractedfromanother.

Butthisprivilegeisallayedbyanother;andthatisbythe


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privilegeofabsurdity,towhichnolivingcreatureissubject,butmenonly.Andofmen,thoseareofallmostsubjecttoitthatprofessphilosophy.ForitismosttruethatCicerosaithofthemsomewhere;thattherecanbenothingsoabsurdbutmaybefoundintheboo sofphilosophers.Andthereasonismanifest.Forthereisnotoneofthemthatbeginshisratiocinationfromthedefinitionsorexplicationsofthenamestheyaretouse;whichisamethodthathathbeenusedonlyingeometry,whoseconclusionshavetherebybeenmadeindisputable.

1.ThefirstcauseofabsurdconclusionsIascribetothewantofmethod;inthattheybeginnottheirratiocinationfromdefinitions;thatis,fromsettledsignificationsoftheirwords:asiftheycouldcastaccountwithout nowingthevalueofthenumeralwords,one,two,andthree.

Andwhereasallbodiesenterintoaccountupondiverseconsiderations,whichIhavementionedintheprecedentchapter,theseconsiderationsbeingdiverselynamed,diverseabsurditiesproceedfromtheconfusionandunfitconnexionoftheirnamesintoassertions.Andtherefore,

2.Thesecondcauseofabsurdassertions,Iascribetothegivingofnamesofbodiestoaccidents;orofaccidentstobodies;astheydo

thatsay,faithisinfused,orinspired;whennothingcanbepoured,orbreathedintoanything,butbody;andthatextensionisbody;thatphantasmsarespirits,etc.

3.ThethirdIascribetothegivingofthenamesoftheaccidentsofbodieswithoutustotheaccidentsofourownbodies;astheydothatsay,thecolourisinthebody;thesoundisintheair,etc.

4.Thefourth,tothegivingofthenamesofbodiestonames,orspeeches;astheydothatsaythattherebethingsuniversal;thatalivingcreatureisgenus,orageneralthing,etc.

5.Thefifth,tothegivingofthenamesofaccidentstonamesand

speeches;astheydothatsay,thenatureofathingisitsdefinition;aman'scommandishiswill;andtheli e.

6.Thesixth,totheuseofmetaphors,tropes,andotherrhetoricalfigures,insteadofwordsproper.Forthoughitbelawfultosay,forexample,incommonspeech,thewaygoeth,orleadethhither,orthither;theproverbsaysthisorthat(whereaswayscannotgo,norproverbsspea );yetinrec oning,andsee ingoftruth,suchspeechesarenottobeadmitted.

7.Theseventh,tonamesthatsignifynothing,butareta enupandlearnedbyrotefromtheSchools,ashypostatical,transubstantiate,consubstantiate,eternal-now,andtheli ecanting

ofSchoolmen.

Tohimthatcanavoidthesethings,itisnoteasytofallintoanyabsurdity,unlessitbebythelengthofanaccount;whereinhemayperhapsforgetwhatwentbefore.Forallmenbynaturereasonali e,andwell,whentheyhavegoodprinciples.Forwhoissostupidasbothtomista eingeometry,andalsotopersistinit,whenanotherdetectshiserrortohim?

Bythisitappearsthatreasonisnot,assenseandmemory,born


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withus;norgottenbyexperienceonly,asprudenceis;butattainedbyindustry:firstinaptimposingofnames;andsecondlybygettingagoodandorderlymethodinproceedingfromtheelements,whicharenames,toassertionsmadebyconnexionofoneofthemtoanother;andsotosyllogisms,whicharetheconnexionsofoneassertiontoanother,tillwecometoa nowledgeofalltheconsequencesofnamesappertainingtothesubjectinhand;andthatisit,mencallscience.Andwhereassenseandmemoryarebut nowledgeoffact,whichisathingpastandirrevocable,scienceisthe nowledgeofconsequences,anddependenceofonefactuponanother;bywhich,outofthatwecanpresentlydo,we nowhowtodosomethingelsewhenwewill,ortheli e,anothertime:becausewhenweseehowanythingcomesabout,uponwhatcauses,andbywhatmanner;whentheli ecausescomeintoourpower,weseehowtoma eitproducetheli eeffects.

Childrenthereforearenotenduedwithreasonatall,tilltheyhaveattainedtheuseofspeech,butarecalledreasonablecreaturesforthepossibilityapparentofhavingtheuseofreasonintimetocome.Andthemostpartofmen,thoughtheyhavetheuseofreasoningalittleway,asinnumberingtosomedegree;yetitservesthemtolittleuseincommonlife,inwhichtheygovernthemselves,somebetter,someworse,accordingtotheirdifferencesofexperience,quic nessofmemory,andinclinationstoseveralends;but

speciallyaccordingtogoodorevilfortune,andtheerrorsofoneanother.Forasforscience,orcertainrulesoftheiractions,theyaresofarfromitthatthey nownotwhatitis.Geometrytheyhavethoughtconjuring:butforothersciences,theywhohavenotbeentaughtthebeginnings,andsomeprogressinthem,thattheymayseehowtheybeacquiredandgenerated,areinthispointli echildrenthat,havingnothoughtofgeneration,aremadebelievebythewomenthattheirbrothersandsistersarenotborn,butfoundinthegarden.

Butyettheythathavenoscienceareinbetterandnoblerconditionwiththeirnaturalprudencethanmenthat,bymisreasoning,orbytrustingthemthatreasonwrong,falluponfalseandabsurdgeneralrules.Forignoranceofcauses,andofrules,doesnotsetmenso

faroutoftheirwayasrelyingonfalserules,andta ingforcausesofwhattheyaspireto,thosethatarenotso,butrathercausesofthecontrary.

Toconclude,thelightofhumanemindsisperspicuouswords,butbyexactdefinitionsfirstsnuffed,andpurgedfromambiguity;reasonisthepace;increaseofscience,theway;andthebenefitofman ind,theend.And,onthecontrary,metaphors,andsenselessandambiguouswordsareli eignesfatui;andreasoninguponthemiswanderingamongstinnumerableabsurdities;andtheirend,contentionandsedition,orcontempt.

Asmuchexperienceisprudence,soismuchsciencesapience.For

thoughweusuallyhaveonenameofwisdomforthemboth;yettheLatinsdidalwaysdistinguishbetweenprudentiaandsapientia;ascribingtheformertoexperience,thelattertoscience.Buttoma etheirdifferenceappearmoreclearly,letussupposeonemanenduedwithanexcellentnaturaluseanddexterityinhandlinghisarms;andanothertohaveaddedtothatdexterityanacquiredscienceofwherehecanoffend,orbeoffendedbyhisadversary,ineverypossiblepostureorguard:theabilityoftheformerwouldbetotheabilityofthelatter,asprudencetosapience;bothuseful,butthelatterinfallible.Buttheythat,trustingonlytotheauthorityof


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boo s,followtheblindblindly,areli ehimthat,trustingtothefalserulesofamasteroffence,venturespresumptuouslyuponanadversarythateither illsordisgraceshim.

Thesignsofsciencearesomecertainandinfallible;some,uncertain.Certain,whenhethatpretendeththescienceofanythingcanteachthesame;thatistosay,demonstratethetruththereofperspicuouslytoanother:uncertain,whenonlysomeparticulareventsanswertohispretence,anduponmanyoccasionsprovesoashesaystheymust.Signsofprudencearealluncertain;becausetoobservebyexperience,andrememberallcircumstancesthatmayalterthesuccess,isimpossible.Butinanybusiness,whereofamanhasnotinfalliblesciencetoproceedby,toforsa ehisownnaturaljudgment,andbeguidedbygeneralsentencesreadinauthors,andsubjecttomanyexceptions,isasignoffolly,andgenerallyscornedbythenameofpedantry.AndevenofthosementhemselvesthatincouncilsoftheCommonwealthlovetoshowtheirreadingofpoliticsandhistory,veryfewdoitintheirdomesticaffairswheretheirparticularinterestisconcerned,havingprudenceenoughfortheirprivateaffairs;butinpublictheystudymorethereputationoftheirownwitthanthesuccessofanother'sbusiness.

CHAPTERVI

OFTHEINTERIORBEGINNINGSOFVOLUNTARYMOTIONS,

COMMONLYCALLEDTHEPASSIONS;

ANDTHESPEECHESBYWHICHTHEYAREEXPRESSED

THEREbeinanimalstwosortsofmotionspeculiartothem:Onecalledvital,beguningeneration,andcontinuedwithoutinterruptionthroughtheirwholelife;suchasarethecourseoftheblood,thepulse,thebreathing,theconcoction,nutrition,excretion,etc.;towhichmotionsthereneedsnohelpofimagination:theotherisanimalmotion,otherwisecalledvoluntarymotion;astogo,tospea ,tomoveanyofourlimbs,insuchmannerasisfirstfanciedin

ourminds.Thatsenseismotionintheorgansandinteriorpartsofman'sbody,causedbytheactionofthethingswesee,hear,etc.,andthatfancyisbuttherelicsofthesamemotion,remainingaftersense,hasbeenalreadysaidinthefirstandsecondchapters.Andbecausegoing,spea ing,andtheli evoluntarymotionsdependalwaysuponaprecedentthoughtofwhither,whichway,andwhat,itisevidentthattheimaginationisthefirstinternalbeginningofallvoluntarymotion.Andalthoughunstudiedmendonotconceiveanymotionatalltobethere,wherethethingmovedisinvisible,orthespaceitismovedinis,fortheshortnessofit,insensible;yetthatdothnothinderbutthatsuchmotionsare.Forletaspacebeneversolittle,thatwhichismovedoveragreaterspace,whereofthatlittleoneispart,mustfirstbemovedoverthat.Thesesmall

beginningsofmotionwithinthebodyofman,beforetheyappearinwal ing,spea ing,stri ing,andothervisibleactions,arecommonlycalledendeavour.

Thisendeavour,whenitistowardsomethingwhichcausesit,iscalledappetite,ordesire,thelatterbeingthegeneralname,andtheotheroftentimesrestrainedtosignifythedesireoffood,namelyhungerandthirst.Andwhentheendeavourisfromwardsomething,itisgenerallycalledaversion.ThesewordsappetiteandaversionwehavefromtheLatins;andtheybothofthemsignifythemotions,one


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ofapproaching,theotherofretiring.SoalsodotheGree wordsforthesame,whichareormeandaphorme.ForNatureitselfdoesoftenpressuponmenthosetruthswhichafterwards,whentheyloo forsomewhatbeyondNature,theystumbleat.FortheSchoolsfindinmereappetitetogo,ormove,noactualmotionatall;butbecausesomemotiontheymustac nowledge,theycallitmetaphoricalmotion,whichisbutanabsurdspeech;forthoughwordsmaybecalledmetaphorical,bodiesandmotionscannot.

Thatwhichmendesiretheyaresaidtolove,andtohatethosethingsforwhichtheyhaveaversion.Sothatdesireandlovearethesamething;savethatbydesire,wesignifytheabsenceoftheobject;bylove,mostcommonlythepresenceofthesame.Soalsobyaversion,wesignifytheabsence;andbyhate,thepresenceoftheobject.

Ofappetitesandaversions,somearebornwithmen;asappetiteoffood,appetiteofexcretion,andexoneration(whichmayalsoandmoreproperlybecalledaversions,fromsomewhattheyfeelintheirbodies),andsomeotherappetites,notmany.Therest,whichareappetitesofparticularthings,proceedfromexperienceandtrialoftheireffectsuponthemselvesorothermen.Forofthingswe nownotatall,orbelievenottobe,wecanhavenofurtherdesirethantotasteandtry.Butaversionwehaveforthings,notonlywhichwe

nowhavehurtus,butalsothatwedonot nowwhethertheywillhurtus,ornot.

Thosethingswhichweneitherdesirenorhate,wearesaidtocontemn:contemptbeingnothingelsebutanimmobilityorcontumacyoftheheartinresistingtheactionofcertainthings;andproceedingfromthattheheartisalreadymovedotherwise,byothermorepotentobjects,orfromwantofexperienceofthem.

Andbecausetheconstitutionofaman'sbodyisincontinualmutation,itisimpossiblethatallthesamethingsshouldalwayscauseinhimthesameappetitesandaversions:muchlesscanallmenconsentinthedesireofalmostanyoneandthesameobject.

Butwhatsoeveristheobjectofanyman'sappetiteordesire,thatisitwhichheforhispartcallethgood;andtheobjectofhishateandaversion,evil;andofhiscontempt,vileandinconsiderable.Forthesewordsofgood,evil,andcontemptibleareeverusedwithrelationtothepersonthatuseththem:therebeingnothingsimplyandabsolutelyso;noranycommonruleofgoodandeviltobeta enfromthenatureoftheobjectsthemselves;butfromthepersonoftheman,wherethereisnoCommonwealth;or,inaCommonwealth,fromthepersonthatrepresentethit;orfromanarbitratororjudge,whommendisagreeingshallbyconsentsetupandma ehissentencetherulethereof.

TheLatintonguehastwowordswhosesignificationsapproachtothoseofgoodandevil,butarenotpreciselythesame;andthosearepulchrumandturpe.Whereoftheformersignifiesthatwhichbysomeapparentsignspromisethgood;andthelatter,thatwhichpromisethevil.Butinourtonguewehavenotsogeneralnamestoexpressthemby.Butforpulchrumwesayinsomethings,fair;inothers,beautiful,orhandsome,orgallant,orhonourable,orcomely,oramiable:andforturpe;foul,deformed,ugly,base,nauseous,andtheli e,asthesubjectshallrequire;allwhichwords,intheirproperplaces,signifynothingelsebutthemien,or


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countenance,thatpromisethgoodandevil.Sothatofgoodtherebethree inds:goodinthepromise,thatispulchrum;goodineffect,astheenddesired,whichiscalledjucundum,delightful;andgoodasthemeans,whichiscalledutile,profitable;andasmanyofevil:forevilinpromiseisthattheycallturpe;evilineffectandendismolestum,unpleasant,troublesome;andevilinthemeans,inutile,unprofitable,hurtful.

Asinsensethatwhichisreallywithinusis,asIhavesaidbefore,onlymotion,causedbytheactionofexternalobjectsbutinappearance;tothesight,lightandcolour;totheear,sound;tothenostril,odour,etc.:so,whentheactionofthesameobjectiscontinuedfromtheeyes,ears,andotherorganstotheheart,therealeffectthereisnothingbutmotion,orendeavour;whichconsistethinappetiteoraversiontoorfromtheobjectmoving.Buttheappearanceorsenseofthatmotionisthatweeithercalldelightortroubleofmind.

Thismotion,whichiscalledappetite,andfortheappearanceofitdelightandpleasure,seemethtobeacorroborationofvitalmotion,andahelpthereunto;andthereforesuchthingsascauseddelightwerenotimproperlycalledjucunda(ajuvando),fromhelpingorfortifying;andthecontrary,molesta,offensive,fromhinderingandtroublingthemotionvital.

Pleasuretherefore,ordelight,istheappearanceorsenseofgood;andmolestationordispleasure,theappearanceorsenseofevil.Andconsequentlyallappetite,desire,andloveisaccompaniedwithsomedelightmoreorless;andallhatredandaversionwithmoreorlessdispleasureandoffence.

Ofpleasures,ordelights,somearisefromthesenseofanobjectpresent;andthosemaybecalledpleasuresofsense(thewordsensual,asitisusedbythoseonlythatcondemnthem,havingnoplacetilltherebelaws).Ofthis indareallonerationsandexonerationsofthebody;asalsoallthatispleasant,inthesight,hearing,smell,taste,ortouch.Othersarisefromtheexpectationthat

proceedsfromforesightoftheendorconsequenceofthings,whetherthosethingsinthesensepleaseordisplease:andthesearepleasuresofthemindofhimthatdrawethinthoseconsequences,andaregenerallycalledjoy.Intheli emanner,displeasuresaresomeinthesense,andcalledpain;others,intheexpectationofconsequences,andarecalledgrief.

Thesesimplepassionscalledappetite,desire,love,aversion,hate,joy,andgriefhavetheirnamesfordiverseconsiderationsdiversified.Atfirst,whentheyonesucceedanother,theyarediverselycalledfromtheopinionmenhaveoftheli elihoodofattainingwhattheydesire.Secondly,fromtheobjectlovedorhated.Thirdly,fromtheconsiderationofmanyofthemtogether.

Fourthly,fromthealterationorsuccessionitself.

Forappetitewithanopinionofattainingiscalledhope.

Thesame,withoutsuchopinion,despair.

Aversion,withopinionofhurtfromtheobject,fear.

Thesame,withhopeofavoidingthathurtbyresistence,courage.


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Suddencourage,anger.

Constanthope,confidenceofourselves.

Constantdespair,diffidenceofourselves.

Angerforgreathurtdonetoanother,whenweconceivethesametobedonebyinjury,indignation.

Desireofgoodtoanother,benevolence,goodwill,charity.Iftomangenerally,goodnature.

Desireofriches,covetousness:anameusedalwaysinsignificationofblame,becausemencontendingforthemaredispleasedwithoneanother'sattainingthem;thoughthedesireinitselfbetobeblamed,orallowed,accordingtothemeansbywhichthoserichesaresought.

Desireofoffice,orprecedence,ambition:anameusedalsointheworsesense,forthereasonbeforementioned.

Desireofthingsthatconducebutalittletoourends,andfearofthingsthatarebutoflittlehindrance,pusillanimity.

Contemptoflittlehelps,andhindrances,magnanimity.

Magnanimityindangerofdeath,orwounds,valour,fortitude.

Magnanimityintheuseofriches,liberality.

Pusillanimityinthesame,wretchedness,miserableness,orparsimony,asitisli ed,ordisli ed.

Loveofpersonsforsociety, indness.

Loveofpersonsforpleasingthesenseonly,naturallust.

Loveofthesameacquiredfromrumination,thatis,imaginationofpleasurepast,luxury.

Loveofonesingularly,withdesiretobesingularlybeloved,thepassionoflove.Thesame,withfearthattheloveisnotmutual,jealousy.

Desirebydoinghurttoanothertoma ehimcondemnsomefactofhisown,revengefulness.

Desireto nowwhy,andhow,curiosity;suchasisinnolivingcreaturebutman:sothatmanisdistinguished,notonlybyhisreason,butalsobythissingularpassionfromotheranimals;in

whomtheappetiteoffood,andotherpleasuresofsense,bypredominance,ta eawaythecareof nowingcauses;whichisalustofthemind,thatbyaperseveranceofdelightinthecontinualandindefatigablegenerationof nowledge,exceedeththeshortvehemenceofanycarnalpleasure.

Fearofpowerinvisible,feignedbythemind,orimaginedfromtalespubliclyallowed,religion;notallowed,superstition.Andwhenthepowerimaginedistrulysuchasweimagine,truereligion.


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Fearwithouttheapprehensionofwhy,orwhat,panicterror;calledsofromthefablesthatma ePantheauthorofthem;whereasintruththereisalwaysinhimthatsofeareth,first,someapprehensionofthecause,thoughtherestrunawaybyexample;everyonesupposinghisfellowto nowwhy.Andthereforethispassionhappenstononebutinathrong,ormultitudeofpeople.

Joyfromapprehensionofnovelty,admiration;propertoman,becauseitexcitestheappetiteof nowingthecause.

Joyarisingfromimaginationofaman'sownpowerandabilityisthatexultationofthemindwhichiscalledglorying:which,ifgroundedupontheexperienceofhisownformeractions,isthesamewithconfidence:butifgroundedontheflatteryofothers,oronlysupposedbyhimself,fordelightintheconsequencesofit,iscalledvainglory:whichnameisproperlygiven;becauseawell-groundedconfidencebegettethattempt;whereasthesupposingofpowerdoesnot,andisthereforerightlycalledvain.

Grief,fromopinionofwantofpower,iscalleddejectionofmind.

Thevainglorywhichconsistethinthefeigningorsupposingofabilitiesinourselves,whichwe nowarenot,ismostincidenttoyoungmen,andnourishedbythehistoriesorfictionsofgallant

persons;andiscorrectedoftentimesbyageandemployment.

Suddengloryisthepassionwhichma eththosegrimacescalledlaughter;andiscausedeitherbysomesuddenactoftheirownthatpleaseththem;orbytheapprehensionofsomedeformedthinginanother,bycomparisonwhereoftheysuddenlyapplaudthemselves.Anditisincidentmosttothemthatareconsciousofthefewestabilitiesinthemselves;whoareforcedto eepthemselvesintheirownfavourbyobservingtheimperfectionsofothermen.Andthereforemuchlaughteratthedefectsofothersisasignofpusillanimity.Forofgreatmindsoneoftheproperwor sistohelpandfreeothersfromscorn,andcomparethemselvesonlywiththemostable.

Onthecontrary,suddendejectionisthepassionthatcausethweeping;andiscausedbysuchaccidentsassuddenlyta eawaysomevehementhope,orsomepropoftheirpower:andtheyaremostsubjecttoitthatrelyprincipallyonhelpsexternal,suchasarewomenandchildren.Therefore,someweepforthelossoffriends;othersfortheirun indness;othersforthesuddenstopmadetotheirthoughtsofrevenge,byreconciliation.Butinallcases,bothlaughterandweepingaresuddenmotions,customta ingthembothaway.Fornomanlaughsatoldjests,orweepsforanoldcalamity.

Griefforthediscoveryofsomedefectofabilityisshame,orthepassionthatdiscoverethitselfinblushing,andconsistethintheapprehensionofsomethingdishonourable;andinyoungmenisasignof

theloveofgoodreputation,andcommendable:inoldmenitisasignofthesame;butbecauseitcomestoolate,notcommendable.

Thecontemptofgoodreputationiscalledimpudence.

Griefforthecalamityofanotherispity;andarisethfromtheimaginationthattheli ecalamitymaybefallhimself;andthereforeiscalledalsocompassion,andinthephraseofthispresenttimeafellow-feeling:andthereforeforcalamityarrivingfromgreatwic edness,thebestmenhavetheleastpity;andforthesame


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calamity,thosehaveleastpitythatthin themselvesleastobnoxioustothesame.

Contempt,orlittlesenseofthecalamityofothers,isthatwhichmencallcruelty;proceedingfromsecurityoftheirownfortune.For,thatanymanshouldta epleasureinothermen'sgreatharms,withoutotherendofhisown,Idonotconceiveitpossible.

Griefforthesuccessofacompetitorinwealth,honour,orothergood,ifitbejoinedwithendeavourtoenforceourownabilitiestoequalorexceedhim,iscalledemulation:butjoinedwithendeavourtosupplantorhinderacompetitor,envy.

Wheninthemindofmanappetitesandaversions,hopesandfears,concerningoneandthesamething,arisealternately;anddiversegoodandevilconsequencesofthedoingoromittingthethingpropoundedcomesuccessivelyintoourthoughts;sothatsometimeswehaveanappetitetoit,sometimesanaversionfromit;sometimeshopetobeabletodoit,sometimesdespair,orfeartoattemptit;thewholesumofdesires,aversions,hopesandfears,continuedtillthethingbeeitherdone,orthoughtimpossible,isthatwecalldeliberation.

Thereforeofthingspastthereisnodeliberation,becausemanifestlyimpossibletobechanged;norofthings nowntobe

impossible,orthoughtso;becausemen noworthin suchdeliberationvain.Butofthingsimpossible,whichwethin possible,wemaydeliberate,not nowingitisinvain.Anditiscalleddeliberation;becauseitisaputtinganendtothelibertywehadofdoing,oromitting,accordingtoourownappetite,oraversion.

Thisalternatesuccessionofappetites,aversions,hopesandfearsisnolessinotherlivingcreaturesthaninman;andthereforebeastsalsodeliberate.

Everydeliberationisthensaidtoendwhenthatwhereoftheydeliberateiseitherdoneorthoughtimpossible;becausetillthenweretainthelibertyofdoing,oromitting,accordingtoour

appetite,oraversion.

Indeliberation,thelastappetite,oraversion,immediatelyadheringtotheaction,ortotheomissionthereof,isthatwecallthewill;theact,notthefaculty,ofwilling.Andbeaststhathavedeliberationmustnecessarilyalsohavewill.Thedefinitionofthewill,givencommonlybytheSchools,thatitisarationalappetite,isnotgood.Forifitwere,thencouldtherebenovoluntaryactagainstreason.Foravoluntaryactisthatwhichproceedethfromthewill,andnoother.Butifinsteadofarationalappetite,weshallsayanappetiteresultingfromaprecedentdeliberation,thenthedefinitionisthesamethatIhavegivenhere.Will,therefore,isthelastappetiteindeliberating.Andthoughwesayincommon

discourse,amanhadawilloncetodoathing,thatneverthelessheforboretodo;yetthatisproperlybutaninclination,whichma esnoactionvoluntary;becausetheactiondependsnotofit,butofthelastinclination,orappetite.Foriftheintervenientappetitesma eanyactionvoluntary,thenbythesamereasonallintervenientaversionsshouldma ethesameactioninvoluntary;andsooneandthesameactionshouldbebothvoluntaryandinvoluntary.

Bythisitismanifestthat,notonlyactionsthathavetheirbeginningfromcovetousness,ambition,lust,orotherappetitestothe


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thingpropounded,butalsothosethathavetheirbeginningfromaversion,orfearofthoseconsequencesthatfollowtheomission,arevoluntaryactions.

Theformsofspeechbywhichthepassionsareexpressedarepartlythesameandpartlydifferentfromthosebywhichweexpressourthoughts.Andfirstgenerallyallpassionsmaybeexpressedindicatively;as,Ilove,Ifear,Ijoy,Ideliberate,Iwill,Icommand:butsomeofthemhaveparticularexpressionsbythemselves,whichneverthelessarenotaffirmations,unlessitbewhentheyservetoma eotherinferencesbesidesthatofthepassiontheyproceedfrom.Deliberationisexpressedsubjunctively;whichisaspeechpropertosignifysuppositions,withtheirconsequences;as,Ifthisbedone,thenthiswillfollow;anddiffersnotfromthelanguageofreasoning,savethatreasoningisingeneralwords,butdeliberationforthemostpartisofparticulars.Thelanguageofdesire,andaversion,isimperative;as,Dothis,forbearthat;whichwhenthepartyisobligedtodo,orforbear,iscommand;otherwiseprayer;orelsecounsel.Thelanguageofvainglory,ofindignation,pityandrevengefulness,optative:butofthedesiretonow,thereisapeculiarexpressioncalledinterrogative;as,Whatis

it,whenshallit,howisitdone,andwhyso?OtherlanguageofthepassionsIfindnone:forcursing,swearing,reviling,andtheli edonotsignifyasspeech,butastheactionsofatongueaccustomed.

Theseformsofspeech,Isay,areexpressionsorvoluntarysignificationsofourpassions:butcertainsignstheybenot;becausetheymaybeusedarbitrarily,whethertheythatusethemhavesuchpassionsornot.Thebestsignsofpassionspresentareeitherinthecountenance,motionsofthebody,actions,andends,oraims,whichweotherwise nowthemantohave.

Andbecauseindeliberationtheappetitesandaversionsareraisedbyforesightofthegoodandevilconsequences,andsequelsoftheactionwhereofwedeliberate,thegoodorevileffectthereofdependethontheforesightofalongchainofconsequences,ofwhichveryseldomanymanisabletoseetotheend.Butforsofarasaman

seeth,ifthegoodinthoseconsequencesbegreaterthantheevil,thewholechainisthatwhichwriterscallapparentorseeminggood.Andcontrarily,whentheevilexceedeththegood,thewholeisapparentorseemingevil:sothathewhohathbyexperience,orreason,thegreatestandsurestprospectofconsequences,deliberatesbesthimself;andisable,whenhewill,togivethebestcounseluntoothers.

Continualsuccessinobtainingthosethingswhichamanfromtimetotimedesireth,thatistosay,continualprospering,isthatmencallfelicity;Imeanthefelicityofthislife.Forthereisnosuchthingasperpetualtranquillityofmind,whilewelivehere;becauselifeitselfisbutmotion,andcanneverbewithoutdesire,

norwithoutfear,nomorethanwithoutsense.What indoffelicityGodhathordainedtothemthatdevoutlyhonourhim,amanshallnosooner nowthanenjoy;beingjoysthatnowareasincomprehensibleasthewordofSchoolmen,beatificalvision,isunintelligible.

Theformofspeechwherebymensignifytheiropinionofthegoodnessofanythingispraise.Thatwherebytheysignifythepowerandgreatnessofanythingismagnifying.Andthatwherebytheysignifytheopiniontheyhaveofaman'sfelicityisbytheGree scalledma arismos,forwhichwehavenonameinourtongue.Andthusmuch


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issufficientforthepresentpurposetohavebeensaidofthepassions.

CHAPTERVII

OFTHEENDSORRESOLUTIONSOFDISCOURSE

OFALLdiscoursegovernedbydesireof nowledge,thereisatlastanend,eitherbyattainingorbygivingover.Andinthechainofdiscourse,wheresoeveritbeinterrupted,thereisanendforthattime.

Ifthediscoursebemerelymental,itconsistethofthoughtsthatthethingwillbe,andwillnotbe;orthatithasbeen,andhasnotbeen,alternately.Sothatwheresoeveryoubrea offthechainofaman'sdiscourse,youleavehiminapresumptionofitwillbe,or,itwillnotbe;orithasbeen,or,hasnotbeen.Allwhichisopinion.Andthatwhichisalternateappetite,indeliberatingconcerninggoodandevil,thesameisalternateopinionintheenquiryofthetruthofpastandfuture.Andasthelastappetiteindeliberationiscalledthewill,sothelastopinioninsearchofthetruthofpastandfutureiscalledthejudgement,orresoluteandfinalsentenceofhimthatdiscourseth.Andasthewholechainofappetitesalternateinthequestionofgoodorbadiscalled

deliberation;sothewholechainofopinionsalternateinthequestionoftrueorfalseiscalleddoubt.

Nodiscoursewhatsoevercanendinabsolute nowledgeoffact,pastortocome.For,asforthe nowledgeoffact,itisoriginallysense,andeveraftermemory.Andforthe nowledgeofconsequence,whichIhavesaidbeforeiscalledscience,itisnotabsolute,butconditional.Nomancan nowbydiscoursethatthis,orthat,is,hasbeen,orwillbe;whichisto nowabsolutely:butonlythatifthisbe,thatis;ifthishasbeen,thathasbeen;ifthisshallbe,thatshallbe;whichisto nowconditionally:andthatnottheconsequenceofonethingtoanother,butofonenameofathingtoanothernameofthesamething.

Andtherefore,whenthediscourseisputintospeech,andbeginswiththedefinitionsofwords,andproceedsbyconnexionofthesameintogeneralaffirmations,andoftheseagainintosyllogisms,theendorlastsumiscalledtheconclusion;andthethoughtofthemindbyitsignifiedisthatconditional nowledge,or nowledgeoftheconsequenceofwords,whichiscommonlycalledscience.Butifthefirstgroundofsuchdiscoursebenotdefinitions,orifthedefinitionsbenotrightlyjoinedtogetherintosyllogisms,thentheendorconclusionisagainopinion,namelyofthetruthofsomewhatsaid,thoughsometimesinabsurdandsenselesswords,withoutpossibilityofbeingunderstood.Whentwoormoremen nowofoneandthesamefact,theyaresaidtobeconsciousofitonetoanother;

whichisasmuchasto nowittogether.Andbecausesucharefittestwitnessesofthefactsofoneanother,orofathird,itwasandeverwillbereputedaveryevilactforanymantospeaagainsthisconscience;ortocorruptorforceanothersotodo:insomuchthatthepleaofconsciencehasbeenalwayshear eneduntoverydiligentlyinalltimes.Afterwards,menmadeuseofthesamewordmetaphoricallyforthe nowledgeoftheirownsecretfactsandsecretthoughts;andthereforeitisrhetoricallysaidthattheconscienceisathousandwitnesses.Andlastofall,men,vehementlyinlovewiththeirownnewopinions,thoughneversoabsurd,and


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obstinatelybenttomaintainthem,gavethosetheiropinionsalsothatreverencednameofconscience,asiftheywouldhaveitseemunlawfultochangeorspea againstthem;andsopretendto nowtheyaretrue,whenthey nowatmostbutthattheythin so.

Whenaman'sdiscoursebeginnethnotatdefinitions,itbeginnetheitheratsomeothercontemplationofhisown,andthenitisstillcalledopinion,oritbeginnethatsomesayingofanother,ofwhoseabilityto nowthetruth,andofwhosehonestyinnotdeceiving,hedoubtethnot;andthenthediscourseisnotsomuchconcerningthething,astheperson;andtheresolutioniscalledbelief,andfaith:faith,intheman;belief,bothoftheman,andofthetruthofwhathesays.Sothatinbeliefaretwoopinions;oneofthesayingoftheman,theotherofhisvirtue.Tohavefaithin,ortrustto,orbelieveaman,signifythesamething;namely,anopinionoftheveracityoftheman:buttobelievewhatissaidsignifiethonlyanopinionofthetruthofthesaying.Butwearetoobservethatthisphrase,Ibelievein;asalsotheLatin,credoin;andtheGree ,pisenoeis,areneverusedbutinthewritingsofdivines.Insteadofthem,inotherwritingsareput:Ibelievehim;Itrusthim;Ihavefaithinhim;Irelyonhim;andinLatin,credoilli;fidoilli;andinGree ,pisenoanto;andthatthissingularityoftheecclesiasticuseofthewordhathraisedmanydisputesabouttherightobjectoftheChristianfaith.

Butbybelievingin,asitisintheCreed,ismeant,nottrustintheperson,butconfessionandac nowledgementofthedoctrine.FornotonlyChristians,butallmannerofmendosobelieveinGodastoholdallfortruththeyhearHimsay,whethertheyunderstanditornot,whichisallthefaithandtrustcanpossiblybehadinanypersonwhatsoever;buttheydonotallbelievethedoctrineoftheCreed.

Fromwhencewemayinferthatwhenwebelieveanysaying,whatsoeveritbe,tobetrue,fromargumentsta en,notfromthethingitself,orfromtheprinciplesofnaturalreason,butfromtheauthorityandgoodopinionwehaveofhimthathathsaidit;thenisthespea er,or

personwebelievein,ortrustin,andwhosewordweta e,theobjectofourfaith;andthehonourdoneinbelievingisdonetohimonly.Andconsequently,whenwebelievethattheScripturesarethewordofGod,havingnoimmediaterevelationfromGodHimself,ourbelief,faith,andtrustisintheChurch;whosewordweta e,andacquiescetherein.AndtheythatbelievethatwhichaprophetrelatesuntotheminthenameofGodta ethewordoftheprophet,dohonourtohim,andinhimtrustandbelieve,touchingthetruthofwhatherelateth,whetherhebeatrueorafalseprophet.Andsoitisalsowithallotherhistory.ForifIshouldnotbelieveallthatiswrittenbyhistoriansofthegloriousactsofAlexanderorCaesar,Idonotthin theghostofAlexanderorCaesarhadanyjustcausetobeoffended,oranybodyelsebutthehistorian.IfLivysay

thegodsmadeonceacowspea ,andwebelieveitnot,wedistrustnotGodtherein,butLivy.Sothatitisevidentthatwhatsoeverwebelieve,uponnootherreasonthanwhatisdrawnfromauthorityofmenonly,andtheirwritings,whethertheybesentfromGodornot,isfaithinmenonly.

CHAPTERVIII

OFTHEVIRTUESCOMMONLYCALLEDINTELLECTUAL;


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ANDTHEIRCONTRARYDEFECTS

VIRTUEgenerally,inallsortsofsubjects,issomewhatthatisvaluedforeminence;andconsistethincomparison.Forifallthingswereequallyinallmen,nothingwouldbeprized.Andbyvirtuesintellectualarealwaysunderstoodsuchabilitiesofthemindasmenpraise,value,anddesireshouldbeinthemselves;andgocommonlyunderthenameofagoodwit;thoughthesameword,wit,beusedalsotodistinguishonecertainabilityfromtherest.

Thesevirtuesareoftwosorts;naturalandacquired.Bynatural,Imeannotthatwhichamanhathfromhisbirth:forthatisnothingelsebutsense;whereinmendiffersolittleonefromanother,andfrombrutebeasts,asitisnottoberec onedamongstvirtues.ButImeanthatwitwhichisgottenbyuseonly,andexperience,withoutmethod,culture,orinstruction.Thisnaturalwitconsistethprincipallyintwothings:celerityofimagining(thatis,swiftsuccessionofonethoughttoanother);andsteadydirectiontosomeapprovedend.Onthecontrary,aslowimaginationma eththatdefectorfaultofthemindwhichiscommonlycalleddullness,stupidity,andsometimesbyothernamesthatsignifyslownessofmotion,ordifficultytobemoved.

Andthisdifferenceofquic nessiscausedbythedifferenceof

men'spassions;thatloveanddisli e,someonething,someanother:andthereforesomemen'sthoughtsrunoneway,someanother,andareheldto,observedifferentlythethingsthatpassthroughtheirimagination.Andwhereasinthissuccessionofmen'sthoughtsthereisnothingtoobserveinthethingstheythin on,buteitherinwhattheybeli eoneanother,orinwhattheybeunli e,orwhattheyservefor,orhowtheyservetosuchapurpose;thosethatobservetheirsimilitudes,incasetheybesuchasarebutrarelyobservedbyothers,aresaidtohaveagoodwit;bywhich,inthisoccasion,ismeantagoodfancy.Buttheythatobservetheirdifferences,anddissimilitudes,whichiscalleddistinguishing,anddiscerning,andjudgingbetweenthingandthing,incasesuchdiscerningbenoteasy,aresaidtohaveagoodjudgement:andparticularlyinmatterof

conversationandbusiness,whereintimes,places,andpersonsaretobediscerned,thisvirtueiscalleddiscretion.Theformer,thatis,fancy,withoutthehelpofjudgement,isnotcommendedasavirtue;butthelatterwhichisjudgement,anddiscretion,iscommendedforitself,withoutthehelpoffancy.Besidesthediscretionoftimes,places,andpersons,necessarytoagoodfancy,thereisrequiredalsoanoftenapplicationofhisthoughtstotheirend;thatistosay,tosomeusetobemadeofthem.Thisdone,hethathaththisvirtuewillbeeasilyfittedwithsimilitudesthatwillplease,notonlybyillustrationofhisdiscourse,andadorningitwithnewandaptmetaphors,butalso,bytherarityoftheirinvention.Butwithoutsteadiness,anddirectiontosomeend,greatfancyisone indofmadness;suchastheyhavethat,enteringintoanydiscourse,are

snatchedfromtheirpurposebyeverythingthatcomesintheirthought,intosomanyandsolongdigressionsandparentheses,thattheyutterlylosethemselves:which indoffollyI nownoparticularnamefor:butthecauseofitissometimeswantofexperience;wherebythatseemethtoamannewandrarewhichdothnotsotoothers:sometimespusillanimity;bywhichthatseemsgreattohimwhichothermenthin atrifle:andwhatsoeverisnew,orgreat,andthereforethoughtfittobetold,withdrawsamanbydegreesfromtheintendedwayofhisdiscourse.


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Inagoodpoem,whetheritbeepicordramatic,asalsoinsonnets,epigrams,andotherpieces,bothjudgementandfancyarerequired:butthefancymustbemoreeminent;becausetheypleasefortheextravagancy,butoughtnottodispleasebyindiscretion.

Inagoodhistory,thejudgementmustbeeminent;becausethegoodnessconsistethinthechoiceofthemethod,inthetruth,andinthechoiceoftheactionsthataremostprofitabletobe nown.Fancyhasnoplace,butonlyinadorningthestyle.

Inorationsofpraise,andininvectives,thefancyispredominant;becausethedesignisnottruth,buttohonourordishonour;whichisdonebynobleorbyvilecomparisons.Thejudgementdoesbutsuggestwhatcircumstancesma eanactionlaudableorculpable.

Inhortativesandpleadings,astruthordisguiseservethbesttothedesigninhand,soisthejudgementorthefancymostrequired.

Indemonstration,incouncil,andallrigoroussearchoftruth,sometimesdoesall;exceptsometimestheunderstandinghaveneedtobeopenedbysomeaptsimilitude,andthenthereissomuchuseoffancy.Butformetaphors,theyareinthiscaseutterlyexcluded.Forseeingtheyopenlyprofessdeceit,toadmitthemintocouncil,or

reasoning,weremanifestfolly.

Andinanydiscoursewhatsoever,ifthedefectofdiscretionbeapparent,howextravagantsoeverthefancybe,thewholediscoursewillbeta enforasignofwantofwit;andsowillitneverwhenthediscretionismanifest,thoughthefancybeneversoordinary.

Thesecretthoughtsofamanrunoverallthingsholy,prophane,clean,obscene,grave,andlight,withoutshame,orblame;whichverbaldiscoursecannotdo,fartherthanthejudgementshallapproveofthetime,place,andpersons.Ananatomistorphysicianmayspeaorwritehisjudgementofuncleanthings;becauseitisnottoplease,butprofit:butforanothermantowritehisextravagantand

pleasantfanciesofthesameisasifaman,frombeingtumbledintothedirt,shouldcomeandpresenthimselfbeforegoodcompany.Anditisthewantofdiscretionthatma esthedifference.Again,inprofessedremissnessofmind,andfamiliarcompany,amanmayplaywiththesoundsandequivocalsignificationsofwords,andthatmanytimeswithencountersofextraordinaryfancy;butinasermon,orinpublic,orbeforepersonsun nown,orwhomweoughttoreverence,thereisnojinglingofwordsthatwillnotbeaccountedfolly:andthedifferenceisonlyinthewantofdiscretion.Sothatwherewitiswanting,itisnotfancythatiswanting,butdiscretion.Judgement,therefore,withoutfancyiswit,butfancywithoutjudgement,not.

Whenthethoughtsofamanthathasadesigninhand,runningovera

multitudeofthings,observeshowtheyconducetothatdesign,orwhatdesigntheymayconduceunto;ifhisobservationsbesuchasarenoteasy,orusual,thiswitofhisiscalledprudence,anddependethonmuchexperience,andmemoryoftheli ethingsandtheirconsequencesheretofore.Inwhichthereisnotsomuchdifferenceofmenasthereisintheirfanciesandjudgements;becausetheexperienceofmenequalinageisnotmuchunequalastothequantity,butliesindifferentoccasions,everyonehavinghisprivatedesigns.Togovernwellafamilyanda ingdomarenotdifferentdegreesofprudence,butdifferentsortsofbusiness;nomorethantodrawa


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pictureinlittle,orasgreatorgreaterthanthelife,aredifferentdegreesofart.AplainhusbandmanismoreprudentinaffairsofhisownhousethanaPrivyCounsellorintheaffairsofanotherman.

Toprudence,ifyouaddtheuseofunjustordishonestmeans,suchasusuallyarepromptedtomenbyfearorwant,youhavethatcroo edwisdomwhichiscalledcraft;whichisasignofpusillanimity.Formagnanimityiscontemptofunjustordishonesthelps.AndthatwhichtheLatinscallversutia(translatedintoEnglish,shifting),andisaputtingoffofapresentdangerorincommoditybyengagingintoagreater,aswhenamanrobsonetopayanother,isbutashorter-sightedcraft;calledversutia,fromversura,whichsignifiesta ingmoneyatusuryforthepresentpaymentofinterest.

Asforacquiredwit(Imeanacquiredbymethodandinstruction),thereisnonebutreason;whichisgroundedontherightuseofspeech,andproduceththesciences.Butofreasonandscience,Ihavealreadyspo eninthefifthandsixthchapters.

Thecausesofthisdifferenceofwitsareinthepassions,andthedifferenceofpassionsproceedethpartlyfromthedifferentconstitutionofthebody,andpartlyfromdifferenteducation.Forifthedifferenceproceededfromthetemperofthebrain,andthe

organsofsense,eitherexteriororinterior,therewouldbenolessdifferenceofmenintheirsight,hearing,orothersensesthanintheirfanciesanddiscretions.Itproceeds,therefore,fromthepassions;whicharedifferent,notonlyfromthedifferenceofmen'scomplexions,butalsofromtheirdifferenceofcustomsandeducation.

Thepassionsthatmostofallcausethedifferencesofwitareprincipallythemoreorlessdesireofpower,ofriches,of nowledge,andofhonour.Allwhichmaybereducedtothefirst,thatis,desireofpower.Forriches, nowledgeandhonourarebutseveralsortsofpower.

Andtherefore,amanwhohasnogreatpassionforanyofthese

things,butisasmentermitindifferent;thoughhemaybesofaragoodmanastobefreefromgivingoffence,yethecannotpossiblyhaveeitheragreatfancyormuchjudgement.Forthethoughtsaretothedesiresasscoutsandspiestorangeabroadandfindthewaytothethingsdesired,allsteadinessofthemind'smotion,andallquic nessofthesame,proceedingfromthence.Forastohavenodesireistobedead;sotohavewea passionsisdullness;andtohavepassionsindifferentlyforeverything,giddinessanddistraction;andtohavestrongerandmorevehementpassionsforanythingthanisordinarilyseeninothersisthatwhichmencallmadness.

Whereoftherebealmostasmay indsasofthepassionsthemselves.Sometimestheextraordinaryandextravagantpassion

proceedethfromtheevilconstitutionoftheorgansofthebody,orharmdonethem;andsometimesthehurt,andindispositionoftheorgans,iscausedbythevehemenceorlongcontinuanceofthepassion.Butinbothcasesthemadnessisofoneandthesamenature.

Thepassionwhoseviolenceorcontinuancema ethmadnessiseithergreatvainglory,whichiscommonlycalledprideandself-conceit,orgreatdejectionofmind.

Pridesubjectethamantoanger,theexcesswhereofisthemadness


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calledrage,andfury.Andthusitcomestopassthatexcessivedesireofrevenge,whenitbecomeshabitual,hurteththeorgans,andbecomesrage:thatexcessivelove,withjealousy,becomesalsorage:excessiveopinionofaman'sownself,fordivineinspiration,forwisdom,learning,form,andtheli e,becomesdistractionandgiddiness:thesame,joinedwithenvy,rage:vehementopinionofthetruthofanything,contradictedbyothers,rage.

Dejectionsubjectsamantocauselessfears,whichisamadnesscommonlycalledmelancholyapparentalsoindiversemanners:asinhauntingofsolitudesandgraves;insuperstitiousbehaviour;andinfearingsomeone,someanother,particularthing.Insum,allpassionsthatproducestrangeandunusualbehaviourarecalledbythegeneralnameofmadness.Butoftheseveral indsofmadness,hethatwouldta ethepainsmightenrolalegion.Andiftheexcessesbemadness,thereisnodoubtbutthepassionsthemselves,whentheytendtoevil,aredegreesofthesame.

Forexample,thoughtheeffectoffolly,inthemthatarepossessedofanopinionofbeinginspired,benotvisiblealwaysinonemanbyanyveryextravagantactionthatproceedethfromsuchpassion,yetwhenmanyofthemconspiretogether,therageofthewholemultitudeisvisibleenough.Forwhatargumentofmadnesscantherebegreaterthantoclamour,stri e,andthrowstonesatourbest

friends?Yetthisissomewhatlessthansuchamultitudewilldo.Fortheywillclamour,fightagainst,anddestroythosebywhomalltheirlifetimebeforetheyhavebeenprotectedandsecuredfrominjury.Andifthisbemadnessinthemultitude,itisthesameineveryparticularman.Forasinthemidstofthesea,thoughamanperceivenosoundofthatpartofthewaternexthim,yetheiswellassuredthatpartcontributesasmuchtotheroaringoftheseaasanyotherpartofthesamequantity:soalso,thoughweperceivenogreatunquietnessinoneortwomen,yetwemaybewellassuredthattheirsingularpassionsarepartsoftheseditiousroaringofatroublednation.Andiftherewerenothingelsethatbewrayedtheirmadness,yetthatveryarrogatingsuchinspirationtothemselvesisargumentenough.IfsomemaninBedlamshouldentertainyouwithsober

discourse,andyoudesireinta ingleaveto nowwhathewerethatyoumightanothertimerequitehiscivility,andheshouldtellyouhewereGodtheFather;Ithin youneedexpectnoextravagantactionforargumentofhismadness.

Thisopinionofinspiration,calledcommonly,privatespirit,beginsveryoftenfromsomeluc yfindingofanerrorgenerallyheldbyothers;andnot nowing,ornotremembering,bywhatconductofreasontheycametososingularatruth,astheythin it,thoughitbemanytimesanuntruththeylighton,theypresentlyadmirethemselvesasbeinginthespecialgraceofGodAlmighty,whohathrevealedthesametothemsupernaturallybyhisSpirit.

Again,thatmadnessisnothingelsebuttoomuchappearingpassionmaybegatheredoutoftheeffectsofwine,whicharethesamewiththoseoftheevildispositionofth

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