thomas hobbes: life & times - 1 hobbes: the leviathan 4 frontispiece from the 1651 edition of...

Thomas Hobbes: Life & times - 1

Hobbes: the Leviathan

Frontispiece from the 1651 edition of the Leviathan

Anthony Quinton: This book has “good claim to being the greatest work of political philosophy ever written” (The Oxford History of Western Philosophy, ed. Anthony Kenny (Oxford UP, 1994) 317).



Title page from the 1651 edition

Michael Oakshott: the Leviathan is “the greatest, perhaps sole, masterpiece of political philosophy in the English language.”



1. Natural equality•Not in all respects; but the different

strengths & weakness of persons balance out (I, 13).

•This natural equality results in an equality of hope.

•Hope for what? Survival & happiness. •But this leads to competition which in

turn leads to violence.



•And worse, persons seek to satisfy their desires “not . . . once only and for one instant in time, but to assure forever the way of his future desire.”

•The only way to assure one’s future desire is by power; persons incline toward “a perpetual and restless desire of power after power that ceases only in death.”



•Sum: Even if a person has his share of goods and some degree of security, it could be taken away tomorrow by someone stronger. And to protect oneself, one needs power.



2. The state of nature• locus classicus: I, 13.9, p. 76.

– A state of war– No security– No prosperity– Only one basic right

» The right to self-preservation (I, 14.1, p. 79)



• Problems of interpreting the state of nature. Is Hobbes referring to – an historical period?– a purely hypothetical situation à la

Rawls?– a logical deduction from

considerations of human nature?»It is a situation which would be

present if there were no strong ruler



» But it is not a pure logical deduction. Hobbes cites some empirical evidence:

Rulers are in a constant posture of war (I, 13.12, p.78)

Look at what happens when governments break down. E.g., times of civil war (77)

Savage peoples in many places in the Americas (I, 13.11, p.77)



3. Escape from the state of nature• The resources to escape are within

ourselves (I, 13.13, p. 78)– (1) Passions

» fear of death» desire for comfortable living» & the desire to obtain these

things by industry (I, 13.14, p. 78)



– (2) Reason» Shows us how these

fundamental passions can be satisfied.

» How? By suggesting certain moral rules--”Laws of Nature.”



– Hobbes’s notion of “Laws of Nature” » Dictates of right reason

– Aside on Hobbes’ ethics• In the state of nature, each persons desires

determines what is good and evil.• But under the contract, right & wrong are the

result of the agreement among rationally self-interested individuals to give up the pursuit of their own desires for the security of living in peace.



• It is in my self-interest to enter into a society where everyone’s desires are constrained by an agreed-on morality. (15.40)

• Why, according to Hobbes, be moral? Because it is in my best interests to be moral (I seek peace because this allows for industry, commerce, the arts, & comfortable living).



– Hobbes’s notion of “Laws of Nature” » Dictates of right reason

– The two basic Laws of Nature» (1) Seek peace (I, 14.5, p. 80)

Comment: Reason tells persons that they ought to live in peace with one another; this is the only way to bring about a civil society.



» (2) One ought to lay down ones rights, provided others are willing to do so also (I, 14.5, p. 80).



The one exception to laying down one’s

rights: the right to

defend one’s own life (I, 14.8,

p. 82)



– How can the laying down of rights occur? In two ways:» (1) Simply renounce them.

Comment: This won’t work. If only some lay down their rights, others will take advantage of them.



» (2) Transfer them to another (I, 14.7, p. 81). But everyone must do this.

If everyone transfers their rights, the result is a contract (I, 14.9, p. 82).



– The contract (or covenant)» Contracts may be based on

trust. Would such a contract work in the state of nature?

» Or contracts may be based on a coercive power (I, 14.18, p. 84)

» The second type of contract is required in order to escape the state of nature.



» Cf. Socrates’ social contract - For Hobbes, there is a transfer

of rights; there is no “rights” language in Socrates’ philosophy

- Another difference: Socrates’ contract is not based on power

– But the contract has no force without a strong, visible power.



– Cf. Garret Hardin’s tragedy of the commons (“The Tragedy of the Commons,” Science 162 (1968)).» Reason tells me to be a

steward of the commons» But reason also tells me that

if I am a steward, I will be taken advantage of .



» Thus I might as well get what I can while some common goods remain.

» The result is the destruction of the commons.

» Hence the need for stringent controls, coercive power.



» Summary statement: Men seek to maximize their gains & in the absence of controls, they are driven by rational calculation of self-interest to over exploit & abuse the commons. “Freedom of the commons brings ruin to all.”



– 4. The Commonwealth • Comes about by each person

conferring “all their power and strength upon one man, or upon one assembly of men, that may reduce all their wills, by plurality of voices, unto one will . . .” (II, 17.13, p. 109)



• The need for a visible power which will instill awe, fear, and even terror in citizens. (II, 17.2, p. 106)– Cf. Socrates - no need to hold

citizens in fear; humans naturally obey the state, like they obey father and mother.



• “This done, the multitude so united in one person is called a COMMONWEALTH . . . This is the generation of the great LEVIATHAN . . . to which we owe . . . our peace and defense” (II, 17.13, p. 109).



• The Commonwealth gives rise to all of the advantages of civil society -- defense, development of commerce and industry, and the arts.



• Are there any situations in which citizens may resist the sovereign?– Only one

» When the sovereign can no longer protect the life of the citizen (II, 21, p. 179). Security of life is the whole purpose of submission to the sovereign.

thomas hobbes: life & times - 1 hobbes: the leviathan 4 frontispiece from the 1651 edition of...

Documents

thomas hobbes

hobbes ethics

life times

leviathan problems

leviathan sum

times of civil war

strong ruler slide

laws of nature