id lectures
TRANSCRIPT
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INDIVIDUAL DYNAMICSINDIVIDUAL DYNAMICS
Session 1Session 1Managing peopleManaging people
PGP I 2009PGP I 2009 --2010 Sections A & C2010 Sections A & C
Prof. PremillaProf. Premilla DCruzDCruz
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Counterdependence: Pattern of behavior inwhich individuals, believing that no onewill be available to turn to in stressfulsituations, isolate themselves and resist
supportive overtures by othersOverdependence: Pattern of behavior whereindividuals cling too tightly to others whilefailing to reciprocate support
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InterpersonalInterpersonal behaviourbehaviour A variety of A variety of behavioursbehaviours involving the waysinvolving the ways
in which people work with and against onein which people work with and against oneanotheranother
Workingwith others Workingagainst others
Competition
Co-operation Conflict
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CoCo--operationoperation
Pattern of Pattern of behaviourbehaviour in which assistance isin which assistance ismutual and two or more individuals,mutual and two or more individuals,groups orgroups or organisationsorganisations work togetherwork togethertowards shared goals for their mutualtowards shared goals for their mutual
benefitbenefit
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CompetitionCompetition
A pattern of A pattern of behaviourbehaviour in which eachin which eachperson, group orperson, group or organisationorganisation seeks toseeks tomaximisemaximise its own gains, often at theits own gains, often at theexpense of othersexpense of others
Even though people have similar goals,Even though people have similar goals,they compete rather than cothey compete rather than co --operateoperate
when their goals cannot be sharedwhen their goals cannot be shared
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ConflictConflictStruggle between two or moreStruggle between two or more
individuals/groups in anindividuals/groups in an organisationorganisation
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InfluenceInfluence
The foundational process of The foundational process of organisationsorganisations isisinfluenceinfluence that is the efforts to induce others tothat is the efforts to induce others tobehave in a desired waybehave in a desired way
It becomes significant becauseIt becomes significant because organisationsorganisations are allare allabout members working through others to accomplishabout members working through others to accomplishtheir taskstheir tasks
People exercise influence in a variety of waysPeople exercise influence in a variety of ways
Use of power/formal capacity to influence othersUse of power/formal capacity to influence othersIn the absence of power, other techniques areIn the absence of power, other techniques areresortedresorted
Influence could be upward, downward or lateralInfluence could be upward, downward or lateral
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Influence tactics includeInfluence tactics includeIngratiation/friendliness (buttering)Ingratiation/friendliness (buttering)ReasonReason
Participation/consultationParticipation/consultationExchangeExchangeCoalitionCoalition
Appeal AppealPressure/threatsPressure/threatsLegitimating/authority/consistency withLegitimating/authority/consistency with organisationalorganisational
policy and practicepolicy and practice
Usually a combination of tactics are usedUsually a combination of tactics are usedsimultaneouslysimultaneously -- more effective than using amore effective than using a
single tacticsingle tactic
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Managing peopleManaging people TheTheorganisationalorganisational levellevel
The critical role of leadershipThe critical role of leadershipRedesigning theRedesigning the organisationorganisation , as required, as required
Culture, goal congruence, role clarity,Culture, goal congruence, role clarity,interpersonal sensitivity (role of interpersonal sensitivity (role of OrganisationalOrganisational Development)Development)
Reward systems Reward systems Expansion of resources Expansion of resources
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Managing peopleManaging people thethe
interpersonal and intrapersonalinterpersonal and intrapersonallevelslevelsIdentify your network in terms of interIdentify your network in terms of inter --dependenciesdependenciesUnderstand each member of your network as aUnderstand each member of your network as apersonperson
Assess the progress of the relationship and work Assess the progress of the relationship and work towards its maintenancetowards its maintenanceManage differences through the balancing of Manage differences through the balancing of inquiry and advocacy and disciplined reflectioninquiry and advocacy and disciplined reflection
Need to understand self and othersNeed to understand self and othersLearn to communicate with and respond to others inLearn to communicate with and respond to others in
ways that will increase their understanding of ways that will increase their understanding of themselves, our understanding of them as well asthemselves, our understanding of them as well astheir understanding of ustheir understanding of us
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INDIVIDUAL DYNAMICSSession 2: Understanding self and others
PGP I 2009-2010Sections A & C
Prof. Premilla DCruz
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Self/identity/personalityAnswers the question who am I?Meanings attached to a person by self andothers that are based on personal aspects suchas traits, abilities, attitudes, etc., and onpeoples social roles and membership in variousgroupsUnique/distinctStable yet changingPerson can have multiple selves stemming from
a variety of identities (self-pluralism)Ideal/possible self
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Self/identity/personality
Product of What you areWhat society expects you to beWhat experiences you have and how you dealwith them
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Self/identity/personality at theworkplace
Intrapersonal and interpersonal effectivenessPerson-job fit
Career/occupational choice, selection and promotion, job
performance, job satisfactionMeasurement via psychometric tests draws ontrait theories essentially
Strengths - Parsimonious and facilitate comparisonWeaknesses static rather than processual,incomplete rather than comprehensive
Implications of psychometric tests
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Johari windowThe most useful model to describe the processof human interaction, resembling acommunication window through which you giveand receive information about yourself andothersThrough feedback and disclosure (in other words, the processes of giving and receivingfeedback), you can reveal more about yourself to others and learn more about yourself fromothers
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1 2
3 4
Knownby self
Unknownby self
Ask
open/free/public arenaarea
blind area/blind spot
unknownarea
hidden/facadearea
Others observation
Knownby others
Unknownby others
Tell
Johari window model
Self- disclosure/exposure/givefeedback
SharedDiscovery
F e e
d b
a c
k s o l i c
i t a
t i o
n
S e
l f -
d i s
c o v e r y
Under Condition of Self Disclosure
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1
1
1
2
2
2
3
3
3
4
4
4
Under Condition of Self Disclosure
Under Condition of Feedback
Under Condition of Self Disclosure and Feedback
http://saweb.weber.edu/elibrary/StructuredExperience/PDF/P-FB/P-FB-1.pdf
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Open
Hidden
Blind
Unknown
Initial phase of group interaction
Later phase of group interaction
Open
Hidden
Blind
Unknown
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Principles of change in the Johariwindow
A change in one quadrant affects other quadrantsIt takes energy to hide/deny/be blind to
behaviour that is involved in interactionTrust increases awareness
Forced awareness is undesirable andusually ineffectiveThe smaller the open area, the poorer thecommunication
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Interpersonal learning means a change has takenplace so the Q1 is larger and one or more of theother quadrants also has grown smaller.Working with others is facilitated by a large openarea. An increased Q1 means more of theresources and skills in the relationships can beapplied to a task. Interpersonal effectiveness isenhanced with a larger open areaThere is universal curiosity about the Unknownarea, but is held in check by custom, socialtraining and diverse fears.
Sensitivity means appreciating the covert aspectof behaviour, in quadrant 2, 3 and 4, andrespecting the desire of others to keep them so.
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Understanding selfand others
Individual Dynamics
PGP I 2009-2010Sections A & C
Prof. Premilla DCruz
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How do I relate to others and
how do they relate to me? Broadly, the patterns of interpersonal
interactions at work could range from Non-assertion/passivity
Assertion Aggression
Aggression Assertion Non-aggression/passivity
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Assertion Serves as a balance between exclusively
pursuing personal goals (aggression) andcompletely deferring to others (passivity)
Rooted in the notion that we should not violateour own or others basic human rights thus, aperson expresses himself/herself and his/herneeds in such a way that his/her own rights aswell as the rights of others are respected
Expressive and self-enhancing style that doesnot intrude on others Boundaries of all parties are maintained Allows for trust and mutual respect
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In other words Respectful, healthy and mature communication
which preserves the integrity of all involved Facilitates conflict resolution and negotiation
while defusing anger
Agree to disagree room for differences Solution that is acceptable to all parties- When both parties do it, no one is hurt in any
way and all parties win on some level We get what we want without diminishing the other
person
Other person can feel good about himself/herselfwhile also achieving his/her own goals
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Examples of Assertive
Communication So what youre saying is..
I can see that this is important to you,and it is also important to me. Perhaps we
can talk more respectfully and try to solvethe problem I thinkI feelI believe that.. I would appreciate it if you.
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What is Okay in assertive
behavior It is okay to say I dont know
It is okay to say No or I cannot do that It is okay to make mistakes as long as
responsibility is taken for them It is okay to disagree and to verbalize that It is okay to challenge other opinions or action
It is okay to not accept anothers opinion asfactual or accurate (e.g., getting criticized)
It is okay to ask for a change in behavior
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Non-assertion/passivity
Inhibited, self-denying quality where we
do not express ourselves or strive to getwhat we want from the situation Encourages others to take advantage of us
and control the situation Precipitates negative feelings in us and
disrespect for us in the other person Could lead to aggression after a criticallimit is reached
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Examples of Passive Communication
I dont know.
Whatever you think. You have more experience than I. You
decide. Ill go with whatever the group decides.
I dont care. It doesnt matter to me. Yes, yes, yes, yes, yes, yes, yes . . . NO!
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What does it do for you?
Promotes inertia
Resigns you to losing Makes you deferential people-pleasing
Places you in victim mode Embodies a sense of peace at all costs
Precipitates feelings of depression andanxiety
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Examples of AggressiveCommunication
I dont know why you cant see that this isthe right way to do it. Its going to be my way or not at all. You re just stupid if you think that willwork
That kind of logic will sink the company Who cares what you feel. Were talking
about making things work here.
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What does it do for you?
Allows you to win at all costs
Makes you insensitive Portrays you as intimidating and
threatening rather than mature andprofessional Walk over others
Bully others Use attacking you statements Insist that you are always right
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When passivity is appropriate
When the results of pushing the issue
would cause problems that outweigh the benefits When issues are minor When there is a power differential that is
not in your favor and the other party is
getting agitated by your assertiveness When the other individuals position isimpossible to change (E.g., the law)
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When aggression is appropriate
In an emergency
When there is not time to spend on acompromise
When your opinion is based on severalfacts, you therefore KNOW you are right,and there is no time to utilizeassertiveness skills
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From no to yes Listen actively Show them that you understand
That they feel strongly What they feel strongly about Why they feel strongly about it
Win yourself a hearing Explain your own feelings Refer back to their points Make your point firmly but stay friendly
Work towards a joint solution Seek their ideas Build on their ideas (dont knock them down) Offer your ideas (dont impose) Construct a solution from everyones ideas, that
addresses everyones needs
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Understanding self and others
Significance of co-operation and
interdependence Use of influence strategies
Attempt to have open areas (based onknowledge of self and use of feedback),via trust, maturity and sensitivity
Relevance of assertiveness
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Feedback (continued from Johari
window model) Purpose of feedback
Helps us see ourselves as others see us Others learn how we see them In so doing, it helps us move towards our
goals Presupposes a caring, trusting
environment Which reduces defensiveness Which maximises personal growth
The desire for feedback is often off-set by the fearof asking for such information
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Giving feedback
Feedback should be given such that the
person receiving it Hears it in the most objective, least distortedway possible
Understands it Retains the choice of using/not using it
People need to be trained to give feedback Should be given such that the recipient
preserves his/her self-esteem
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Solicited versus imposed feedback Solicited is more useful since recipient is open
Data-based versus impressionistic Positive and negative versus completely
negative Suggestive versus prescriptive Constructive versus destructive Motivation to help versus motivation to hurt Description versus interpretation of behaviour
Description focuses on observable aspects whereasinterpretation involves attributing intention andcould be wrong
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Receiving feedback
Elicit versus wait
Listening and self-analysis versus denialand rationalisation
Clarifying versus assuming
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PerceptionIndividual Dynamics Session 4PGP-I 2009-10, Sections A & C
Prof. Premilla DCruz
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Perception in organisational lifePerceptions are variable raise issuesabout
accuracy
objectivitycongruence
What are the implications for work settings?Objects of perception at work Deep level diversity, perceptual processes anderrors
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Person perceptionPerson/social perception (similar to perception but
the target/object is a person): Process by which weseek to understand the people around us
Characteristics of the perceiver Characteristics of the person being perceived
Impression formation
Impression management and self monitoringBehavioural matching, self-promotion,conformity, appreciation/flattery
Perceptual errors
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Perceptual errors/biases in person perceptionPerceptual/mental set/schemaPerceptual defense (including projection)Stereotype and halo effectSimilar-to-me/similarity effects
Tendency for perceiver to perceive in a positive light targets who they believe are similar to themselves in any of several different ways
Contrast effectsPerceivers perceptions of others influence perceivers perception of atarget
Primacy effectsInitial pieces of information that a perceiver has about a target have aninordinately large effect on the perceivers perception and evaluation of
the targetRecency/latency effects
Later pieces of information that a perceiver has about a target have aninordinately large effect on the perceivers perception and evaluation of the target
Attributional errors
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AttributionAttributionAttributionSession 5Session 5Individual DynamicsIndividual Dynamics
PGP I 2009PGP I 2009 --2010 Sections A & C2010 Sections A & C
Prof. PremillaProf. Premilla DCruzDCruz
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Attribution as part ofperson/social perception
Person/social perception (similar toperception but the target/object is aperson): Process by which we seek tounderstand the people around us
Attribution is an attempt to understandthe reasons underlying a persons
behaviour
D fi i i
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Definition Cognitive process of inferring thecauses of our own and others
behaviour/of events Causal attributions have 3
dimensions: Locus of causality (internal or external) Stability of the cause (fixed or
variable), and Controllability of the cause (controllableor uncontrollable)
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Locus of causality Do peoples behaviours stem from
factors internal/external to them?
Internal (dispositional) or external(situational)
Internal (dispositional) ability,personality, motivation, effort, mood External (situational) task difficulty,
luck, boss, peers, resources
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Stability of the cause Are the causal factors that influencebehaviour stable over time? Fixed (stable) factors ability,personality, task difficulty
Variable (unstable/changing) factors mood, effort, strategy, fatigue,luck
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Controllability of the cause
Can an individual change or influence thesecausal factors if he/she wishes to do so?
Or are these factors beyond his/hercontrol?
Locus of control:Internal locus of control - do I believe that
I can control outcomes?External locus of control do I believe thatoutcomes are beyond my control?
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Personality traits and attributions
The attribution process is furthercomplicated by the role of personality that is, there are individual differences inattribution that can be explained bydispositional factors
Attribution
about anoutcome
Expectancy
of success
Behavioural
responses
Personalitytraits/Dispositions
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The possibility of errors About self
Self-serving bias About others
Limited/inaccurate information whichhas not been verified
Perceptual errors includingmental/perceptual sets/schema,stereotypes, etc
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Organisational applications My attributions about myself affect my
emotional state, my motivation and myefforts/behaviours
Others attributions about me affectvarious HR practices such as selection,appraisals, promotions, transfers/layoffs,training
My attributions about others which affecthow I relate to them, how I work withthem, how I assess them
PLUS ERRORS
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Learning
Individual DynamicsPGP I 2009-10 Sections A & C
Prof. Premilla DCruz
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Learning theories
Classical conditioning
Higher order conditioning
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Operant ConditioningShaping the desired behaviours through:
Positive ReinforcementNegative Reinforcement
Reinforcement increases the occurrence of the desired responseContinuous versus intermittent reinforcementschedules
Fixed interval/ratioVariable interval/ratio
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Cognitive theory
Complexity of human behaviour Role of cognitionLearning occurs via meaningful behaviour and
information processing, not merely because of reinforcement
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Social Learning Theory
Vicarious learning or modelingObservation and imitation
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Single loop and double loop learning
Single loop learning (adaptive learning)Set ways of solving problems that are not questioned but lead todefensive thinking which blocks learningHow to improve the status quoReduce gaps and errors between desired and existing conditionsProduces incremental changes
Double loop learning (generative learning)Breaking down defensive thinking by recognising the reasoning oneuses, identifying inconsistencies between espoused and actualtheories of action and working towards alternatives such that onefinds newer and more effective ways of learning
How to change the status quoAims at changing the assumptions and conditions within which singleloop learning occursCan lead to transformational/radical change
Applications of learning in the
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Applications of learning in theworkplace
Socialisation learning theory,Training learning styles
Mentoring and coachingReward/performance systems operant cond.Behaviour modification and discipline
Impression management and personal promotion (sociallearning, modeling and conformity)Team creation learning stylesPerson job fitDecision making, problem solving and change (cognitivelearning, single and double loop learning)Knowledge management systems (tacit knowledge)Learning organisations (Senges Fifth Discipline, doubleloop learning and organisational design issues )
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Decision making
Prof. Premilla DCruz,Individual Dynamics
PGP I 2009-2010, Sections A & C
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Film
Authoritarian style: Top-down approach
where the boss takes the decision andsubordinates must obey Consultative style: Boss decides, after
considering the inputs of andinfluencing/persuading subordinates
Participative style: Joint decision making by boss and subordinates whereconsensus is emphasised
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Decision making style how one
approaches decision making, based onhow one perceives and comprehendsstimuli/information and the generalmanner in which one chooses to respondto such stimuli/information
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There is no one best decision making styleapplicable to all situations People have preferences for particular styles
But they generally alternate between 2-3styles depending on their preference and thedemands of the situation such as time, natureof the problem, strategic concerns, sub-ordinates, etc.
Knowing ones preferred style promotes
self-awareness and self-improvement Knowing others style helps you influence
them more effectively
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Decision making
The process of identifying and solving
problems, occurs at all levels and in allunits of the organisation. It involvesmaking choices from among severalalternatives
The most crucial managerial activity,
involving both objective and subjectiveaspects
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Programmeddecisions
Non-programmeddecisions
1. Routine2. Recurrent3. Can be madeat lower levels
4. Rely on pastexperience andorganisationalpolicy/practice
1. Non-routine2. Non-recurring3. Unique/novel
problem4. Rely on
creativity5. Upper level6. Strategic
decisions
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Top-down Empowered
Decisionmakingpowerin thehands ofsuperiors
Decisionmakingpowerin thehands ofemployees
Vroom-Yetton normative decision making
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gmodel which decision style is mosteffective in which situation
Situationalfactors
Decisionquality
Decisionacceptance
Decisionrule
Decision style/ procedure
EFFE
CTIVENESS
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Decision styles/procedures Autocratic l (Al) Leader solves the problem alone using
information that is readily available to him/her
Autocratic ll (All) Leader obtains additional informationfrom group members, then makes decision alone. Groupmembers may or may not be informed.
Consultative l (Cl) Leader shares problem with groupmembers individually, and asks for information andevaluation. Group members do not meet collectively,and leader makes decision alone.
Consultative ll (Cll) Leader shares problem with groupmembers collectively, but makes decision alone
Group ll (Gll) Leader meets with group to discusssituation. Leader focuses and directs discussion, butdoes not impose will. Group makes final decision.
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Decision acceptance by subordinates Degree of subordinate commitment required to
implement a decision effectively Decision quality
Objective aspects of a decision that affectperformance
Eg: how many alternatives are present, are all thealternatives similar in consequences, what are the
consequences of the alternatives for performance A decision of a good quality if it represents the best
possible solution to the problem
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Situational factorsEffectiveness of a decision procedure/style
depends on the following aspects of a situation The amount of relevant information possessed by
leader and subordinates The likelihood that subordinates will accept an
autocratic decision The likelihood that subordinates will co-operate if
allowed to participate
The amount of disagreement among subordinates with respect to their preferred alternatives The extent to which the decision problem is
unstructured and requires creative problem solving
Decision rules
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Decision rules Which decision procedure/style is appropriate in a given
situation such that decision quality and/or acceptance are notjeopardised by using that procedure When the decision is important and subordinates possess relevant
information lacked by a leader, an autocratic decision (AI, AII) isnot appropriate because an important decision would be made
without all of the relevant, available information When the decision quality is important and subordinates do not
share the leaders concern for task goals, a group decision (GII) isnot appropriate because these procedures would give too muchinfluence over an important decision to uncooperative or evenhostile people
When decision quality is important, the decision problem isunstructured, and the leader does not possess the necessary information and expertise to make a good decision, then the
decision should be made by interaction among people who have therelevant information (CII, GII) When the decision acceptance is important and subordinates are
unlikely to accept an autocratic decision, then an autocratic decision(AI, AII) is not appropriate because the decision may not beimplemented effectively
Decision rules continued
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When decision acceptance is important and subordinatesare likely to disagree among themselves about the bestsolution to an important problem, autocratic procedures(AI, AII) and individual consultation (CI) are notappropriate because they do not provide the opportunity to resolve differences through discussion andnegotiation among subordinates and betweensubordinates and the leader
When decision quality is not important but acceptance iscritical and unlikely to result from an autocratic decision,the only appropriate procedure is a group decision (GII),because acceptance is maximised without risking quality
When decision acceptance is important and not likely toresult from an autocratic decision, and subordinatesshare the leaders task objectives, subordinates should begiven equal partnership in the decision process (GII),because acceptance is maximised without risking quality
Decision process flow chart simplifies the applicationof the rules and assists managers in identifying the
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optimal decision style
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Problem attributes1. Quality Requirement (QR): How important is the technical quality
of the decision?2. Commitment Requirement (CR): How important is subordinate
commitment to the decision?3. Leader's Information (LI): Do you (the leader) have sufficientinformation to make a high quality decision on your own?
4. Problem Structure (ST): Is the problem well structured (e.g., defined,clear, organized, lend itself to solution, time limited, etc.)?
5. Commitment Probability (CP): If you were to make the decision by yourself, is it reasonably certain that your subordinates would becommitted to the decision?
6. Goal Congruence (GC): Do subordinates share the organizationalgoals to be attained in solving the problem?
7. Subordinate conflict (CO): Is conflict among subordinates over preferred solutions likely?
8. Subordinate information (SI): Do subordinates have sufficient
information to make a high quality decision?
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Attitudes and Stereotypes
Individual Dynamics:Session 6
PGP I 20092010, Sections A & C
Prof. Premilla DCruz
Attit d
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Attitudes Definition: Evaluative reaction which is either
positive or negative toward something or someone that we reveal in our thoughts, feelings, or intended actions toward that person or thing Could sometimes be ambivalent too
Have direction (positive/negative) and intensity (weak/strong) Are learned via socialisation and experience
Attitude objects include self, people, artefacts, entities such as events, issues, policies, practices (could be complex too)
Operate as
schema/mental
sets/perceptual
sets
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Comprise cognitive (beliefs/thoughts),
affective (emotional)
and
behavioural
(action) components Inconsistencies between cognitive/affective
and behavioural components due to situational factors (eg: norms, selfmonitoring)
Cognitive dissonance
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Stereotypes
Attitude (cog/beh/aff)
Prejudice
Cognitive Stereotype
Behavioural Discrimination
Affective
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Prejudice attitude (usually negative) towards the members of some group, based solely on their membership in that group Functions as schema/mental sets/perceptual sets
Works on
automatic
processing/in
an
implicit
manner
Tend to evaluate members of the group negatively merely because they belong to that group, rather than
looking at
them
as
individuals
Discrimination negative actions towards groups that are the target of prejudice
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Stereotypes beliefs that all members of a particular group show certain typical traits
Operate as schema/mental sets/perceptual sets do
Labelling, scapegoating and selffulfilling prophecies/pygmalion effect Judge people prematurely
Prejudice/discrimination/stereotypes could be positive too
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Roots of prejudice and stereotypes
Social categorisation Ingroup and out group Ingroup heterogeneity and out group
homogeneity Realistic conflict hypothesis
Social networks and scarce resources
Social learning
W k l d i d
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Work related attitudes
Workplace commitment
Work related satisfactionAttitude
objects at
work (existing/emergent)
Multiple
positive/negative/ambivalent attitudeswith varying intensity [includes stereotypes]
Satisfaction/
dissatisfaction+Commitment/lack of commitment(resistance)[various combinations]
Behaviour/
performance/productivity/organisationaleffectiveness
Various organisational interventions to handle all of these
Individual
Group
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Ch i i d
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Changing attitudes
Volition, motivation and selfawareness
Providing new information Influence of social networks
Coopting people
Reducing prejudice and
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g p j
stereotypes Unlearning (introspection and questioning of the reified) and relearning (volition, motivation and
selfawareness) Shared goals, shared identity and OD
interventions contact hypothesis and recategorising
The relevance of diversity management
programmes
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ValuesIndividual Dynamics
PGP I 2009-2010
Sections A & CProf. Premilla DCruz
D fi iti
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Definition
Conception, implicit or explicit, of what anindividual or group regards as desirable, and interms of which they select means and ends of action
To say that a person has a value is to saythat he has an enduring belief that a specificmode of conduct or end state of existence is
personally and socially preferable toalternative modes of conduct or end-states of existence (Rokeach, 1969: 159-160)
Fi k t f l
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Five key components of values
Concepts or beliefs (cognitions)
Pertain to desirable end-states and modesof existence/behaviours
Transcend situations Guide selection and evaluation of behaviour and events
Ordered by relative importance
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Judgemental element as to what is good, rightand desirable
Intrinsic, (usually) unquestioned part of oneself brought to the fore by situations
Acquired early in life from various agents of socialisation and through various modes(reinforcement, punishment, imitation, etc.), butaffected by experience, individuality and times -hence though they are stable and enduring, they can change too
F ti f l
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Functions of values Part of psychological makeup influence
behaviour (hence complete objectivity is neverpossible) Guide action
Help us to take particular positions on variousissues Justify action
Guide our presentation of self to others Influence comparison with others
Facilitate our understanding of and interaction with others Affect moral judgments of self and others
In other words, they influence perceptions,attitudes, motivation, etc.
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Cl ssific tion of l es
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Classification of values
Helps us to distinguish and compare
values and values systems of individuals,groups and cultures Sprangers classification (quoted by Guth
& Tagiuri) Theoretical empirical, rational, critical
truth Economic practical, wealth, resources
business
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Aesthetic artistic, harmonious, graceful
Social altruistic, philantropic, people asends, unselfish, kind love Political power, recognition, competition
Religious relate to the universe in ameaningful way, mystical orientation, unity
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Rokeachs classification Terminal values are desirable end state of
existence that a person would like to achieveduring his/her lifetime. Eg: Peace in the
world Instrumental values are preferable modes of conduct/behaviour or means of achieving
ones terminal values. Eg: Courteous,altruistic behaviour
Within these 2 groups, values could be self-centred or other-centred
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Interface with work life
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Organisational values linked to organisational culture
Internal functioning and external adaptation Espoused versus enacted values Individual versus organisational values (degree of congruence and
subcultures)
Individual level Influence on work Interpersonal differences and their effects
Do my values change or not in a group context why? Espoused versus enacted values Can values be maintained in an absolute sense or does their enactment get
influenced by contextual factors?
Experience of dilemmas and their resolution The issue of overidentification
Values accorded to work Work values in the Indian context the changing psychological
contract Cross-cultural differences and implications for the workplace
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Stress and copingPGPI 2009-2010 Sections A & C
Individual Dynamics
Prof. Premilla DCruz
What is stress?
Th i
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Stressor(Stimulus)
Acute/chronic(Temporal
dimension);Positive/ Negative;Multiple(pile-up)
Personality traits
Type A
Locus of controlOptimismSelf-efficacy
Strain orwell being
or both(Response)
The contemporary perspective
Appraisal Coping
Reappraisal
Coping resourcesincluding time,
abilities, money,social support
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Stress arises when the demands of asituation/experience/event are appraised by theindividual as about to tax or exceed the resourcesavailable, thereby threatening well-being and
precipitating strain Disruption in normal functioning Resolution of the disruption Coping efforts to master, reduce or tolerate the
demands created by a stressful transaction
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Components of strain Physiological
Cardiovascular symptoms, biochemical reactions,gastrointestinal symptoms
Degeneration due to chronic exposures
Psychological Dissatisfaction and boredom Anxiety and irritability Depression Emotional exhaustion and fatigue Anger Burnout
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Behavioural Self-damaging behaviours (drug/alcohol abuse) Aggression
Disruption in various aspects of ones life (suchas in social relationships)
(In the context of organisations, it includesdisruptions such as absenteeism, errors,accidents, vandalism)
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Components of well-being Self-acceptance Mastery Autonomy Positive relationships Personal growth Purpose in life
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Stressor Source of stress that creates demands Could be
Positive and/or negative Acute/chronic Pile-up (multiple simultaneously)
Generally denotes change
Workplace stressors
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Factors intrinsic to the job Work conditions (temperature, furniture/layout,risks/hazards)
Shifts Hours of work Travel
New technology Job design elements (autonomy, complexity and variety)
Roles in the organisation Role ambiguity Role conflict
Responsibility for people Role overload/role underload
Relationships at work Boss
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Boss
Subordinates Colleagues
Career development issues
Job security (or lack of it) Job performance and advancement Competition
Participation in decision making (or lack of it) Inequity Victimisation Ethical dilemmas Organisational structure/processes, culture,
change, leadership/supervision, etc Home-work interface/work-life (im)balance
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Technostress Loss of privacy, monitoring and surveillance
Information overload Erosion of face to face contact Continual learning
Stressors at the workplace are only onesource of stress for the individual
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Managing stress personal
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Managing stress personalstrategies
Lifestyle issues - exercise, diet, sleep, relaxationand meditation and substance use
Leisure and hobbies(Work-life balance)
Prioritising and time management Social support
Spiritual resources In the workplace delegation, mentoring, rolenegotiation
M i t i ti l t t i
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Managing stress organisational strategies Create comfortable working conditions physical
environment, organisational processes and practices - (asfar as possible), including an atmosphere of support and
avenues for redressal Match individuals with tasks (and train them for growth) Clarify employee roles
Assign mentors to employees Offer job security/ensure employability Offer flexitime
Provide on-site care facilities for dependents Provide stress and time management training On-site exercise and relaxation facilities/training
Employee assistance programs (counselling and medicalassistance)
INDIVIDUAL DYNAMICS
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Session 9: MotivationPGP I 2009-2010Sections A & C
Prof. Premilla DCruz
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Motivation
An internal state that directs individualstoward certain goals and objectives, andthat accounts for his/her intensity, directionand persistence of effort in attaining a goal
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A set of processes that arouse, direct andmaintain human behaviour towardsattaining a goal
Arousal the drive or energy behind ouractions (rooted in a need/deficiency that oneexperiences)
Direction the movement towards a goalMaintenance the persistence in attaining thegoal
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No such thing as a person withoutmotivationMotivation varies between individuals andwithin an individualPeople have multiple (sometimesconflicting) motives operatingsimultaneously
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Work motivation
Psychological forces within a person thatdetermine the direction of a persons
behavior in an organization, a persons levelof effort, and a persons persistence in theface of obstacles level, and persistence of effort
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Theories of motivation
Content/need theories/modelsProcess theories/models (Vroom)
Contemporary models (Adams)Reinforcement theory
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Content theories/models whatis it that motivates people to
work?Concern needs/drives and how these areprioritisedMaslowHerzbergAlderferMcClelland
Maslows Need Hierarchy Theory
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Maslow s Need Hierarchy Theory
SELF-ACTUALIZATION
ESTEEM/ EGO-STATUS
SOCIAL/ BELONGINGNESS
SAFETY/ SECURITY
PHYSIOLOGICAL/ BASIC
Lower order
Higher order
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Criticisms of Maslows theory
A general theory of motivation, laterapplied to work settingsPre-potency of needs (satisfaction-progression hypothesis)
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Herzbergs two factor theory
Satisfaction and dissatisfaction on the jobare completely distinct concepts, not polaropposites
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Satisfaction Dissatisfaction
Motivators
Satisfaction No satisfaction
Hygiene
No dissatisfaction Dissatisfaction
Herzbergs view
Traditional view
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Rooted in two completely different needsBasic needs hygiene factors linked to(avoidance of) dissatisfaction and extrinsic tothe job
associated with the physical and psychological context of the job
Prevents the occurrence of job dissatisfactionCannot provide job satisfactionCannot give rise to positive motivation
Need for achievement and growth motivatorslinked to satisfaction and intrinsic to the job
associated with the job itself Results in job satisfaction
Cannot prevent job dissatisfactionCan result in positive motivation
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Motivators
Responsibility
Achievement
Advancement or growth
Challenge
RecognitionThe work itself
Hygiene factors
Working conditions
Supervision
Interpersonal relations
Salary and benefits
Job securityPolicies andadministration
Criticisms of Maslow and
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Criticisms of Maslow andHerzberg
Scientific rigour is questionedMaslows theory has little empirical evidenceHerzbergs methodology is questioned
Oversimplify the complexities of work motivationBasis for more sophisticated theoriesPopularly known and referred to even todayApplications of Herzbergs theory in job design
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Alderfers ERG theoryHas reworked Maslows theory based onempirical evidenceExistence needs
Basic material existence requirementsRelatedness needs
Maintenance of interpersonal relationshipsGrowth needsIntrinsic desire for personal achievement
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Does not assume pre-potency of needsMultiple needs can operate simultaneouslySubstitution and compensation can take place
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McClellands theory: Need for achievement
Desire to exceed some standards of behavior; to excel; tosucceed, to accomplish goals, to strive to do things better
People high on n-Ach prefer to work on tasks:
that are moderately challenging (perceived as achievablefor them in the light of their abilities)
on which their performance can be evaluated (feedback)
where they can take personal responsibility for deliveringand get personal credit for outcomes
They are task oriented and individualistic
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Need for powerDesire to to dominate, influence, or command; desire to
have impact, and to control others; desire to makeothers behave the way they would not have behavedotherwise
People high on n-Pow: enjoy being in-charge strive for influence over others
prefer to be placed into status-oriented situations. tend to be more concerned with prestige and gaining
influence than with effective performance.
enjoy getting things done through others rather thandoing on their own
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Need for affiliationDesire to establish friendly relations with others; to be a
part of the group
People high on n-Aff:
have concern for establishing, maintaining, repairingrelation with others
enjoy cooperation with others.
like to interact and be with others in situations wherethey feel they are accepted
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Managerial effectivenessWho makes a better manager?
MotiveAffiliation drivenPower driven
Personal powerInstitutional power
Socialised face of power where inhibition operates
StyleDemocraticAuthoritarian
Ideal manager: Institutional power motive withdemocratic style + maturity
Matching Content Models*Motivator-Hygiene Model Achievement
M ti tiNeeds Model
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Self-Actualization
Esteem/Ego-Status
Social/Belongingness
Safety/Security
Physiological/Basic
Growth
Existence
Relatedness
Motivators
Advancement
GrowthAchievement
Hygiene factors
Job security
Salary
Working conditions
Need forAchievement
Need forPower
Need for
Affiliation
Needs Hierarchy ERG Theory
Motivation
Model
* Figure 5.6, P. 154, Organizational Behaviour, 8th Ed., Hellriegel et al, South Western College
Vrooms expectancy model
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Vroom s expectancy modelEffort
Performance/ Outcomes
Rewards
Expectancy
Instrumentality
Valenceof rewards
Motivation
X
X
Skills, abilities, opportunities, context
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Vrooms expectancy model
Expectancy (E): Belief that effort will influenceperformance/outcomeInstrumentality (I): Belief that one will be rewarded forperformance/outcomeValence (V): The perceived value of rewards expectedMotivation: E x I x VPerson will be highly motivated if he/she perceives astrong link between E, I, V
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J.S. Adamss equity theory
1. Equity P
Output
---------Input = O'
Output
---------Input
2. (+)InequityOverrewarded P Output---------Input> O Output---------
Input
3. (-) InequityUnrewarded
POutput---------Input
< OOutput---------Input
P= Person/selfO= Relevant/referent other
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Adamss equity theoryOutput/outcome-input ratio for oneself and for thereferent/relevant other (based on perception and
social comparison)Subjective assessmentInputs
EffortExperienceEducation
CompetenceOutcomes/outputs
Salary
RaisesRecognition
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Behavioural and cognitive responses to inequityChange in inputs and/or outcomesDistort perceptions of self and referent otherChange the referent
Exit the situation
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Reinforcement theory Behaviour is a function of its consequences
Reinforcement: Anything that strengthensa desired behavior, and increases theprobability of its repetition/recurrence
Different types of rewards Schedules of reinforcement
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ApplicationsJob design
Job enlargement (horizontal loading)Job enrichment (vertical loading)Complexity, variety and autonomy
Goal setting and MBO (management byobjectives)Reward, performance and discipline systems
Organisational justiceLinked to training, career development and work-