id lectures

8/7/2019 ID Lectures

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INDIVIDUAL DYNAMICSINDIVIDUAL DYNAMICS

Session 1Session 1Managing peopleManaging people

PGP I 2009PGP I 2009 --2010 Sections A & C2010 Sections A & C

Prof. PremillaProf. Premilla DCruzDCruz


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Counterdependence: Pattern of behavior inwhich individuals, believing that no onewill be available to turn to in stressfulsituations, isolate themselves and resist

supportive overtures by othersOverdependence: Pattern of behavior whereindividuals cling too tightly to others whilefailing to reciprocate support


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InterpersonalInterpersonal behaviourbehaviour A variety of A variety of behavioursbehaviours involving the waysinvolving the ways

in which people work with and against onein which people work with and against oneanotheranother

Workingwith others Workingagainst others

Competition

Co-operation Conflict


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CoCo--operationoperation

Pattern of Pattern of behaviourbehaviour in which assistance isin which assistance ismutual and two or more individuals,mutual and two or more individuals,groups orgroups or organisationsorganisations work togetherwork togethertowards shared goals for their mutualtowards shared goals for their mutual

benefitbenefit


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CompetitionCompetition

A pattern of A pattern of behaviourbehaviour in which eachin which eachperson, group orperson, group or organisationorganisation seeks toseeks tomaximisemaximise its own gains, often at theits own gains, often at theexpense of othersexpense of others

Even though people have similar goals,Even though people have similar goals,they compete rather than cothey compete rather than co --operateoperate

when their goals cannot be sharedwhen their goals cannot be shared


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ConflictConflictStruggle between two or moreStruggle between two or more

individuals/groups in anindividuals/groups in an organisationorganisation


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InfluenceInfluence

The foundational process of The foundational process of organisationsorganisations isisinfluenceinfluence that is the efforts to induce others tothat is the efforts to induce others tobehave in a desired waybehave in a desired way

It becomes significant becauseIt becomes significant because organisationsorganisations are allare allabout members working through others to accomplishabout members working through others to accomplishtheir taskstheir tasks

People exercise influence in a variety of waysPeople exercise influence in a variety of ways

Use of power/formal capacity to influence othersUse of power/formal capacity to influence othersIn the absence of power, other techniques areIn the absence of power, other techniques areresortedresorted

Influence could be upward, downward or lateralInfluence could be upward, downward or lateral


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Influence tactics includeInfluence tactics includeIngratiation/friendliness (buttering)Ingratiation/friendliness (buttering)ReasonReason

Participation/consultationParticipation/consultationExchangeExchangeCoalitionCoalition

Appeal AppealPressure/threatsPressure/threatsLegitimating/authority/consistency withLegitimating/authority/consistency with organisationalorganisational

policy and practicepolicy and practice

Usually a combination of tactics are usedUsually a combination of tactics are usedsimultaneouslysimultaneously -- more effective than using amore effective than using a

single tacticsingle tactic


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Managing peopleManaging people TheTheorganisationalorganisational levellevel

The critical role of leadershipThe critical role of leadershipRedesigning theRedesigning the organisationorganisation , as required, as required

Culture, goal congruence, role clarity,Culture, goal congruence, role clarity,interpersonal sensitivity (role of interpersonal sensitivity (role of OrganisationalOrganisational Development)Development)

Reward systems Reward systems Expansion of resources Expansion of resources


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Managing peopleManaging people thethe

interpersonal and intrapersonalinterpersonal and intrapersonallevelslevelsIdentify your network in terms of interIdentify your network in terms of inter --dependenciesdependenciesUnderstand each member of your network as aUnderstand each member of your network as apersonperson

Assess the progress of the relationship and work Assess the progress of the relationship and work towards its maintenancetowards its maintenanceManage differences through the balancing of Manage differences through the balancing of inquiry and advocacy and disciplined reflectioninquiry and advocacy and disciplined reflection

Need to understand self and othersNeed to understand self and othersLearn to communicate with and respond to others inLearn to communicate with and respond to others in

ways that will increase their understanding of ways that will increase their understanding of themselves, our understanding of them as well asthemselves, our understanding of them as well astheir understanding of ustheir understanding of us


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INDIVIDUAL DYNAMICSSession 2: Understanding self and others

PGP I 2009-2010Sections A & C

Prof. Premilla DCruz


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Self/identity/personalityAnswers the question who am I?Meanings attached to a person by self andothers that are based on personal aspects suchas traits, abilities, attitudes, etc., and onpeoples social roles and membership in variousgroupsUnique/distinctStable yet changingPerson can have multiple selves stemming from

a variety of identities (self-pluralism)Ideal/possible self


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Self/identity/personality

Product of What you areWhat society expects you to beWhat experiences you have and how you dealwith them


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Self/identity/personality at theworkplace

Intrapersonal and interpersonal effectivenessPerson-job fit

Career/occupational choice, selection and promotion, job

performance, job satisfactionMeasurement via psychometric tests draws ontrait theories essentially

Strengths - Parsimonious and facilitate comparisonWeaknesses static rather than processual,incomplete rather than comprehensive

Implications of psychometric tests


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Johari windowThe most useful model to describe the processof human interaction, resembling acommunication window through which you giveand receive information about yourself andothersThrough feedback and disclosure (in other words, the processes of giving and receivingfeedback), you can reveal more about yourself to others and learn more about yourself fromothers


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1 2

3 4

Knownby self

Unknownby self

Ask

open/free/public arenaarea

blind area/blind spot

unknownarea

hidden/facadearea

Others observation

Knownby others

Unknownby others

Tell

Johari window model

Self- disclosure/exposure/givefeedback

SharedDiscovery

F e e

d b

a c

k s o l i c

i t a

t i o

n

S e

l f -

d i s

c o v e r y

Under Condition of Self Disclosure


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1

1

1

2

2

2

3

3

3

4

4

4

Under Condition of Self Disclosure

Under Condition of Feedback

Under Condition of Self Disclosure and Feedback

http://saweb.weber.edu/elibrary/StructuredExperience/PDF/P-FB/P-FB-1.pdf


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Open

Hidden

Blind

Unknown

Initial phase of group interaction

Later phase of group interaction

Open

Hidden

Blind

Unknown


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Principles of change in the Johariwindow

A change in one quadrant affects other quadrantsIt takes energy to hide/deny/be blind to

behaviour that is involved in interactionTrust increases awareness

Forced awareness is undesirable andusually ineffectiveThe smaller the open area, the poorer thecommunication


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Interpersonal learning means a change has takenplace so the Q1 is larger and one or more of theother quadrants also has grown smaller.Working with others is facilitated by a large openarea. An increased Q1 means more of theresources and skills in the relationships can beapplied to a task. Interpersonal effectiveness isenhanced with a larger open areaThere is universal curiosity about the Unknownarea, but is held in check by custom, socialtraining and diverse fears.

Sensitivity means appreciating the covert aspectof behaviour, in quadrant 2, 3 and 4, andrespecting the desire of others to keep them so.


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Understanding selfand others

Individual Dynamics

PGP I 2009-2010Sections A & C



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How do I relate to others and

how do they relate to me? Broadly, the patterns of interpersonal

interactions at work could range from Non-assertion/passivity

Assertion Aggression

Aggression Assertion Non-aggression/passivity


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Assertion Serves as a balance between exclusively

pursuing personal goals (aggression) andcompletely deferring to others (passivity)

Rooted in the notion that we should not violateour own or others basic human rights thus, aperson expresses himself/herself and his/herneeds in such a way that his/her own rights aswell as the rights of others are respected

Expressive and self-enhancing style that doesnot intrude on others Boundaries of all parties are maintained Allows for trust and mutual respect


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In other words Respectful, healthy and mature communication

which preserves the integrity of all involved Facilitates conflict resolution and negotiation

while defusing anger

Agree to disagree room for differences Solution that is acceptable to all parties- When both parties do it, no one is hurt in any

way and all parties win on some level We get what we want without diminishing the other

person

Other person can feel good about himself/herselfwhile also achieving his/her own goals


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Examples of Assertive

Communication So what youre saying is..

I can see that this is important to you,and it is also important to me. Perhaps we

can talk more respectfully and try to solvethe problem I thinkI feelI believe that.. I would appreciate it if you.


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What is Okay in assertive

behavior It is okay to say I dont know

It is okay to say No or I cannot do that It is okay to make mistakes as long as

responsibility is taken for them It is okay to disagree and to verbalize that It is okay to challenge other opinions or action

It is okay to not accept anothers opinion asfactual or accurate (e.g., getting criticized)

It is okay to ask for a change in behavior


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Non-assertion/passivity

Inhibited, self-denying quality where we

do not express ourselves or strive to getwhat we want from the situation Encourages others to take advantage of us

and control the situation Precipitates negative feelings in us and

disrespect for us in the other person Could lead to aggression after a criticallimit is reached


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Examples of Passive Communication

I dont know.

Whatever you think. You have more experience than I. You

decide. Ill go with whatever the group decides.

I dont care. It doesnt matter to me. Yes, yes, yes, yes, yes, yes, yes . . . NO!


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What does it do for you?

Promotes inertia

Resigns you to losing Makes you deferential people-pleasing

Places you in victim mode Embodies a sense of peace at all costs

Precipitates feelings of depression andanxiety


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Examples of AggressiveCommunication

I dont know why you cant see that this isthe right way to do it. Its going to be my way or not at all. You re just stupid if you think that willwork

That kind of logic will sink the company Who cares what you feel. Were talking

about making things work here.


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What does it do for you?

Allows you to win at all costs

Makes you insensitive Portrays you as intimidating and

threatening rather than mature andprofessional Walk over others

Bully others Use attacking you statements Insist that you are always right


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When passivity is appropriate

When the results of pushing the issue

would cause problems that outweigh the benefits When issues are minor When there is a power differential that is

not in your favor and the other party is

getting agitated by your assertiveness When the other individuals position isimpossible to change (E.g., the law)


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When aggression is appropriate

In an emergency

When there is not time to spend on acompromise

When your opinion is based on severalfacts, you therefore KNOW you are right,and there is no time to utilizeassertiveness skills


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From no to yes Listen actively Show them that you understand

That they feel strongly What they feel strongly about Why they feel strongly about it

Win yourself a hearing Explain your own feelings Refer back to their points Make your point firmly but stay friendly

Work towards a joint solution Seek their ideas Build on their ideas (dont knock them down) Offer your ideas (dont impose) Construct a solution from everyones ideas, that

addresses everyones needs


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Understanding self and others

Significance of co-operation and

interdependence Use of influence strategies

Attempt to have open areas (based onknowledge of self and use of feedback),via trust, maturity and sensitivity

Relevance of assertiveness


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Feedback (continued from Johari

window model) Purpose of feedback

Helps us see ourselves as others see us Others learn how we see them In so doing, it helps us move towards our

goals Presupposes a caring, trusting

environment Which reduces defensiveness Which maximises personal growth

The desire for feedback is often off-set by the fearof asking for such information


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Giving feedback

Feedback should be given such that the

person receiving it Hears it in the most objective, least distortedway possible

Understands it Retains the choice of using/not using it

People need to be trained to give feedback Should be given such that the recipient

preserves his/her self-esteem


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Solicited versus imposed feedback Solicited is more useful since recipient is open

Data-based versus impressionistic Positive and negative versus completely

negative Suggestive versus prescriptive Constructive versus destructive Motivation to help versus motivation to hurt Description versus interpretation of behaviour

Description focuses on observable aspects whereasinterpretation involves attributing intention andcould be wrong


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Receiving feedback

Elicit versus wait

Listening and self-analysis versus denialand rationalisation

Clarifying versus assuming


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PerceptionIndividual Dynamics Session 4PGP-I 2009-10, Sections A & C



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Perception in organisational lifePerceptions are variable raise issuesabout

accuracy

objectivitycongruence

What are the implications for work settings?Objects of perception at work Deep level diversity, perceptual processes anderrors


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Person perceptionPerson/social perception (similar to perception but

the target/object is a person): Process by which weseek to understand the people around us

Characteristics of the perceiver Characteristics of the person being perceived

Impression formation

Impression management and self monitoringBehavioural matching, self-promotion,conformity, appreciation/flattery

Perceptual errors


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Perceptual errors/biases in person perceptionPerceptual/mental set/schemaPerceptual defense (including projection)Stereotype and halo effectSimilar-to-me/similarity effects

Tendency for perceiver to perceive in a positive light targets who they believe are similar to themselves in any of several different ways

Contrast effectsPerceivers perceptions of others influence perceivers perception of atarget

Primacy effectsInitial pieces of information that a perceiver has about a target have aninordinately large effect on the perceivers perception and evaluation of

the targetRecency/latency effects

Later pieces of information that a perceiver has about a target have aninordinately large effect on the perceivers perception and evaluation of the target

Attributional errors


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AttributionAttributionAttributionSession 5Session 5Individual DynamicsIndividual Dynamics

PGP I 2009PGP I 2009 --2010 Sections A & C2010 Sections A & C

Prof. PremillaProf. Premilla DCruzDCruz


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Attribution as part ofperson/social perception

Person/social perception (similar toperception but the target/object is aperson): Process by which we seek tounderstand the people around us

Attribution is an attempt to understandthe reasons underlying a persons

behaviour

D fi i i


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Definition Cognitive process of inferring thecauses of our own and others

behaviour/of events Causal attributions have 3

dimensions: Locus of causality (internal or external) Stability of the cause (fixed or

variable), and Controllability of the cause (controllableor uncontrollable)


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Locus of causality Do peoples behaviours stem from

factors internal/external to them?

Internal (dispositional) or external(situational)

Internal (dispositional) ability,personality, motivation, effort, mood External (situational) task difficulty,

luck, boss, peers, resources


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Stability of the cause Are the causal factors that influencebehaviour stable over time? Fixed (stable) factors ability,personality, task difficulty

Variable (unstable/changing) factors mood, effort, strategy, fatigue,luck


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Controllability of the cause

Can an individual change or influence thesecausal factors if he/she wishes to do so?

Or are these factors beyond his/hercontrol?

Locus of control:Internal locus of control - do I believe that

I can control outcomes?External locus of control do I believe thatoutcomes are beyond my control?


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Personality traits and attributions

The attribution process is furthercomplicated by the role of personality that is, there are individual differences inattribution that can be explained bydispositional factors

Attribution

about anoutcome

Expectancy

of success

Behavioural

responses

Personalitytraits/Dispositions


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The possibility of errors About self

Self-serving bias About others

Limited/inaccurate information whichhas not been verified

Perceptual errors includingmental/perceptual sets/schema,stereotypes, etc


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Organisational applications My attributions about myself affect my

emotional state, my motivation and myefforts/behaviours

Others attributions about me affectvarious HR practices such as selection,appraisals, promotions, transfers/layoffs,training

My attributions about others which affecthow I relate to them, how I work withthem, how I assess them

PLUS ERRORS


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Learning

Individual DynamicsPGP I 2009-10 Sections A & C



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Learning theories

Classical conditioning

Higher order conditioning


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Operant ConditioningShaping the desired behaviours through:

Positive ReinforcementNegative Reinforcement

Reinforcement increases the occurrence of the desired responseContinuous versus intermittent reinforcementschedules

Fixed interval/ratioVariable interval/ratio


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Cognitive theory

Complexity of human behaviour Role of cognitionLearning occurs via meaningful behaviour and

information processing, not merely because of reinforcement


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Social Learning Theory

Vicarious learning or modelingObservation and imitation


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Single loop and double loop learning

Single loop learning (adaptive learning)Set ways of solving problems that are not questioned but lead todefensive thinking which blocks learningHow to improve the status quoReduce gaps and errors between desired and existing conditionsProduces incremental changes

Double loop learning (generative learning)Breaking down defensive thinking by recognising the reasoning oneuses, identifying inconsistencies between espoused and actualtheories of action and working towards alternatives such that onefinds newer and more effective ways of learning

How to change the status quoAims at changing the assumptions and conditions within which singleloop learning occursCan lead to transformational/radical change

Applications of learning in the


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Applications of learning in theworkplace

Socialisation learning theory,Training learning styles

Mentoring and coachingReward/performance systems operant cond.Behaviour modification and discipline

Impression management and personal promotion (sociallearning, modeling and conformity)Team creation learning stylesPerson job fitDecision making, problem solving and change (cognitivelearning, single and double loop learning)Knowledge management systems (tacit knowledge)Learning organisations (Senges Fifth Discipline, doubleloop learning and organisational design issues )


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Decision making

Prof. Premilla DCruz,Individual Dynamics

PGP I 2009-2010, Sections A & C


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Film

Authoritarian style: Top-down approach

where the boss takes the decision andsubordinates must obey Consultative style: Boss decides, after

considering the inputs of andinfluencing/persuading subordinates

Participative style: Joint decision making by boss and subordinates whereconsensus is emphasised


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Decision making style how one

approaches decision making, based onhow one perceives and comprehendsstimuli/information and the generalmanner in which one chooses to respondto such stimuli/information


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There is no one best decision making styleapplicable to all situations People have preferences for particular styles

But they generally alternate between 2-3styles depending on their preference and thedemands of the situation such as time, natureof the problem, strategic concerns, sub-ordinates, etc.

Knowing ones preferred style promotes

self-awareness and self-improvement Knowing others style helps you influence

them more effectively


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Decision making

The process of identifying and solving

problems, occurs at all levels and in allunits of the organisation. It involvesmaking choices from among severalalternatives

The most crucial managerial activity,

involving both objective and subjectiveaspects


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Programmeddecisions

Non-programmeddecisions

1. Routine2. Recurrent3. Can be madeat lower levels

4. Rely on pastexperience andorganisationalpolicy/practice

1. Non-routine2. Non-recurring3. Unique/novel

problem4. Rely on

creativity5. Upper level6. Strategic

decisions


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Top-down Empowered

Decisionmakingpowerin thehands ofsuperiors

Decisionmakingpowerin thehands ofemployees

Vroom-Yetton normative decision making


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gmodel which decision style is mosteffective in which situation

Situationalfactors

Decisionquality

Decisionacceptance

Decisionrule

Decision style/ procedure

EFFE

CTIVENESS


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Decision styles/procedures Autocratic l (Al) Leader solves the problem alone using

information that is readily available to him/her

Autocratic ll (All) Leader obtains additional informationfrom group members, then makes decision alone. Groupmembers may or may not be informed.

Consultative l (Cl) Leader shares problem with groupmembers individually, and asks for information andevaluation. Group members do not meet collectively,and leader makes decision alone.

Consultative ll (Cll) Leader shares problem with groupmembers collectively, but makes decision alone

Group ll (Gll) Leader meets with group to discusssituation. Leader focuses and directs discussion, butdoes not impose will. Group makes final decision.


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Decision acceptance by subordinates Degree of subordinate commitment required to

implement a decision effectively Decision quality

Objective aspects of a decision that affectperformance

Eg: how many alternatives are present, are all thealternatives similar in consequences, what are the

consequences of the alternatives for performance A decision of a good quality if it represents the best

possible solution to the problem


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Situational factorsEffectiveness of a decision procedure/style

depends on the following aspects of a situation The amount of relevant information possessed by

leader and subordinates The likelihood that subordinates will accept an

autocratic decision The likelihood that subordinates will co-operate if

allowed to participate

The amount of disagreement among subordinates with respect to their preferred alternatives The extent to which the decision problem is

unstructured and requires creative problem solving

Decision rules


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Decision rules Which decision procedure/style is appropriate in a given

situation such that decision quality and/or acceptance are notjeopardised by using that procedure When the decision is important and subordinates possess relevant

information lacked by a leader, an autocratic decision (AI, AII) isnot appropriate because an important decision would be made

without all of the relevant, available information When the decision quality is important and subordinates do not

share the leaders concern for task goals, a group decision (GII) isnot appropriate because these procedures would give too muchinfluence over an important decision to uncooperative or evenhostile people

When decision quality is important, the decision problem isunstructured, and the leader does not possess the necessary information and expertise to make a good decision, then the

decision should be made by interaction among people who have therelevant information (CII, GII) When the decision acceptance is important and subordinates are

unlikely to accept an autocratic decision, then an autocratic decision(AI, AII) is not appropriate because the decision may not beimplemented effectively

Decision rules continued


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When decision acceptance is important and subordinatesare likely to disagree among themselves about the bestsolution to an important problem, autocratic procedures(AI, AII) and individual consultation (CI) are notappropriate because they do not provide the opportunity to resolve differences through discussion andnegotiation among subordinates and betweensubordinates and the leader

When decision quality is not important but acceptance iscritical and unlikely to result from an autocratic decision,the only appropriate procedure is a group decision (GII),because acceptance is maximised without risking quality

When decision acceptance is important and not likely toresult from an autocratic decision, and subordinatesshare the leaders task objectives, subordinates should begiven equal partnership in the decision process (GII),because acceptance is maximised without risking quality

Decision process flow chart simplifies the applicationof the rules and assists managers in identifying the


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optimal decision style


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Problem attributes1. Quality Requirement (QR): How important is the technical quality

of the decision?2. Commitment Requirement (CR): How important is subordinate

commitment to the decision?3. Leader's Information (LI): Do you (the leader) have sufficientinformation to make a high quality decision on your own?

4. Problem Structure (ST): Is the problem well structured (e.g., defined,clear, organized, lend itself to solution, time limited, etc.)?

5. Commitment Probability (CP): If you were to make the decision by yourself, is it reasonably certain that your subordinates would becommitted to the decision?

6. Goal Congruence (GC): Do subordinates share the organizationalgoals to be attained in solving the problem?

7. Subordinate conflict (CO): Is conflict among subordinates over preferred solutions likely?

8. Subordinate information (SI): Do subordinates have sufficient

information to make a high quality decision?


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Attitudes and Stereotypes

Individual Dynamics:Session 6

PGP I 20092010, Sections A & C


Attit d


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Attitudes Definition: Evaluative reaction which is either

positive or negative toward something or someone that we reveal in our thoughts, feelings, or intended actions toward that person or thing Could sometimes be ambivalent too

Have direction (positive/negative) and intensity (weak/strong) Are learned via socialisation and experience

Attitude objects include self, people, artefacts, entities such as events, issues, policies, practices (could be complex too)

Operate as

schema/mental

sets/perceptual

sets


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Comprise cognitive (beliefs/thoughts),

affective (emotional)

and

behavioural

(action) components Inconsistencies between cognitive/affective

and behavioural components due to situational factors (eg: norms, selfmonitoring)

Cognitive dissonance


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Stereotypes

Attitude (cog/beh/aff)

Prejudice

Cognitive Stereotype

Behavioural Discrimination

Affective


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Prejudice attitude (usually negative) towards the members of some group, based solely on their membership in that group Functions as schema/mental sets/perceptual sets

Works on

automatic

processing/in

an

implicit

manner

Tend to evaluate members of the group negatively merely because they belong to that group, rather than

looking at

them

as

individuals

Discrimination negative actions towards groups that are the target of prejudice


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Stereotypes beliefs that all members of a particular group show certain typical traits

Operate as schema/mental sets/perceptual sets do

Labelling, scapegoating and selffulfilling prophecies/pygmalion effect Judge people prematurely

Prejudice/discrimination/stereotypes could be positive too


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Roots of prejudice and stereotypes

Social categorisation Ingroup and out group Ingroup heterogeneity and out group

homogeneity Realistic conflict hypothesis

Social networks and scarce resources

Social learning

W k l d i d


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Work related attitudes

Workplace commitment

Work related satisfactionAttitude

objects at

work (existing/emergent)

Multiple

positive/negative/ambivalent attitudeswith varying intensity [includes stereotypes]

Satisfaction/

dissatisfaction+Commitment/lack of commitment(resistance)[various combinations]

Behaviour/

performance/productivity/organisationaleffectiveness

Various organisational interventions to handle all of these

Individual

Group


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Ch i i d


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Changing attitudes

Volition, motivation and selfawareness

Providing new information Influence of social networks

Coopting people

Reducing prejudice and


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g p j

stereotypes Unlearning (introspection and questioning of the reified) and relearning (volition, motivation and

selfawareness) Shared goals, shared identity and OD

interventions contact hypothesis and recategorising

The relevance of diversity management

programmes


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ValuesIndividual Dynamics

PGP I 2009-2010

Sections A & CProf. Premilla DCruz

D fi iti


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Definition

Conception, implicit or explicit, of what anindividual or group regards as desirable, and interms of which they select means and ends of action

To say that a person has a value is to saythat he has an enduring belief that a specificmode of conduct or end state of existence is

personally and socially preferable toalternative modes of conduct or end-states of existence (Rokeach, 1969: 159-160)

Fi k t f l


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Five key components of values

Concepts or beliefs (cognitions)

Pertain to desirable end-states and modesof existence/behaviours

Transcend situations Guide selection and evaluation of behaviour and events

Ordered by relative importance


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Judgemental element as to what is good, rightand desirable

Intrinsic, (usually) unquestioned part of oneself brought to the fore by situations

Acquired early in life from various agents of socialisation and through various modes(reinforcement, punishment, imitation, etc.), butaffected by experience, individuality and times -hence though they are stable and enduring, they can change too

F ti f l


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Functions of values Part of psychological makeup influence

behaviour (hence complete objectivity is neverpossible) Guide action

Help us to take particular positions on variousissues Justify action

Guide our presentation of self to others Influence comparison with others

Facilitate our understanding of and interaction with others Affect moral judgments of self and others

In other words, they influence perceptions,attitudes, motivation, etc.


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Cl ssific tion of l es


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Classification of values

Helps us to distinguish and compare

values and values systems of individuals,groups and cultures Sprangers classification (quoted by Guth

& Tagiuri) Theoretical empirical, rational, critical

truth Economic practical, wealth, resources

business


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Aesthetic artistic, harmonious, graceful

Social altruistic, philantropic, people asends, unselfish, kind love Political power, recognition, competition

Religious relate to the universe in ameaningful way, mystical orientation, unity


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Rokeachs classification Terminal values are desirable end state of

existence that a person would like to achieveduring his/her lifetime. Eg: Peace in the

world Instrumental values are preferable modes of conduct/behaviour or means of achieving

ones terminal values. Eg: Courteous,altruistic behaviour

Within these 2 groups, values could be self-centred or other-centred


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Interface with work life


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Organisational values linked to organisational culture

Internal functioning and external adaptation Espoused versus enacted values Individual versus organisational values (degree of congruence and

subcultures)

Individual level Influence on work Interpersonal differences and their effects

Do my values change or not in a group context why? Espoused versus enacted values Can values be maintained in an absolute sense or does their enactment get

influenced by contextual factors?

Experience of dilemmas and their resolution The issue of overidentification

Values accorded to work Work values in the Indian context the changing psychological

contract Cross-cultural differences and implications for the workplace


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Stress and copingPGPI 2009-2010 Sections A & C

Individual Dynamics


What is stress?

Th i


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Stressor(Stimulus)

Acute/chronic(Temporal

dimension);Positive/ Negative;Multiple(pile-up)

Personality traits

Type A

Locus of controlOptimismSelf-efficacy

Strain orwell being

or both(Response)

The contemporary perspective

Appraisal Coping

Reappraisal

Coping resourcesincluding time,

abilities, money,social support


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Stress arises when the demands of asituation/experience/event are appraised by theindividual as about to tax or exceed the resourcesavailable, thereby threatening well-being and

precipitating strain Disruption in normal functioning Resolution of the disruption Coping efforts to master, reduce or tolerate the

demands created by a stressful transaction


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Components of strain Physiological

Cardiovascular symptoms, biochemical reactions,gastrointestinal symptoms

Degeneration due to chronic exposures

Psychological Dissatisfaction and boredom Anxiety and irritability Depression Emotional exhaustion and fatigue Anger Burnout


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Behavioural Self-damaging behaviours (drug/alcohol abuse) Aggression

Disruption in various aspects of ones life (suchas in social relationships)

(In the context of organisations, it includesdisruptions such as absenteeism, errors,accidents, vandalism)


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Components of well-being Self-acceptance Mastery Autonomy Positive relationships Personal growth Purpose in life


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Stressor Source of stress that creates demands Could be

Positive and/or negative Acute/chronic Pile-up (multiple simultaneously)

Generally denotes change

Workplace stressors


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Factors intrinsic to the job Work conditions (temperature, furniture/layout,risks/hazards)

Shifts Hours of work Travel

New technology Job design elements (autonomy, complexity and variety)

Roles in the organisation Role ambiguity Role conflict

Responsibility for people Role overload/role underload

Relationships at work Boss


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Boss

Subordinates Colleagues

Career development issues

Job security (or lack of it) Job performance and advancement Competition

Participation in decision making (or lack of it) Inequity Victimisation Ethical dilemmas Organisational structure/processes, culture,

change, leadership/supervision, etc Home-work interface/work-life (im)balance


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Technostress Loss of privacy, monitoring and surveillance

Information overload Erosion of face to face contact Continual learning

Stressors at the workplace are only onesource of stress for the individual


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Managing stress personal


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Managing stress personalstrategies

Lifestyle issues - exercise, diet, sleep, relaxationand meditation and substance use

Leisure and hobbies(Work-life balance)

Prioritising and time management Social support

Spiritual resources In the workplace delegation, mentoring, rolenegotiation

M i t i ti l t t i


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Managing stress organisational strategies Create comfortable working conditions physical

environment, organisational processes and practices - (asfar as possible), including an atmosphere of support and

avenues for redressal Match individuals with tasks (and train them for growth) Clarify employee roles

Assign mentors to employees Offer job security/ensure employability Offer flexitime

Provide on-site care facilities for dependents Provide stress and time management training On-site exercise and relaxation facilities/training

Employee assistance programs (counselling and medicalassistance)

INDIVIDUAL DYNAMICS


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Session 9: MotivationPGP I 2009-2010Sections A & C



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Motivation

An internal state that directs individualstoward certain goals and objectives, andthat accounts for his/her intensity, directionand persistence of effort in attaining a goal


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A set of processes that arouse, direct andmaintain human behaviour towardsattaining a goal

Arousal the drive or energy behind ouractions (rooted in a need/deficiency that oneexperiences)

Direction the movement towards a goalMaintenance the persistence in attaining thegoal


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No such thing as a person withoutmotivationMotivation varies between individuals andwithin an individualPeople have multiple (sometimesconflicting) motives operatingsimultaneously


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Work motivation

Psychological forces within a person thatdetermine the direction of a persons

behavior in an organization, a persons levelof effort, and a persons persistence in theface of obstacles level, and persistence of effort


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Theories of motivation

Content/need theories/modelsProcess theories/models (Vroom)

Contemporary models (Adams)Reinforcement theory


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Content theories/models whatis it that motivates people to

work?Concern needs/drives and how these areprioritisedMaslowHerzbergAlderferMcClelland

Maslows Need Hierarchy Theory


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Maslow s Need Hierarchy Theory

SELF-ACTUALIZATION

ESTEEM/ EGO-STATUS

SOCIAL/ BELONGINGNESS

SAFETY/ SECURITY

PHYSIOLOGICAL/ BASIC

Lower order

Higher order


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Criticisms of Maslows theory

A general theory of motivation, laterapplied to work settingsPre-potency of needs (satisfaction-progression hypothesis)


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Herzbergs two factor theory

Satisfaction and dissatisfaction on the jobare completely distinct concepts, not polaropposites


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Satisfaction Dissatisfaction

Motivators

Satisfaction No satisfaction

Hygiene

No dissatisfaction Dissatisfaction

Herzbergs view

Traditional view


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Rooted in two completely different needsBasic needs hygiene factors linked to(avoidance of) dissatisfaction and extrinsic tothe job

associated with the physical and psychological context of the job

Prevents the occurrence of job dissatisfactionCannot provide job satisfactionCannot give rise to positive motivation

Need for achievement and growth motivatorslinked to satisfaction and intrinsic to the job

associated with the job itself Results in job satisfaction

Cannot prevent job dissatisfactionCan result in positive motivation


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Motivators

Responsibility

Achievement

Advancement or growth

Challenge

RecognitionThe work itself

Hygiene factors

Working conditions

Supervision

Interpersonal relations

Salary and benefits

Job securityPolicies andadministration

Criticisms of Maslow and


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Criticisms of Maslow andHerzberg

Scientific rigour is questionedMaslows theory has little empirical evidenceHerzbergs methodology is questioned

Oversimplify the complexities of work motivationBasis for more sophisticated theoriesPopularly known and referred to even todayApplications of Herzbergs theory in job design


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Alderfers ERG theoryHas reworked Maslows theory based onempirical evidenceExistence needs

Basic material existence requirementsRelatedness needs

Maintenance of interpersonal relationshipsGrowth needsIntrinsic desire for personal achievement


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Does not assume pre-potency of needsMultiple needs can operate simultaneouslySubstitution and compensation can take place


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McClellands theory: Need for achievement

Desire to exceed some standards of behavior; to excel; tosucceed, to accomplish goals, to strive to do things better

People high on n-Ach prefer to work on tasks:

that are moderately challenging (perceived as achievablefor them in the light of their abilities)

on which their performance can be evaluated (feedback)

where they can take personal responsibility for deliveringand get personal credit for outcomes

They are task oriented and individualistic


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Need for powerDesire to to dominate, influence, or command; desire to

have impact, and to control others; desire to makeothers behave the way they would not have behavedotherwise

People high on n-Pow: enjoy being in-charge strive for influence over others

prefer to be placed into status-oriented situations. tend to be more concerned with prestige and gaining

influence than with effective performance.

enjoy getting things done through others rather thandoing on their own


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Need for affiliationDesire to establish friendly relations with others; to be a

part of the group

People high on n-Aff:

have concern for establishing, maintaining, repairingrelation with others

enjoy cooperation with others.

like to interact and be with others in situations wherethey feel they are accepted


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Managerial effectivenessWho makes a better manager?

MotiveAffiliation drivenPower driven

Personal powerInstitutional power

Socialised face of power where inhibition operates

StyleDemocraticAuthoritarian

Ideal manager: Institutional power motive withdemocratic style + maturity

Matching Content Models*Motivator-Hygiene Model Achievement

M ti tiNeeds Model


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Self-Actualization

Esteem/Ego-Status

Social/Belongingness

Safety/Security

Physiological/Basic

Growth

Existence

Relatedness

Motivators

Advancement

GrowthAchievement

Hygiene factors

Job security

Salary

Working conditions

Need forAchievement

Need forPower

Need for

Affiliation

Needs Hierarchy ERG Theory

Motivation

Model

* Figure 5.6, P. 154, Organizational Behaviour, 8th Ed., Hellriegel et al, South Western College

Vrooms expectancy model


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Vroom s expectancy modelEffort

Performance/ Outcomes

Rewards

Expectancy

Instrumentality

Valenceof rewards

Motivation

X

X

Skills, abilities, opportunities, context


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Vrooms expectancy model

Expectancy (E): Belief that effort will influenceperformance/outcomeInstrumentality (I): Belief that one will be rewarded forperformance/outcomeValence (V): The perceived value of rewards expectedMotivation: E x I x VPerson will be highly motivated if he/she perceives astrong link between E, I, V


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J.S. Adamss equity theory

1. Equity P

Output

---------Input = O'

Output

---------Input

2. (+)InequityOverrewarded P Output---------Input> O Output---------

Input

3. (-) InequityUnrewarded

POutput---------Input

< OOutput---------Input

P= Person/selfO= Relevant/referent other


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Adamss equity theoryOutput/outcome-input ratio for oneself and for thereferent/relevant other (based on perception and

social comparison)Subjective assessmentInputs

EffortExperienceEducation

CompetenceOutcomes/outputs

Salary

RaisesRecognition


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Behavioural and cognitive responses to inequityChange in inputs and/or outcomesDistort perceptions of self and referent otherChange the referent

Exit the situation


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Reinforcement theory Behaviour is a function of its consequences

Reinforcement: Anything that strengthensa desired behavior, and increases theprobability of its repetition/recurrence

Different types of rewards Schedules of reinforcement


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ApplicationsJob design

Job enlargement (horizontal loading)Job enrichment (vertical loading)Complexity, variety and autonomy

Goal setting and MBO (management byobjectives)Reward, performance and discipline systems

Organisational justiceLinked to training, career development and work-

id lectures

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