Increasingpublicawarenessandfacilitatingbehaviorchange:Twoguidingheuristics

EdwardMaibachCenterforClimateChangeCommunication

GeorgeMasonUniversityFairfax,VA22030

ThisessaywillappearinLeeHannahandTomLovejoy’sbookClimateChangeandBiodiversity(2ndEdition),YaleUniversityPress.Expectedpublicationdate:Spring2017.Citeas:Maibach,E.(inpress)Increasingpublicawarenessandfacilitatingbehaviorchange:Twoguidingheuristics.InL.HannahandT.Lovejoy(eds.)ClimateChangeandBiodiversity,2ndedition.YaleUniversityPress.

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Increasingpublicawarenessandfacilitatingbehaviorchange:Twoguidingheuristics

Note: This essay builds on two previously published essays by the author (Maibach, 2015a, 2015b).

“Everythingshouldbemadeassimpleaspossible,butnosimpler.”–QuotecommonlyattributedtoAlbertEinstein

Ifthereisasingleaspirationthatunifiestheprofessionalswhoworkonthechallengesassociatedwithclimatechangeandbiodiversity,itislikelytheirdesiretoseepolicymakers,businessmanagersandmembersofthepublicmakedecisionsthatarebetterinformedbytherealitiesofwhatweknowabouthowtostabilizetheclimate,conservebiodiversity,andpreventneedlessharmtopeopleandeco-systems.Andifthereisasingleemotionthatunifiesthem,itislikelyangst–asaresultoffeelingthat,collectively,wearefallingfarshortofouraspirations.Thiscallsanobviousquestion:Whatcanwetodomoreeffectivelypromotewisedecision-makingandactionsbyimportantdecision-makers?Manyexcellentbooks(Hornik,2002;Moser&Dilling,2007;Whitmarsh,O’Neill&Lorenzoni,2011;McKenzie-Mohr,2011;Crow&Boykoff,2014;Marshall,2014)andarticles(Maibach,Abroms&Marosits,2007;HolmesandClark,2008;Ryderetal,2010)offerimportantinsightsandpartialanswerstothequestion,butnoneoftheseofferasimple,clearanswerthatworkingscientists–andscienceinstitutions–willfindtobepractical.InthischapterIoffermybestshotatapracticalanswer.Itisbynomeanstheonlyanswer,orthedefinitiveanswer,butitis–bydesign–thesimplestanswerIcanofferwhilestillstayingtruetothebestavailableevidenceonthescienceofsciencecommunication.Moreover,myanswerisintendedtobeequallyhelpfulbothtoindividualscientists–inanyrelevantdiscipline,atanystageinherorhiscareer–andtothefullrangeofscienceandscience-basedinstitutionsthatstrivetosharecurrentscientificinsightsaboutthephysicalworldwithdecision-makersandthepublic(suchastheNationalAcademyofScience,NationalScienceFoundation,professionalsocieties,sciencemuseums,mediaproducers,etc.).Myansweralsoaimstobeusefulregardlessofwhichcategoryof“importantdecision-makers”aremostrelevantinagivensituation–communityleaders,nationalleaders,businessleaders,peopleinaspecificprofession(e.g.,buildingcontractors),orevenindividualsandfamilieswhoaretryingtomanagetheirownlivesinthebestpossiblemanner.Allofthesepeoplehaveimportantclimate-andbiodiversity-relateddecisionstomake,whethertheycurrentlyknowitornot.Individualscientists,andthescientificcommunity,canbeofvalueinhelpingthesepeoplemakewisedecisionsandtakewiseactions.

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Thequestionposedaboveincludestworelatedyetdistinctchallenges.Thefirstchallengeishelpingdecision-makersmakewisedecisions;thesecondchallengeishelpingthemtakewiseactions.Tohelppeoplemakewisedecisions,wemusteffectivelybringtheissuetotheirattention,suggesttheneedtomakedecisions,clarifythenatureoftheproblemsandopportunities,andmakeavailablethebestscience-basedinformation–inappropriateformats–fordecision-makerstoconsider.Inshort,wemusteffectivelysharewhatweknow.Helpingpeopletakewiseactionsinvolvesadifferentsetofactivities.Ifitwereeasyforpeopletoconverttheirgooddecisions(i.e.,theirgoodintentions)intoeffectiveactions,theproverb“theroadtohellispavedwithgoodintentions”wouldneverhavearisen.Fortunately,stepscanbetakentohelppeopleconverttheirgoodintentionsintoeffectiveactions.Myanswertothequestionabove,therefore,hastwoparts.Toeffectivelysharewhatweknow,weneed“simpleclearmessages,repeatedoften,byavarietyoftrustedsources.”Tohelppeopleconverttheirgoodintentionsintoeffectiveactions,weneedtodoeverythingwecanto“makethebehaviorswearepromotingeasy,funandpopular.”Irefertoeachoftheseas“heuristics”inthesensethattheyorganizearelativelylargeamountofprescriptiveinformationintoarelativelyeasytousemethodorprocess.Intheremainderofthischapter,Iunpackthesetwoheuristics,withtheaimofmakingthempracticalforallreaders.Iassumethatmostreadersofthischapterwillbescientistsandalliedprofessionals–andIthereforetailormycommentstothem–buttherecommendationsareequallyrelevanttoanyoneseekingtoimproveclimatechangeandbiodiversityoutcomesinwaysthataregroundedinscientificevidence.SharingWhatWeKnowScientistsarehighlytrainedtosharewhattheyknow,butprimarilytocolleaguesintheirownscientificdiscipline.Typically,thisprocessbeginswithourresearch,wherewedevelopandtestideas.Ifanideaprovestohavemerit,wetakestepstoshareitwithourcolleagues–atprofessionalmeetings,injournalarticles,andinbooks.Perhaps,ifwearereallyexcitedbytheidea,wemightmakeextraeffortstoshareitmorebroadly–possiblywithscientistsinotherdisciplines(e.g.,bygivingtalksattheirmeetings)orwiththegeneralpublic(e.g.,byworkingwithourinstitution’spressofficetoissueapressrelease),althoughtheseeffortstendtobefleeting.Theseapproachestosharingwhatweknowworkreasonablywellwithcolleaguesinourowndiscipline,lesswellwithscientistsinotherdisciplines,andnotwellenoughwithpolicymakers,businessleaders,andmembersofthepublic.Metaphorically,theseapproachesareakintotossingwhatweknow“overthetransom”oroutthewindowofourlab,andintotheoutsideworld,expectingrelevantpeopletopickupourknowledge,considerit,andknowwhattodowithit.Thereisabetterway:simpleclearmessages,repeatedoften,byavarietyoftrustedsources.Itisn’ta“magicbullet,”anditwon’tsolveourbiodiversityandclimatechallengesovernight(oranytimesoon),buttheapproachisevidence-based(itisbasedinthescienceofscience

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communication),reasonablyeasy(onceyouunderstandit,it’snoharderthatwhatyouarealreadydoing),andethical(itinvolvesprovidingpeoplewithinformationtheyarelikelytofindhelpful).Theheuristicitselfhasthreeelements–simplemessages,messagerepetition,andtrustedmessengers–eachofwhichisbasedonempiricalevidenceandofferspracticalguidance.Theimportanceofmessagesimplicity:Mostpeople,inmostsituations,don’tdealwellwithcomplexinformation;complexinformationiscognitivelytaxing,andmostpeople(evenverybrightpeople),inmostsituations,areunwillingtomaketheeffort.Instead,peopletypicallyusementalshortcutstoavoidcognitivelydifficulttasks,andwhentheydo,theyoftenendupreachingconclusionsthatdifferfromthoseintendedbytheinformationprovider(Kahneman,2011).RiskcommunicationexpertBaruchFischhoff(1989)trenchantlysummarizedthesituation–andhisprescriptionabouthowbesttomanageit–inthefollowingmanner:"Peoplesimplify.Ourjob(asriskandsciencecommunicators)istohelppeoplesimplifyappropriately."So,whatcanwe–ascommunicators–dotohelppeoplesimplifyappropriately?Wecandevelop“messages”abouttheinformationwewishtosharethatarespecificallyintendedtohelppeoplesimplifycomplexinformationappropriately.(Forreaderswhodisfavortheterm“messages”–equatingittopersuasiveintent–theterm“briefstatements”isanacceptablesynonym.)“Audienceresearch”isapowerfultoolfordevelopingsuchmessages.Throughaudienceresearch,wecansystematicallycollectdatatoassessaudiencemembers’pre-existingknowledge,attitudesandvalues,andtesttheirresponsestodraftmessages.Inthismanner,westandamuchbetterchanceofdesigningmessagesthatilluminate,ratherthanmessagesthatalienate.Admittedly,theconductofaudienceresearchisn’talwaysfeasible(perhapsbecauseoflackoftime,funds,orexpertise),butthatisnotanexcuseforfailuretoseriouslyconsiderhowmembersofthetargetaudiencearelikelytounderstandtheinformationwewishtosharewiththem.Makingtheefforttoconsiderouraudiencemembers’views–andvalues–ishelpfulinthatitforcesusascommunicatorstolookbeyondourselves,andtothinkcarefullyaboutbothwhatismostworthsaying,andhowbesttosayit.Anapproachthatallsciencecommunicatorscanusetoimprovetheirmessagesinvolvesanticipatingthequestionsthatpeoplearelikelytoask,anddraftingmessagesthatattempttoproactivelyanswerthosequestions.Forexample,whentheissuepertainstoariskpeoplearelikelytoasksomevariationofthefollowingquestions:Whatistheproblem?Howwillitaffectme(andmypeople)?Howseriousisit?Whoorwhatiscausingtheproblem?Whataretheoptionsfordealingwithit?What,ifanything,canIdoaboutit?Totestyoursuccessindraftingsimpleclearmessagesinresponsetolikelyaudiencequestions,sharethemessageswithafewmembersofyourtargetaudience,onepersonatatime.Aftereachpersonhashadachancetoconsideryourmessages,askthemtoexplain–intheirownwords–whatthemessagesmeantothem,andhowtheywouldexplainthemtoafriend.Alsoask:“Whatquestions,ifany,doyouhaveformeaboutthisinformation?”Whenmembersofyouraudiencecanadequatelyexplainyourmessagesintheirownwords,

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andwhenyourmessageshelpthemaskgoodquestions,you’vesucceededinwritingsimple,clearmessages.The3rdU.S.NationalClimateAssessment(NCA3)providesausefulexampleofsimpleclearmessages(Melillo,Richmond&Yohe,2014).Althoughthefullreportisover1,000pages,NCA3eachsetofchapterauthorswasaskedtoidentifykeymessagesfortheirchapter.Inaddition,thefederaladvisorycommitteethatoversawthedevelopmentofNCA3developedkeymessagesforthereportasawhole.AuthorsandadvisorycommitteememberswerewellawareofaudienceresearchshowingthatmostAmericansunderstandclimatechangeishappening,buttheyseeitasadistantthreat–distantinspace(i.e.,theproblemswillprimarilymanifestelsewhere,nothereintheUnitedStates),distantintime(i.e.,theproblemswillstartinthefuture,theyaren’thappeningyet),anddistantfromhumans(i.e.,theproblemswillbeprimarilyfeltbyplants,penguinsandpolarbears–notpeople;Leiserowitz,2005;Leiserowitz,etal.2014a;Leiserowitz,etal.2014b).Asaresult,NCAauthorsdevelopedkeymessagesintendedtocorrectthemisperceptionofclimatechangeasadistantthreat.TheopeningwordsontheNCA3reportwebsiteare:“…(T)heNationalClimateAssessmentprovidesanin-depthlookatclimatechangeimpactsontheU.S.ItdetailsthemultitudeofwaysclimatechangeisalreadyaffectingandwillincreasinglyaffectthelivesofAmericans.Explorehowclimatechangeaffectsyouandyourfamily.”Thisthemeisalsoclearlyinevidenceinthereport’sintroduction(seeFigure1).Theseopeningwords,thereport’skeymessages,andeventhechapternames(e.g.,extremeweather,humanhealth,water,agriculture,oceans)wereallintendedtohelpallreaders–eventhosegivingtheinformationonlyaquickglance–tounderstandingthemostimportant,overarching,findingoftheassessment:climatechangeishappeninghere,now,ineveryregionofAmerica.

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Figure1:Theopeningparagraphsofthe3rdU.S.NationalClimateAssessmentTheimportanceofmessagerepetition:That“repetitionisthemotherofalllearning”–whichcomestousoriginallyfromanancientLatinproverb(repetitioestmaterstudiorum)–isoneofthemostrobustfindingstohaveeveremergedfrommasscommunicationresearch(Lang,2013).Repetitionincreasesmessagepersuasivenesscognitively(byincreasingsalienceandavailabilityoftheinformation)andaffectively(byincreasingpositivefeelingsaboutthemessage)(Batra&Ray,1986;Pechman&Stewart,1988;Chong&Druckman,2013).Whiletruthfulnessisofparamountimportanceinsciencecommunication,truthfulmessagesamounttolittlewithoutadequatemessagerepetition,apointnicelyillustratedthisquotefromapoliticalconsultant:“Youtakethetruth,andI’lltakerepetition;I’llbeatyoueverytime”(Castellanos,2010).Theimportanceofmessagerepetitionissomethingthateverypoliticianlearnsinherfirstpoliticalcampaign,andeverybusinessexecutivelearnsinhisfirstmarketingcourse,butitisalessonrarelytaughttoscientists.Admittedly,repetitionisboringtomostcommunicators,especiallyscientists.Asscientists,novelty,innovationandcontroversyiswhatexcitesus–andwhatweliketotalkabout–butwhatexcitesusisnotarelevantconsiderationindetermininghowbesttosharewhatweknowwithdecision-makers.Moreover,likeallpeople,scientistssufferthe“curseofknowledge”(Heath&Heath,2007);weforgetthatmostpeopledon’tknowwhatweknow,andasaresultweendupmakingassumptionsinourcommunicationthatinadvertentlyexcludestheverypeopleweare

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seekingtoshareourknowledgewith.Thedisciplineofmessagerepetition–repeatingthemessagesthatwehavedesignedfortheexpresspurposeofhelpingaudiencememberssimplifyappropriately–forcesustostaytruetoourplanforsharingtheinformationthatismosthelpfultomembersofourtargetaudience(ratherthansharingtheinformationthatmostinterestsus).Fortunately,messagerepetitionisnotthesoleburdenofanyoneindividualororganization;messagerepetitionworksbestwhenmanydifferentmessengersrepeatthesamesetofmessages,consistently,overtime.Individualsandorganizationsworkingonclimatechangeandbiodiversityissuesshoulddevelopthedisciplinetoworktogethertodesign,use,andrepeat–ateverycommunicationopportunity–asharedsetofmessagesspecificallyintendedtohelpaudiencemembersreachappropriateconclusionsaboutthecomplexproblemsyouareurgingthemtoengagewith.Reach–i.e.,reachingmembersofyourintendedtarget–isanimportantconsiderationtoo.Messagesthatarerepeatedoften,butfailtoreachtheirintendedaudience,willhavenobenefitforthataudience.Consumerbrandstypicallystrivetoachievebothmessagereachandfrequencywithacombinationofpaidadvertising,earnedmedia(i.e.,outreachtonewsmediaandbloggers),socialmedia,endorsements,paidplacements,andothermeans.Climatechangeandbiodiversityprofessionals–andorganizations–rarelyhavetheopportunitytoachievereachthroughpaidplacements(e.g.,advertising),butthroughthekindofcollaborationsuggestedintheparagraphabove,theycanstrivetomaximizebothmessagereachandfrequency(i.e.,repetition),especiallytotheextentthattheysucceedinbringingothertrustedmessengersintothecommunicationmix.Forfurtherelaborationofthisimportantidea,readon.Theimportanceoftrustedmessengers:Quitesimply,wherethereisnotrust,therecanbenolearning.Asagroup,scientistsarehighlytrusted.Forexample,scientistsaretrusted“alot”bytwo-thirdsofAmericanadults–tiedwithmedicaldoctors,andsecondonlytomembersofthemilitaryandteachers(PewResearchCenter,2013).However,whentargetaudiencemembersdon'tknowthespecificscientistwhoisattemptingtocommunicatewiththem–personally,orbyreputation–theirtrustinthatmessengerislikelytobesuperficial,provisionalandvulnerable,andcommunicationmistakes(suchasunclearmessages,seeminglyevasiveanswers,andlackofempathy)canrapidlyunderminetrust(Covello,2015).Climatechangeandbiodiversitycommunicatorscanearnthetrustoftheirtarget,andleveragetheimpactoftheircommunication,byrecruitingadditionaltrustedvoices–peoplewhoareknownbythetargetaudience,personallyorbyreputation–toembrace,repeatandtherebyvalidatetheirsimpleclearmessages.Theseadditionaltrustedvoicesneednotnecessarilybefromthesciencecommunity.Indeed,wecanandshouldcultivatecommunicationpartnershipswithindividualsandorganizationsoutsidetherealmofclimatechangeandbiodiversitywhoarehighlytrustedbymembersofouraudience–forexample,leadersinthefaithcommunity,orthebusinesscommunity–becausedoingsoisawayofdemonstratingone’strustworthiness,andofmaximizingone’smessagereachandfrequency.

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Themosteffectiveendorsementscomeforpeoplethatourtargetaudiencetruststhemost,regardlessoftheirlevelofexpertise.Ontheissueofclimatechange,forexample,peopletypicallytrustmostthepeopletheyknowthebest–theirfamilymembers,friends,andco-workers–seeFigure2(Leiserowitz,Maibach&Roser-Renouf,2009).Scientistsarehighlytrustedtoo,butitistherareindividualwhoplacesgreatertrustinascientist(whomheorshehasnevermet)thaninone’sownfamilyandfriends.Thisispreciselywhythebesttestofthesimplicityandclarityofascience-basedmessageiswhethermembersofthetargetaudiencearewillingandabletoconveythemessagetotheirfamily,friendsandco-workers.Ultimately,thatshouldbetheaimofourcommunication–tomotivateandenablemembersofourtargetaudiencetoshareourmessageswithoneanother.

Figure2.Americanstrustinvariouspossiblesourcesofinformationaboutglobalwarming.Note:DatafromYale/GeorgeMasonUniversityClimateChangeintheAmericanMindsurveysconductedbetween2008and2012.Feelingoverwhelmedattheprospectofdesigningandcommunicatingsimpleclearmessages,repeatedoften,byavarietyoftrustedsources?Don’tbe.Inhisarticle“CommunicatingaboutMattersofGreatestUrgency:ClimateChange,”BaruchFischhoff(2007)madeastrongcaseforimprovingtheeffectivenessofsciencecommunicationby

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approachingitasateamsport,ratherthanassolosportinwhicheveryscientistisexpectedmastertheartandscienceofcommunication.Specifically,Fischhoffencouragesthedevelopmentofsciencecommunicationteamsthatincludethreedistincttypesofexpertise,whichcanbeprovidedbyaminimumofthreepeople:acontentscientist(i.e.,apersonwithexpertiseontheriskortheissue);asocialscientist(i.e.,apersonwithexpertiseonhowpeopleprocessinformation);andacommunicationpractitioner(i.e.,apersonwhoknowshowtocreatecommunicationopportunities).Thesethreetypesofprofessionalseachbringuniqueknowledgeandskillstotheprocessofdevelopingsimpleclearmessages,andinworkingtoensurethatthosemessagesareconveyedoften,byavarietyoftrustedsources.Bywayofexample,I(asasocialscientist)helpedorganizeateamofclimatescientists,socialscientistsandcommunicationpractitionersatvariousuniversities(GeorgeMasonandYale),non-profitorganizations(ClimateCentral,AmericanMeteorologicalSociety),andgovernmentagencies(NOAA,NASA)todevelopanddistributetoTVweathercastersbroadcast-qualitymaterialswiththeaimofhelpingthemreportonthelocalimpactsofclimatechangeintheirarea.CalledClimateMatters,thecollaborationstartedwithasuccessfulpilottestatasingleTVstationinColumbia,SC(Zhao,etal.2014),andhasnowgrownintoanationalnetworkwithover260participatingweathercasters,andgrowing(Plackyetal,inpress).Inadditiontosustainedcollaborations,asdescribedintheClimateMattersexampleabove(andbelow),thisteam-basedapproachtosciencecommunicationisalsopracticalforad-hoccommunicationopportunities.Forexample,climatescientists–whowillsoonbepublishingfindingswithimportantimplicationsfordecision-makers–canaskasocialsciencecolleague,andamemberofthemediarelationsteamattheirinstitution,tohelpthemcraftmessages,anddevelopandimplementacommunicationplanthroughwhichtocommunicatethemessages.InfluencingBehaviorEffectivecommunicationisimportant,althoughitisoftennotsufficienttochangepeople’sbehavior(Hornik,2002;McKenzie-Mohr,2011).Evenafterpeopledecidetotakeaction,manywon’t,orwon’tperseverelongenoughtosucceed.Consider,forexample,yourmostrecentNewYear’sresolution.Socialmarketing–theuseofmarketingmethodstopromotebehaviorsthatbenefitsociety–isamethoddevelopedspecificallytohelpaddressthisproblem(Maibach,Rothschild&Novelli,2002).Manyexcellenttextslaybaretheprinciplesofsocialmarketing,includingtwothatspecificallyexploreitsapplicationtoenvironmentalchallenges(McKenzie-Mohr,2011;McKenzie-Mohr,Lee,Schultz&Kotler,2012).Iparticularlyencouragereadersofthischapter,however,towatchaTEDtalkbyBillSmith(2011)--oneofsocialmarketing’spioneers.Inhistalk,Smithlaysoutasimpleheuristictoguidetheimplementationofsocialmarketingprograms:makethebehavioryouarepromotingeasy,funandpopular.Althoughitsoundscheeky,theheuristicisbasedonalargebodyofempiricalresearch,anditoffersimportant,practicalguidance.

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Theimportanceofmakingthebehavioreasy:Socialscientistshavelongknownthatthereisoftenalargegapbetweenpeople’sattitudestowardabehavior(e.g.,vegetablesareverygoodforyou)andtheirbehavior(e.g.,“I’llhavethecheeseburgerandfries,please”).Oneofthemosteffectivemeansofreducingthis“attitude-behavior”gapistomaketherecommendedbehavioreasiertoperform(e.g.,“Wouldyoulikecarrotsticks,anappleorfrieswithyourburger?”).Peoplearelikelytoperformeasybehaviorstheybelievetobeintheirbestinterest,buttheyoftendefer–andnevergetaroundto–behaviorstheyfindtobemoredifficult.Tosavemoneyonutilitybills,forexample,ahomeownermayswitchherlightsovertimefromincandescentbulbstoLEDs(becausedoingsoisrelativelyeasy),butmaynottakestepstoweatherizeherhome(becausedoingsoisharder)despitethefactthatthecostsavingsfromthelatterareconsiderablylarger.Manyimportantactionsaren’teasytoperform.Stepscanbetaken,however,tomakethemeasiertoperform.InhisexcellentbookFosteringSustainableBehavior,DougMcKenzie-Mohr(2011)recommendstakinganengineering-likeapproachtothetaskofmakingbehaviorseasier.Thefirststepintheprocessistoconductaudienceresearchforthepurposeofidentifyingthebarriersthatimpedepeople’sperformanceofabehaviorwhosevaluetheyarealreadyconvinced.Thesebarriersmightincludealackofknowledgeabouthowtoperformtheaction(e.g.,“Ican’trememberwhichkindsoffisharesustainable”),alackofskillsnecessarytoperformthebehaviorwell(e.g.,“Idon’tknowhowtocookthatkindoffish”),alackofnecessaryresources(e.g.,“Sustainablycaughtfishistooexpensive.”),concernaboutthenegativeconsequencesofperformingthebehaviorincorrectly(e.g.,Mykidswon’teatitiftheydon’tlikeit”),andsoon.ThenextstepinMcKenzie-Mohr’sapproachistodevelopandpilottestwaysofreducing–orideallyeliminating–thebarriersfoundtobeparticularlycommon.TheSeafoodWatchappdevelopedbytheMontereyBayAquariumisagoodexampleofaprogramintendedtoreduceatleastonebarriertopurchasingsustainably-caughtfish–notknowingwhichfisharesustainablycaught.Ifthepilot-testresultsarepromising,effortscanbemadetoencouragewidespreadadoptionoftheapproach.TheMarineStewardshipCouncil’sCertifiedSustainableSeafoodprogramisanexampleofaprogramthathasachievedconsiderablesuccessthroughadoptionbylargefoodcompaniesandretailers.Anotherimportantwaytomakebehaviorseasieristohavemembersofthetargetaudiencedemonstrate–tootheraudiencemembers–howtheyperformthebehavior,liveoronvideo(Bandura,2004).Modelingdemonstrationsofthistypeareparticularlyeffectivewhenthemodelsmakeexplicitthenecessarystepstoperformthebehaviorsuccessfully,thepitfallstoavoid,andthebenefitsofperformingthebehavior.Bothoftheseapproaches–reducingbarriersandmodelingthebehavior–willincreasepeople’ssenseofself-efficacy(self-confidence)toperformtherecommendedaction,whichincreasestheoddsthatpeoplewilltry,persevereandeventuallysucceedinperformingthebehavior(Bandura,2004).

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IntheirterrificbookSwitch,ChipandDanHealth(2010)layoutahostofpracticalwaystomakebehaviorchangeeasier,andtomakebehaviorchangeprogramsmoresuccessful.Drawingonthemetaphorofarider(torepresentpeople’sthoughts),anelephant(torepresentpeople’semotions),andtheirpath(torepresentthesocialandphysicalenvironmentinwhichpeopleareoperating),theHeathsrecommendsettingaclear(i.e.,unambiguous)goal,chartingmilestonessothatprogressmadetowardthegoalwillbepositivelyreinforcing,and“tweakingtheenvironment”(i.e.,modifyingorremovingpersonal,socialorenvironmentalbarrierstoperformanceofthebehavior).TheClimateMattersprogramprovidesanexampleofhowmycolleaguesandIhavesoughttomakebehaviorchangeeasierforTVweathercasters.Ouraudienceresearchwithweathercastersidentifiedseveralkeybarrierstotheirabilitytoreportonlocalclimatechangeimpactsstories,including:lackoftimetopreparestories;lackofaccesstodataonlocalimpacts;andlackofaccesstoappropriategraphicsandvisualstosupporttheirreporting.Inresponse,tomaketherecommendedbehavioreasierforweathercasters,eachweekourteamproducesanddistributesbroadcast-qualitygraphics,customizedtoeachparticipatingweathercasters’mediamarket,thatoftenfeaturedataonthelocalimpactsofclimatechangeintheirarea;seeFigure3foranexample.[Note:AllcurrentandpastClimateMattersmaterialsareavailableonlineatwww.climatecentral.org/climate-matters.]Tomodeluseofthesematerials,andtherebyincreaseparticipatingweathercaster’ssenseofself-efficacytousethematerialson-air,theClimateMattersFacebookpageincludesexamplesofhowotherweathercastershaveusedthematerials:http://www.facebook.com/climate.matters/videos.

Figure3:Anexampleofbroadcast-readyClimateMattersgraphicsthatareproducedbyClimateCentralanddistributedtoTVweathercasters.

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Theimportanceofmakingthebehaviorfun:Climatechangeandbiodiversityexpertsrecommendbehaviorsnotbecausethebehaviorsarefun,butbecausetheyofferimportantbenefits.Regardless,expertsshouldn’tlosesightoftwoimportantfacts:Peoplearemorelikelytoperformbehaviorsthatarefunthanbehaviorsthataren’t;receivingbenefitsisfun,whileincurringcostsisn’t.Peopleareoftenwillingtoincurcoststosecurebenefitsthattheyvalue(includingbutcertainlynotlimitedtofun).Themostattractiveoffers,however,arethosethatdelivervaluedbenefitstopeopleatthesametimeas–orevenbefore–theyarerequiredtoincurthecosts(e.g.,“Nomoneydown…takethecartoday”).Conversely,theleastattractiveoffersarethosethatrequireincurringcostsupfrontandreceivingthebenefitsonlymuchlater(Rothschild,1999).Manyactionsrecommendedtopreventclimatechangeandspecieslossareseenasrequiringcostsupfront,whiledeliveringbenefitsonlyinthefuture,possiblythedistantfuture.Toenhancetheoddsthatpeoplewilladoptbehaviorstheyhavealreadydecidedareintheirbestinterest,climatechangeandbiodiversityprofessionalsshouldconsidertwoimportantquestions:WhatcanIdotomakethebehavioreasiertoperform?AndwhatcanIdotohelpdecision-makersgetimmediatebenefitsfromthebehavior,especiallybenefitstheycaremostabout?Rare,abiodiversityconservationandbehaviorchangeorganization–basedintheUSbutworkingworldwide–providesagreatexample.Rarehasdevelopedahighlysuccessfulmodelforenhancingfun,makingrecommendedbehaviorseasier,anddeliveringvaluedbenefitsimmediately–called“pridecampaigns”(Boss,2008;Butler,Green&Galvin,2013).Pridecanbeapowerfulmotivator(Patrick,Chun&MacInnis,2009).Rare’sapproachcentersoncultivatinglocalprideinacommunity,orinanation–prideintheirland,intheirculture,andintheirwillingnesstorallybehindalocaliconicspeciesthatisthreatenedbycurrentpractices.Thisiconicspeciesbecomesthemascotoftheircampaign,acampaignthatembracesandembodiesfun,andofferspeopleimmediatebenefitsintheformofpositivereinforcementforparticipating,andthesatisfactionofcontributingtosomethingofvaluetoentirecommunity.SeetheexampleinFigure4.

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Figure4.ARarePridecampaigninPerufeaturingthespatuletailhummingbirdthataimstoinspirecommunitiestoprotectthebird’scloudforesthabit,therebyprotectingtheirownwaterresources.Theimportanceofmakingthebehavior(atleastseem)popular:Peoplearehighlysensitivetosocialnorms.Themorecommon(ornormative)abehaviorisperceivedtobe,themorelikelypeoplearetoperformit(Cialdini,2006).Therearetwodistincttypesofsocialnorms,bothofwhichexertsubtlebutpowerfulinfluencesonpeople’sbehavior.Descriptivenormsarepeople’sperceptionsofhowcommonabehavior(orattitude)isamongpeoplelikethemselves(friendsintheirsocialnetwork,membersoftheir“tribe,”and/orcitizensoftheircommunity).Injunctivenorms,conversely,arepeople’sperceptionsofthedegreetowhichotherrelevantpeople(friends,“tribal”members,citizens)approveordisapproveapproveofthebehaviororattitude.Themostusefulwaytoharnesstheinfluenceofsocialnormsdepends,inpart,onthedegreetowhichabehaviorbeingpromotediscurrentlynormative.Whenseekingtopromoteabehaviorthatiscurrentlyuncommonamongmembersofthetargetaudience,onecandrawattentiontospecificnotablepeoplewhoarealreadyperformingthebehavior,totheirreasonsforperformingthebehavior,andtothebenefitstheyareenjoyingasaresult.Shiningalightonthesebehavioralmodelsmakesthebehaviorappearmoredescriptivelynormativethanitmightotherwiseseem,andasdescribedabove,itcanalsohighlightthebehavior’sbenefitsandpromoteself-efficacyamongdecision-makerswhoseethemodeling.Uncommonbehaviorscanquicklybecomepopularwhenopinionleaderswithinatargetaudienceembraceandendorsethebehavior,therebyexertingtheirpowerfulsocialinfluencethroughinjunctivenorms.Sustainabilityprofessionalscanseekoutandrecruitopinionleaderswithintheirtargetpopulationasastrategyforacceleratinguptakeofbehaviorstheyarerecommending(Valente,2012).Iftherecommendedbehaviorisgaininginpopularitybutisnotyetnormative,effortscanbemadetohighlightitsgrowingpopularity–inthenews,inentertainmentmedia,andinsocialmedia–asameansofreinforcingthegrowingnorm.Sucheffortsareparticularly

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likelytobeeffectivewhentheyhighlightnotablerespectedindividualswhoarenowembracingthebehavior(e.g.,WarrenBuffett),especiallyifmostpeoplewouldn’texpectthoseindividualstoembracethebehavior.Opowerprovidesanexcellentexample.OpowerisanAmericancorporationthatharnessessocialscienceresearchonthepowerofsocialnormstohelputilitycompaniesreduceconsumerdemandforelectricity(http://opower.com/designprinciples).Astudybysomeofthecompany’sbehavioralscienceadvisers(Schultz,Nolan,Cialdini,Goldstein&Griskevicius,2007)foundthatwhenshownontheirmonthlyutilitybilltheirownenergyusedatarelativetotheneighborhood’saverageenergyuse,aboveaveragehouseholdssubsequentlydecreasedtheirenergyuse,andbelowaveragehouseholdssubsequentlyincreasedtheirenergyuse–therebydemonstratingthepowerofdescriptivenorms.Theboomerangeffectamongbelowaveragehouseholdswasprevented,however,byaddingasmileyfaceemoticonontheutilitybilltosignaltheutilitycompany’sapprovalofenergyconservation–therebydemonstratingthepowerofinjuctivenorms.Thissimpleinsightaboutthepowerofsocialnormshasledtoathrivingbusinessthatishelpingutilitycompaniesinahalfdozennationsreducetheirneedtogenerateelectricity.Inconclusion,communicationeffortsthatusesimpleclearmessages,repeatedoftenbyavarietyoftrustedsources,andbehaviorchangeeffortsthatstrivetomakethebehavioryouarepromotingeasy,funandpopular,holdconsiderablepromiseinhelpingtranslatetheinsightsofenvironmentalscienceintomoresustainablecivilizationsacrosstheglobe.AcknowledgementThismaterialisbaseduponworksupportedbytheNationalScienceFoundationunderGrantNumberDRL-1422431.Anyopinions,findings,andconclusionsorrecommendationsexpressedinthismaterialarethoseoftheauthor(s)anddonotnecessarilyreflecttheviewsoftheNationalScienceFoundation.References

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