Indian J o urn ;~ l of Traditional Know ledge Vol. 2( I ). January 2003. pp. 40-50

Indigenous animal health care practices in Indian Central Himalaya: Empirical evidences

Prasanna K Samal *, Anubha Shah. Sush i! Tiwari , Bhupender Mehra & Devendra K Agrawal

G. B. Pant Institute of Hima lay ;~n Environment & Development. Kosi-Kat armal. AI mora 263 643. India

Email: prasannasamal @rediffmail.com

Receil'ed 29 April 2002: re1•ised 13 Mav 2002

The Indi an Central Himalaya supports about four million li vestock populati on. which play a vital role in the li ve lihood of the nati ves. In thi s remote ecosystem. where modern veterinary infrastructure is very poor both quantitati vely and qualitatively. the local s have evo lved indigt:­nous health care practices to maintain their li ves tock populati on. The pract ices. based on locally available biorcsources. are effec tive in hea ling di seases. do not have financial cost and arc easi ly administrable. Through a survey covering eight settl ements located w ithin alti llldc rangi ng fro m 900 m to 1800 m in the region, an effort was made to documelll the indigenous animal health care pmctices interv iew ing 350 knowledgeable rcspondel\ls drawn from both the sexes.

Keywords: Indigenous animal health care. Li vestock. T radi ti onal knowledge

The Indian Central Himalaya, with a geo­graphi ca l area of 53,485 sq km, forms a part o f Western Himalaya wh ich is rec­ognised as a sub-centre of diversity of plant genetic resources. It is identified as one among the eight spec ially criti ca l ar­eas in the Indian Himalaya, ecologically'. Despite being eco log icall y rich and unique, the region is highly fragile geo­logically and vulnerable seismologically. Human hab itation in the region is found up to an altitude of 3500 m asl. The re­gion supports 84,79,562 persons who constitute about 0.83 % and 21.40% of the total population of Indi an Republic and

* Correspondent author

Ind ian Himalayan Region (IHR), respec­ti ve!/. The decennial growth rate of the population of the region for the decade 1991-200 I was 19.20. The population den­sity was I 59 persons/sq km in 200 I . The people of the Indian Central Himalaya li ke el sewhere in other mountain eco-systems are largely dependent for their li ving on their immediate bioresources. The region is experiencing major difficulties tn sus­taining its growing population on its over all env ironmental resources. The human population of the region is increasing at an exponential rate of 1.76 per cent per annum and is doubling in 27-30 years.

The region supports about four million livestock population according to th e

SAMAL e 1 a/: INDI GENOUS ANIMAL HEALTH CARE IN INDIA N CENTRAL HIMALAY A 41

Mules 0.44%

Go~Vl 199SJ Sheep r-------..::-8 .53%~

He buffaloes~~~ 1.95%

She buffaloes 19.20%

n,., L/~4.10%

Horses & ponnies 0.44%

Fig 1. Livestock composition as percentage of total livestock population

Table !- Li ves tock population in Indi an Central Himalaya (in tho usands)

Li vestoc k Type 196 1 1972 1978 1988 1993

Catt le 2056 2110 2030 194 1 1900

Buffalo 583 647 700 827 8-16

Sheep 383 353 410 348 352

Goat 752 736 950 902 799

Total 3774 3846 4090 40 18 3897

Source: Saxena. 1995 for the years 196 1 and 1792; Jackson. 1985 for the year 1978: Di strict Stati,tica l Abst ract s. 199 1 for the year 1988 and Joshi et al.. 1999 for the year 1993

Li ves tock Census of 1993. In the li ve­stock composition, cows dominate fol­lowed by oxen and she buffaloes (Fig. I ). Per family and per capita availabi lity of animals were 3.52 and 0.68. respectively. The population and composition of major types of li ves tock in Indian Central Hi­malaya has increased in the last 40 years (Table I ). However, after converti ng the animal type to a standard an imal unit, the absolute increase of units is 2,42,000,

which is almost double of the li ves tock population (Table 2). Thi s is due to in­crease in buffalo populati on.

Livestock plays a vital role in the li ve li ­hood of the nati ves of this region. Draught animal is the only means of ploughing and the cattle clung is the major component of manuring. Apart from the income from livestock in terms of meat. milk . milk related productions and sale or animals contribu ting a major portion of the

42 INDIAN .I TR A DITIONAL KNOWLeDGE. VOL 2, No. I. JAN UARY 2003

Table 2- Livestock units in Indian Central Himalaya (in thousands)

Liv~s lod Type Ani mal unit 1961

Cattl~ I cow= 1.0 2056 Burritlo I buffalo= 1.5 874 Sheep I sheep= 0.2 77 Goat I goat = 0.2 150 Total 3 152

total income of the farmers of the region, animals are prime means of transportat ion3

A. Also. the li vestock has a significant pl ace in the social and religious li fe of the native people.

For sustained management of their li vestock resource, the natives have evo lved indi genous practi ces based on knowledge accumulated through trial and error and generations of experience. Need based domesticat ion of animal types,

1972 J97g 19~H 1903

2 110 2030 19-1 1 1900 971 1050 12-12 1270 7 1 82 67 70 147 190 I RO 160

32()9 3352 3-129 3399

selective killings of male buffalo ca lves through under-nourishment. tradi tiona l rearing of li ves tock in higher altitudes by cross breed ing cows with yaks and ethno­veterinary practices ror their good hea lth and well-being are some exampl es . The indigenous practices are ab le to ensure well-being of the animals and conserve the scarce natura l resources. For example. traditional practices l ike selective killings of male buffa lo calves th rough under-

<."".-\ Himacflal Pradesh

<('

~ 1 ,· :. ···:

~ .,.. - .? , r ~ 1.----------'

1' ·' Central Himalaya ./

,_r

I N D I A

0 350 L___j Km.

q ~ . ~ -:

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0 34 L __j Km .

I. Uuarka,h i 2. Tehri .>. Dehradun 4. Rudrapr,tyag S. llard wa r h. Pauri 7. Chamoli 8. Pithoragarh 9. Bage,hwar I 0. Almont I I. Charnpawat 12. Nainital 13. Udham Singh Nagar

Fig. 2- Locati on map o f the study vill ages in Indi an Cen tral Himalaya

SAMAL e1 ol: IND IGENOUS AN IMAL HEALTH CA RE IN IND IAN CENTRAL HIMALAYA 43

Table 3-Part iculars of the sa mple villages

Total villages sa mpled Altitudinal variation of location of villages Total house hold s covered Total hum an population of sa mpl e vi ll ages Total li vestock population of sa mple vi ll ages Percentage of bovine population to total li vestock Percentage of ov ine population to total livestock Percentage of equine popu lation to tota l li vestock

Source: Primary Survey. 2000-200 1

nouri shmen t by the loca ls is an adaptive st rategy to reduce pressure on fodder and. therefore. conserve the natural resources. He buffalo. which consumes twice the amount of fodder that an animal unit consumes. practically. has no use to the farmers in the region except breeding. The traditional rearing of livestock cross breeding cows with yaks by the Bhotia tribal community. high altitude inhabitants of the reg1on. is an exceptional adaptive strategy that serves the multiple needs of the community5

.

The indigenous health care practices of the locals are based on raw material usually collected from local fore<;ts and other local sources. This article deals with these indigenous health care practices that were documented through a study covering eight sample villages. located at different altitudes in the Indian Central Himalaya.

Methodology The sample villages were located in

two di~tricts. viz. Almora and Nainital districts of the Indian Central Himalaya (Fig. :2). They were selected from differ­ent altitudes and were near representa­tives or other farming vi llages or the re-

8 900 rn to 1800 111

425 3039 1750 87.3 1 12.11 0.58

gion. Major characte ri stics of the sample villages are given in Table 3 . A total of 425 households with a population of 3039 were covered in the survey. Per family and per capita li vestock holding were 4.25 and 0.58. respectively. The data were collected through empirical investigation: the farmers were in vestigated using open­ended interviews and guided dialogue techniques. As many as 350 respondents. including 5 I females. were interviewed. independently in their villages. by ~!11 inter­disciplinary team of researchers. to docu­ment the prevalent animal disea~es. their diagnostic knowledge for curing the dis­eases. and medicinal plants and other ra\\' material used in the treatments . The local names of the diseases and medicinal plants were recorded from the respondents wh i lc interviewing. Later. the medicinal plants were identified with the help of the respon­dents and taxonomists.

Results A number of animal diseases and

indigenously devek)ped treatments for these diseases ha\·c hcen documented through the empirical in\·cstigation and arc presented in Table <+.

Table -1- An imal di>eases. thei r symptoms. constituents of indigenous med icine, p1·cparation and ad mini strati on

Disease (Local/ English name)

Khur-muh pakka I Khuria (Foot and Mouth Disease)

T ilwa or Dhogni (Fever and ind iges­tion)

Sy mptoms (as diagnosed by the local farmers)

High fever (temper-ature ra is ing up to 4 1° Cor more); vesic les in mouth and interd igital spaces; formati on of pus and bleeding occurs in the inter­digi tal spaces; drooling of foamy saliva from the mouth and protrusion of the tongue; sometimes vesicles appearing j n the teat leading to mas­titis and occl usion of the tea t canal; consumption of lesser fodder.

Fever and indigestion resulting in loosening of teeth and ho rns; trem­bling; drooling of foamy sali va from the mouth; fa ll ing down of ski n hairs; consumption of lesser fodder.

Consti tuen ts of indigenou s med icine

A li vi .1g crab (P01anw11 koolooensis), and 250 gm of !lour o f madua (Eieusine coracana)

About 100 gram root of ' nagphan i' plant (Cacrus monacanrlw), 100 gram garl ic (Allium sarivum ), and I 00 gram mustard oi L days.

Seven to eight peac hes (Pmnus persica) and 50 gram of red chill ies (Caps icum W J/IUUIII ).

Branches with leaves of pomegranate (Pun ica granaTum) or Kilmaru (Berberis asiarica).

Half a spoon of common salt , one lemon (Cirms limon). I 0 gram of cumin (Vim­ria sre1ra rr i i C larke), and 5 gram of cori ­ande r (Coriandrum saril'llm) .

25 gram of blac k salt, I 00 gram of mo­lasses. lOO gram o f cum in ( Vicalia srew­arr ii C larke). and 100 gram o f mu stard oil.

Preparation and admin istration

Th e living crab is grounded with the fl our of madua and tablet/ ball s are made out of the mixture. They are dried and fed to the animal once a day for a week.

The constituents are ground and plastered on the hooves of the animal and a piece of cloth is ti ed around the plaster to retain it for a longer time. The mixtw-e is plas­tered thrice a day for three days.

The constituents arc ground and the mi xture is applied on the hooves of the an imal twice a day for fi ve to seven days.

Brooms. made using the branches o f pomegranate or kilmaru, are run over the body of the animal thrice a day for about three days.

The items are ground with water and fed to the animal thrice a day for three days.

Black salt. molasses and cumin are ground and fed to the animal. After an hour I 00 gram of mustard oi I is al so fed to the anim al. The treatment is prac ti sed once a day for three days.

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-3 ::0 )> 0 ::j 0 z )> r 7' z 0 < r rn 0 0 rn < 0 r N

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'-)> z c )> ::0 -< N 0 0 '--"

Table 4- Animal di seases, the ir symptoms. constituen ts of indi genous medic ine. prepara tion and admini stration- Coil/d.

Disease (Local/ Eng li sh name)

Twacha rog (Skin Infec tion)

Jabda badna (Growing of papil­lae)

Chhi(:'ra (Growth o f tonsil )

Gala ghotu (Throat infection)

Sy mptoms (as diagnosed by the local farmers )

Ex ternal parasitic infecti on of the body.

Growing of papillae and develop­ment of ulcers in mouth ; and con­sumpti on of lesser fodder.

Fever; development of tonsil s in the throat and consumption of lesser fodder

Fever with high temperature, de­velop-ment of tonsils in the throat, blocking of bronchi and bubb-ling sound like 'Ghur Ghur' and con­sump-tion of lesser fodder

Constituen ts of ind igenous medicine

100 gm of common salt, one lemon (Cil ­rus limon). 100 gm of seeds of 'betin' (Melia azedarach), I 00 ml of urine of cow and lillie amount of carbon collec ted from the bottom pan of a cooking utensil particularly made up of iron.

Leaves of 'ramcshwar' plant (Saccharum spp) or 'babila ' grass (Eulaliopsis binala)

Wood of 'aguni ' plant (Premna barbara) and a limon (Cirrus limon )

Flour of wheat (Triricum aesrivum ) and leaves o f 'bhimal' (Grcwia opposi­rifolia) .

Wood of 'aguni ' plant (Premna barbara) and a limon (Cirrus limon )

Flour of wheat (Triricum aesrimm ) and leaves of ' bhimal ' (Grewia opposi­rifolia).

Preparation and admini stration

The items are ground and applied on the body of the animal once a day for three days. After three days the animal is bathed.

Leaves of the either plant is rubbed in the mouth of animal thrice a day fo r three days.

Wood of ·aguni' is touc.hcd on the tonsil s only one time. On second day, the animal is fed a qLaancr of a lemon for three times.

The animal is fed the flour of wheat in liquid form aP.d the leaves thrice a day for about a week.

Wood of 'aguni ' is touched on the tonsils only one time. On second day, the animal is fed a quarter of a lemon for three times.

The animal is fed the flour of wheat in liquid form and the leaves thr·ice a day for about a week.

( Co111d.)

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;I> z 3;: ;I> r :c m > r --l :c n > Al m z z 2 ;I> z n m z --l Al > r :c 3;: ;I> r > -< >

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Table 4-Animal diseases. the ir symptoms. constituents o f indi genous medicine , preparation and administration--Con/d.

Di sease (Local/ Engli sh name)

Mauni (Mouth dis­ease)

Pet dard (Stomach pa in )

Sukha rog (Rickel)

Aapach (Indi ges­tion)

Atisa r/Dast (Dia r­rhoea)

Symptoms (as di agnosed by the loca l farmers)

Worm infec tion in the mouth and diffi -culty in grazi ng and eating grass.

Reduction in move-ment; rubbing of hooves and consump-tion of lesser fodder

Inflammation of the joints and bones; also softenin g and curving of bones and consumption of lesser fodder.

Reduction in movement; making sounds and consun1p-tion of lesser fodder.

Constituents of indigenous medic ine

100 gram of black soyabean (Glycin e mcu), 100 gram of grams (Cicer arieti­Jwm }, 20 gram of cumin (Vicatia stewar­tii Clarke) and I 00 gram of molasses. I 00 gm of leaves of ' bhang' (Cannabis sativa). half kg of flour of wheat (Trifi­cum aestivwn) and half liter of hot water.

100 gram of root of 'harar' (Temrirwlia chebula ), half kg of flour of wheat (Triti­cum aestivwn), one tea spoon of common salt and half kg of oil-cake of mustard

100 gram of seeds of ' Bagain ' or ' Betin' (Melia azedarach) , 25 gram of common salt, 200 gram of garlic (Allium sativum ), 100 gram of mustard oil and half glass of urine of cow.

100 gm of coriander (Coriandrum sati­vum), 50 gm of black sa lt and 500 g rn of wheat seed coat (Triticum aestiv11111).

Preparation and admini strati on

The items are mixed and fed to the goat once a day for about th ree days. Ash, which is used locally in cleaning of uten­sils, is applied in the mouth of goat. The constituents are mixed and fed to the animal twice a day for about three days.

The items are ground and fed to the ani ­mal once a day for about fifteen days.

Thee constituents are ground and applied on the body of the animal infested with worms once a day for about fifteen days.

The constituents are mi xed or ground in about I 0 Iiu·es of water and fed to the animal thrice a day for three days.

Suffering from dy-se ntery; con- 13lack soybean (Glyc in e 1//ax) and water. 13lack soy bean (mixed with wate r is fed surnption of lesser fodder to the animal for 2-3 daxs.

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2 0 :E r rn 0 Cl ..rn < 0 r )'>

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8

SAMAL e1 a/: INDIGENOUS AN IMAL HEALTH CARE IN INDI A CE TRAL HIM ALAYA 47

In addition, the farmers have also evolved indigenous treatments for bone fracture, leach infes tation , dryness, ane­mi a, artificial induction of heat for copu­lation and post calving care.

Bone fracture : About 25 gm of roots of ' Jhingan' plants (Lannea corolllandelica ) are ground with urine of cow and pasted in the broken bone every day for about 15 to 30 days. Strips of 'tusharu' wood (De­hregeasia deolbata ) are used for sup­portin g the fractured bones of animals. The strips are tied together with the help of cloth.

Leach infestation in the nostril of ani­mals: In this case, I 00 gm of seed coat of ' ritha' (Sap indus lllllkorosii) is ground with water. A bout 10 gm of common salt is added to thi s mixture. The mixture is poured in the nostril of animals two times a day for three days. Farmers also apply tobacco tar or common salt inside the nostril s, which are very effective in kill­ing the leach.

Dt·yness: To save the animal suffering from dryness, half kg of lemon (Citrus li111on) and half kg of mint (Mentha piperita ) are ground in 10 litre of water. The animal is feel thi s mixture thrice a clay for three days.

Anaemia : For vitality , 250 gm of molas­ses is mi xed with half kg of fl our of bar­ley (Hordeu111 vulgare) and fed to the animal every day for a period of about two weeks or until the animal gains vital­ity. A naemic animals are also feel fer­mented wheat fl our or fermented banana (Musa paradisiaca) for a couple of days.

Artificial heat induction fot· copulation: Dropping of pigeon is fed to the cows and buffaloes to bring them in heat. The droppings are said to contain estrogens required for inducing heat in animals. Also, fri ed salt with cucumber leaves (CIICllllliS sati vus ) is fed to the an ima] for inducing heat in them.

Post-calving care: Husk of ri ce (Orv::.a

sativa) is fed to the animal to speed up the dropping of retained placenta after ca lving. If by chance the placenta is eaten by the animal, which is dangerous. 1-2 kg of leaves of ' Rameshwar' plant (Sacclw ­mlll sp.) is fed to the animal three times a day for about three clays. In order to en­hance the milk production, fanners feed ' Bichhu Ghass' or 'S isaun ' (Urtica par­viflora) to milching buffaloes.

A cooked mixture locall y ca ll ed ' Khichcli ', prepared by mi xing about one to half kg of gruel of barley (Hordeu111 vulgare), one to half kg of molasses . about 500 gm of black soy abean (Glycine 11/ax) and about 250 gm urd (Phaseolus radiatus), is fed to the nursing cattle at the time of calving for quick recovery and improved production. This mi xture is also given a week or so before deli very. Al so to regain health and produce more milk after calving, a mi xture of tl our of wheat (Triticu111 aestivu111 ) and molasses or ri ce (0. sati va) cooked with urd (P. radiatus) is also fed to the cattl e.

Discussion In Indian Central Himalaya, li ve lihood

pattern is holi sti c in nature. i .e .. the three maJor components of I i ve l i hood

48 INDIAN J TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE, VOL 2, No. I. JANUARY 2003

agriculture, forests and livestock - are intricately interdependent on each other. The li vestock is dependent on green leaves obtained from forests as fodder and the culti vated land is dependent on animal dung used as compost, apart from animals (oxen) being used for ploughing. Considering the multi-beneficial nature of the livestock , the locals of the region are maintaining such a large livestock population since past many decades, despite facin g seri ous difficulty in procuring foclcler for them. Considering the number of livestock in the region, the green fodder requirement has been estimated to be 259 lakh mt per annum. However. present production is only 52 lakh mt both from forests and agriculture6

,

and therefore, substantial portion of the gap is met from extensive lopping of trees from the nearby forests which is shrinking in area and deteriorating in crown cover7

.

In the region, male migration to lower plains is a very common. The scale of mi gra ti on varies from village to village ranging from 15 to 45 per cent of the total male population of the village8

. Thi s has entrusted additional work-load on women who are backbone of agricultural system. With exception of ploughing, all activities related to agriculture are carried out by the women . Women look after <he cattle also. They work more than 15-18 hours a clay<J. Their heavy work load often does not allow them to take an ailing animal to a veterinary hospital. The veterinary infrastructure avai I able to provide health care to this large population of animals is quite inadequate, qualitatively and quantitatively. The number of veterinary hospitals and animal development centres

for 1000 animals were 0.07 and 0. 14, respectively in 1996. The veterinary hospitals and animal development cen tres are mostly located in urban centres or near the roads. If they are located in remote areas, they lack infrastruct ural fac ilities in terms of med ic ines. ins truments and often do not have doctors.

All these factors, I.e., economic dependence on livestock , male mi gration to lower plains of India leav ing th e responsibility of cattle on women who are over-worked, lac k of effective veterinary infrastructure, etc ., have forced the local fanners, even today , to apply their indigenous knowledge to look after and maintain their livestock population . Thi s indigenous knowledge and practices, based on locally available bioresources, are effective in healing diseases, do not have financial cost and are eas il y administrable. The survey revealed that almost every elderly woman had some knowledge about the indigenous an imal health care practices. Further, since, raw material for the treatments are largely collected from the local forests or fie Ids, the local peop le have devel oped regulatory fram ework s to protect the forests. The indigenous knowledge on diverse aspects of ecosystem that the locals have acquired through their years of practical ex perience have helped them to build up a very reliable integrated information system which IS hi ghly valuable and relevant to bioresource

. Io I I . . conservation . n t 11s mountain ecosy~tem where the qual itative relationship of the people is woven with its immediate environs and natural resources. have

SA MALer a /: INDIGENOUS AN IMAL HEALT H CARE IN INDI AN CENTRAL HI MALA YA 49

evolved over long periods of time based on necessities and experiences, indigenous knowledge is an important natural resource that can fac ilitate the development process in cost effecti ve, participatory and sustainable ways. However, indigenous knowledge is scattered and associated with low prestige rural life and even those who are its bearers may be lieve it to be inferior 11

• These practi ces w ill continue, if onl y, the survival of bioresources is ensured . T here are in-built safeguards and regul ato ry prac ti ces, whi ch are socially sanc ti o ned and cultura ll y patte rned, in the use and conservati on o f medic ina l pl ants. These in-built regula tory practi ces a re be ing eroded in the recent times under intense anthro pogeni c pressure and also demands of pharmaceut ical indu stries 12

•

Ineffecti ve o rgani zed management contro l over the sa le o f medic ina l pl ants has res ul ted in over ex traction 12

-14

.

Further, though, there are prohibitory regul ati o ns and restri c ti ons introduced by the government in the use of medi c ina l plants and many a medic ina l pl ants are banned fo r use, c landestine co ll ecti o n of such banned medic ina l pl ants is a regular practice 15

. Seventeen Himal ayan med ic ina l pl ants, more than ha lf o f them from thi s regio n, are li sted in the Red Data Book of Indi an Plants. In additio n, severa l o ther taxa, a lthough not li sted, have reached a s tage of c riti cally endangered category 14

• As a result, w ith the d isappearance of the medi c ina l pl ants, the indi geno us know ledge of the loca l people would be put to non-use and made to d isappear. Interventio ns fo r sustainable deve lopment of the reg io n have to g ive adequate respec t to bi o-di versity

conservati on, if they are to be meaningful and e ffecti ve.

Conclusion For the ir survi val in thi s ecosys tem.

based o n the ir generati ons of practi cal ex pe ri ence, people have evolved means and opti ons in the fo rm of indi genous knowledge and practices such as indi ge­nous animal health care practices that have minimal dependence o n ex ternal input. These practi ces have very care full y bl ended conservati o n with produc ti vity and he lp conserve resources and sustain the people themselves in thi s inhospitabl e and resource scarce ecosystem. Evolving fro m traditi o nal strategies of techno log i­cal and instituti o nal measures, the indi ge­no us animal health care prac tices miti gate the inadequacy in modern veterina ry in­frastructure, ensure resource conservati o n and save ex penditure thro ugh minimal o r least in vestment. They are effec ti ve in healing di seases, do not have fin ancia l cost, and are eas il y admini strab le. How­ever, in the face o f continuall y inc reas ing populati on, poverty, de mands of pharma­ceutical indu stries , etc. , the bi oresources. particul arl y medicinal pl ants: are dw in­dling pos ing the threat of d isappearance o f indigenous prac ti ces. Since, raw mate­ri a l of the ind igeno us animal health care prac ti ces are ava iled fro m the su rro und­ing bi oresources, it is imperative to maintain them so that these practi ces are a lso continued .

Acknowledgement The authors a re thankful to the Ind ian

Council of Soc ia l Science Research (ICSSR). New Delh i for fin ancia ll y sup-

50 INDIAN J TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE. VOL 2. No. I. JANUARY 2003

porting the study. They are grateful to the Director, G.B . Pant Institute of Himala­yan Environment & Development, Kosi­Katarmal , Almora for his encouragement and providing infrastructural faci liti es to implement the project. They sincerely thank Dr. S.S. Samant, Scientist, GBPI­HED, Almora for his help in the identi f i­cati on of plants of med icinal va lue.

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