ThiS series includes unpublished 'preliminary reportsand data records not inlended Jar ~eijeral distribution.They should not be referred to In publications with­out c1earonce from the izlsu1nQ Bdbrd eslablfshment andwithout clear Indication 01 their manuscript status.

FISHERIES RESEARCH BOARDOF CANADA

MANUSCRIPT REPORT SERIES

No.Ill5

Industrial Pollution I: Effects of

Non-Metallic Contaminants

byMichael Waldichuk

Fisheries Research Board Headquarlers

Oltawa • Canada

June 1970

,..---------------------...,...-----------.--- -

This serles includes unpublished preliminary reportsand data records not intended for general distribution.They should not be referred to In publications with·out clearonce from the issuing Board establlshment andwilhout clear indication of their manuscript status.

FISHERIES RESEARCH BOARDOF CANADA

MANUSCRIPT REPORT SERIES

No. IllS

Industrial Pollution I: Effects of

Non-Metallic Contaminants

byMichael Waldichuk

Fisheries Research Board Headquarters

Ottawa - Canada

June 1970

i.

INDUSTRIAL POlLUTIOIt I: EFFECTS OF NON-METALLIC CONTAHINANTS

by Michael WaldichukFisheries Research Board of Canada

Ottawa. Ontari 0

Pollution problems are created by effluents from

three general industrial sources on the West Coast of Canada:

IL) foreBt industrieB, particularly pulp and paper mills;

(2) mining and ore proceBBing; and (3) petrolsum refining and

transport. Sfnce British ColUllilfa ts largely dependent

economi cally on Its fo~ts, the forest industries are by far

the largest polluters.

Pulp and paper mi 11 wastes produce three major

effects inimical to aquatic life: (a) diBBolved oxygen

reduation by the high bioahemiaal oxygen demand (SOD) of the

wastes; (bJ toricity from certain highly torie components;

and (a) degradation ofthe bottom by depoBition of wood

Bolide. Although the acute effects of pulp mi 11 wastes have

been largely eliminated, there is growing evidence that

there are sub-lethal effects which may affect reproduction

and migration of salmon.

To be presented at the NEERS SYMPOSIUM. "The Pollutionof Estuaries". The New England Conference center,Ourham. New Ha"1'shi re, 29 May 1970.

Ii.

Coastal waters in British Columbia respond in

different ways to disperse or retain pulp mill effluent,

depending on geographi cal confi gurati on, runoff, wi nds and ti des.

They can be roughly sub-divided into three types: (a) in~etB;

(b) confined eniJayments; and (c) tide-BWBpt channe~B. Long

inlets with little or no runoff are the worst systems for

flushing wastes. Neroutsos Inlet, on the northwest coast of

Vancouver Island, is an example of this type, and combined with

the high BOO of the sulfite wastes of the Port Alice pulp mill,

it has led to heavy pollution. On the other hand, Discovery

Passage, on the west central coast of Vancouver Island, has

swift and turbulent tidal streams which dilute and disperse the

effluent from the kraft pulp mill at Duncan Bay to virt.a1 non­

recognition a few hundred yeards away from the outfall. Many of

the typical harbour locations of pulp mills on the West Coast

are essentially confined embayments where flushing is dependent

on local winds, runoff and only weak tidal currents.

The many small changes introduced into the receiving

waters by such characteristics of pulp mill effluents as BOD,

low or high pH, dissolved organics including surfa~tants,

fiber suspensions, turbidity, colour, and foam, lead to a

gradual degradation of the aquatic environment. Control of

this long-term pollution by criteria or standards set for a

gi ven effl uent or recehi ng water characteri s ti c based on

current approaches appears to be ineffective. What is needed

is a full interdisciplinary study of the ecosystem with

ultimate development of a predictive model that can more

precisely pin down the interactions of different components of

the environment and those contributions to which the system ismost sensitive.

INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION I: EFFECTS OF NON-METALLIC CONTAMINANTS1

by Michael Wa1dichukFisheries Research Board of Canada

Ottawa t Ontari 0

INTRODUCTION

Although my talk is labelled non-metallic industrial

po 11 uti on, without specifi c reference to any geographi ca 1

location, I shall dwell a great deal on coastal pollution in

the Province of British ColUJrbia, on the West Coast of Canada,

where most of my experience with pollution work has been.

British Columbia is still sparsely populated without

vast stretches of cities fanning megalopolises or widespread

industries as in the mid-eastern provinces of Canada and in

the northeastern United States. Nevertheless, a certain

combination of factors prevails which even in a province of

some 1.5 million people, within an area larger than that of

the 13 seaboard states combined, leads to pollution problems.

These are not just aesthetic in nature, but have tangible

economi c consequences, in that they affect product; on in the

fishing industry and the quality of waters for a number of

uses.

1 Prepared for presentation to the NEERS SYMPOSIUM on"The Pollution of Estuaries", The New EnglandConference Center, Durham, New Hampshire, 29 May 1970.

.2

The major basis for the economy of British Columbia is

its forestry and forest products industries. Undesirable

109ging practices, and occasional spraying against forest

defoliators, introduce undesirable effects on the quality of the

freshwater environment. Disposal of effluent from pulp mills

can lead to unfavourable consequences in both freshwater and

coas ta1 mari ne envi ronrrents.

The fishing industry, which ranks rather low on the

economic scale for the province (less than IDS of the gross

provincial product), is heavily dependent on the five species

of Pacific salnxm. These fish are anadromousJn that they

spawn and spend at least part of their early life in fresh

water, and can be seriously affected by what goes on in both

the lakes and streams and in the coastal waters, particularly

the estuaries. Unfortunately, some of the features of the

environment, which make a particular site favourable for

salmon are also attractive for pulp and paper mills. This

conflict in multiple uses can sometimes lead to seriousproblems.

The second primary industry in British Columbia is

mining, only exceeded now in total revenue to the province

by the forest industries and tourism. Most of the mines are

in the interior of the province. Some heavy pollution has

occurred in the past in both water and atmosphere from such

mining towns as Trail and Kinberley. Serious pollution may

develop from strip mining for coal in the southeast corner

... 3

.3

of the province. However, coastal pollution from mines in British

Coluntia has not been as serious. primarily because there are fewcoastal mines, and those that are located on the seashore do not

have highly noxious wastes. The flocculating effect of sea water

assures that the suspended fines in mine tailings will become

precipitated rapidly after they reach the sea.

A large copper and molybdenum mine is now being

developed on an inlet of the northwest coast of Vancouver

Island. There is much concern from the public about the effect

thi s mi ght have on the ecology of thi s mari ne sys tern. Certai nly,

the bottom of the inlet wi 11 be blanketed by a layer of

inorganic sediments from mine tailings (initial production will

involve 33,000 tons of are per day). However, there is hope that

the salmon resource wi 11 not be adversely affected.

The third major source of pollution in the coastal

waters of British Colullt>ia is domestic sewage. This has an

undesirable effect on the aesthetic quality of the water, as

well as on its recreational use. However, the cost of these

effects is difficult to measure. The damaging effects on the

fi sheries resource I on the other hand, are qui te tang; b1e. Inthe ne; ghbourhood of 40% of the oys ter grounds on the Briti sh

Colurrbia coast are either closed or restricted, because of

high coliform counts from sewage pollution. This is perhaps

the most valid criterion for control of sewage pollution

into coastal waters. There is still an inadequate

epidemiological basis for sewage pollution control in marine

... 4

.4

waters, from the point of view of transmittal of water-borne

diseases through sea bathing.

Insofar as heavy metals are concerned, I do not wish

to trespass into the area to be covered by Dr. Goldberg. How­

ever. I do wish to say that we have had our mercury problems in

the last six months on the Canadian prairies. in Lake St. Clair

and even in parts of the Great lakes I such as western lake Erie

and northern Lake Superior. More recently, the problem has

spilled over into coastal waters. A chlor-alkali plant using

mercury cells at the head of Howe Sound in British Coluni>ia.

has led to moderate levels of mercury contamination in bottom

fishes and crabs of the Sound. In Hudson Bay. which receives

the drainage from the Saskatchewan River and lake Winnipeg via

the Nelson River. high mercury levels have just been reported

in Beluga whales. On the East Coast. the few samples that have

been taken from alT'Ong tcas ta 1 fishes and; nvertebrates indi cateno serious cause for panic, although mercury levels are

considerably aDDve background. A new chlDr-alkali plant at New

Glasgow. N.S .• which was scheduled to go on stream 1 May of

this year. has delayed startup in order to tighten controls inits waste treatrrent system.

I propose now to devote the remai nder of I1\Y

presentation to the pulp and paper pollution problems inBritish Coluni>ia.

'" 5

.5

TYPES OF PULP MILLS ANa CHARACTERISTICS OF THEIR WASTES

Basically, there are two types of pulp mills on the

Pacific Coast: Kraft (sulfate) and sulfite. Both have chemical

processes for chip digestion, which yield the industry's more

harmful wastes. The kraft process involves an alkaline digestion

procedure, with a solution of sodium hydroxide, sodium sulfate,and sodium sulfide. which yields a highly caustic residual

cooking solution known as black liquol'. This liquor is normally

evaporated to high concentration of solids and then burned in

the furnaces. The economics of the kraft-mill pulp production

is based partly on recovery of heat and chemicals from the

black liquor. Sulfite pulp, on the other hand, is produced by

an acid process which involves the cook.ing of wood chips at

high temperature and pressure in a solution of sulfurous acid

with lime or magnesium (anmonia and soda are sometirres alsoused in the sulfite process). The wastes from sulfite

production are not amenable to recovery because of corrosionand scaling in a system requiring evaporation and burning.This is particularly true of the calcium-base process.

Consequently, the wastes from sulfite mills are often

di scharged untreated into reee; vi ng waters.

One of the other pulp processes often associated

with kraft and sulfite mills, and essential for newsprint

production, is groundwood. This is a process whereby logs

are ground by large stone grinders to produce short fibers.

The groundwood is usually made up with a small percentage

of the longer fibers of sulfite or kraft pulp in order to

... 6

.6

give it strength. Groundwood pulp is one that contributes the

least in toxicity and in biochemical oxygen demand, but does

account for a great deal of the suspended wood solids which

settle out to form sludge beds in receiving waters.

The pulp from all the processes named above is usually

subjected to some degree of bleaching. It is the bleaching

constituents, including chlorine, caustic. zinc hydro5ulfite and

sodium hypochlorite, which give the bleach effluents the

hi gh taxi city. It has been found that the taxi city is associ ated

with the high or low pH characteristic of these chemicals, and

that neutralization is beneficial in rendering bleach effluent

less toxic. The combined total effluent from a kraft pulp mill

is a complex mixture of soluble components of the tree, mostly

lignin transformed in various ways by digestion, and salts used

in the cocki ng 1iquor.

The most harmful type of pulp effluent on the West

Coast comes from the sulfite pulp mills. These are generally

the older mills in the province, the newer plants being

designed almost exclusively for kraft pulp and newsprint.

Sulfite wastes contain a high concentration of wood sugars

whi ch decompose rapi dly in the recei vi ng waters and rob the

water of its dissolved oxygen. The fact that no recovery is

practised in these mi 11 s means that about hal f of the wood

used in pulping is discharged into the waters plus a

substantial quantity of chemicals (as much as 500 pounds per

ton of pulp produced).

• •. 7

.7

Kraft pulp mill wastes, on the other hand, have a

comparatively low biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) but tend to be

toxic. owing to the presence of sulfur-containing compounds. As

the kraft process is improved for better recovery, however, the

effluents are becoming less toxic and less oxygen-consuming.

Oxidation towers for atmospheric pollution control are also

he1 pful in 1oweri ng water poll ution, because they oxi di ze taxi c

sulfur compounds such as sulfides and mercaptons. The trend is

more and more toward recovery of dissolved and suspended solids

present in the various waste streams by re-circulation of theeffl uents.

CHARACTERISTICS OF OUR INSHORE COASTAL WATERS

It has been estimated that the British Columbia coast,

if all the indentations tis lands and promontories could be

stretched out in one long line, would extend nearly 17,000 miles,

or more than half way around the world at the equator. Because

of these coastal configurations, compared to a relatively straight

coast, like that of California for example, we meet with special

problems in disposal of wastes. There is not always a direct

seaward flow of fresh waters and wastes from the coast. Some

areas become better fl ushed by ti des. wi nds and ri ver runoff

than others. Our pulp mills are often located in areas that arenot particularly well flushed.

There are eleven pu1 p mi 11 sin operati on on the

British Colurmia coast, as shown in Fig. 1; one mill is underconstruction and at least one other mill is being planned .

... B

.8

All these areas of pulp mills can be conveniently classified into

three different categories of coastal environments: ILl inlets;

(21 partially-enclosed eni>ayments; and (31 tide-swept channels.

By far the greatest number of pulp mills are located in inlets.

Here, the avail abil ity of fresh water, the cheap transportati on,

and certainly not least, the availability of timber makes suitable

locations for pulp mills. Unfortunately, there are usually

estuaries at the head of these inlets whi ch support runs of

anadromous fishes.

Pulp mills located in inlets include the mills at Port

Alberni, Port Alice, Ocean Falls, and Woodfibre. In all these

locations. there is a certain alOOunt of freshwater inflow, whichmoves seaward at the surface. This proves to be a good vehicle

for the transport of wastes out to sea. Therefore, those inlets

which have little runoff, such as Neroutsos (Port Alice),

suffer from a lack of good waste removal. It should be pointed

out that the water available for di lution and transport of

wastes to sea in these inlets is present in a co~aratively thin

layer. It consists of the runoff from tributary streams plus

the sea water which has been mixed into this surface layer. In

some inlets, this fresh and brackish-water layer amounts to

little more than the flow of a moderate-sized stream. Moreover,

the effect of ti des is mai nly to move the waters back and forth

and to provide some turbulent mixing to stir the effluent into

the surface layer. But in the long inlets, tides do not assist

much with seaward displacement.

In order to co~ensate for the sea water being

relTOved in the seaward-flOtiing surface layer, there is an

... g

· g

inward-flowing deeper layer roving towards the head of the inlet.

This inward-flowing layer not only holds the subsurface wastes

from going out to sea, if the wastes happen to be mixed into

this layer, but it may even tend to concentrate the effluent at

the head of the inlet. The general mechanism of circulation as

seen in a section through a typical inlet is shown in Fig. 2.

The partially-enclosed embayments include those areas

which are conrnonly used for harbours. Pulp mills at Prince

Rupert, Crofton and perhaps Port Mellon, belong to this

category. Wastes are just not reroved very rapidly because of

the presence of is 1ands, capes and spits obs tructi ng the free

exchange of water (Fig. 3). In such areas, it is generally most

profitable to carry effluents into the deeper and swifter

channels further beyond the barrier islands, in order to take

advantage of the currents and tidal mixing available there

for dilution and dispersion. This is essentially what was

done at the Crofton Pulp Mill. The same procedure was

recommended and finally accepted by the company at the Prince

Rupert Mill, after it was found that the existing practice was

leading to gross pollution in Wainwright Basin and PorpoiseHarbour.

The most advantageous type of pulp mill waste dis­

posal location is the tide-swept channel (Fig. 4). A number

of our British Columbia coastal pulp mills are located in waters

which belong to this category. The most striking example of

such a 1oeat; on is the mi 11 at Duncan Bay, near Call1'be 11 Ri ver,

... 10

.10

where the wastes are discharged into the swift and turbulent

waters of Discovery Passage. A somewhat poorer exalfllle is the

pulp mill at Nanaimo, which discharges its wastes into

Northun'ber1and Channel. The Powell River Pulp Mill also has

the advantage of exposure to relatively well-flushed waters in

Malaspina Strait.

PRESENT PULP MILL POLLUTION PROBLEMS

We have completed an inventory of oceanographic

conditions in the vicinity of existing pulp mi lls and in areas of

anticipated new mills. These data have been processed and

published in data records. As time permits, the data are being

analyzed and used in studies examining the mechanisms of

circulation and mixing which contribute to the dilution and

dispersion of pulp mill wastes. The pollution caused by pulp

mi lls along the British Co1un'bia coast has been reviewed from

time to time in publications (Wa1dichuk, 1960, 1962, 1968) and

reports.

By far the most acute problems of pulp mill pollution

in coastal waters exist at the two main sulfite mi lls, Prince

Rupert and Port Alice. At the Prince Rupert mill (Fig. 5),

until the pipeline was installed, all the sulfite wastes were

being discharged through an enclosed series of en'bayments

(Wai nwri ght Bas i nand Porpoi se Harbour). In spi te of a

substantial tidal exchange in these waters, there was just not

enough water for dilution of the large volume of wastes dis-

... 11

.11

charged (Wa1dichuk, 1966). Their high biochemical oxygen demand

caused rapid decline in the dissolved oxygen content of the water.

A second mill was bui It in thi s 1ocati on duri ng the mi d­

sixties for production of kraft pulp. The original sulfite and

new kraft mill were to use cOIrman facilities, including those for

waste disposal.

A pipeline was installed to carry away the high-BOD

was tes, mos t ly "red water''' from the su1fi te mi 11, i "to the openwaters of Chatham Sound. During our surveys in the area in 1967.

before the new mi 11 went i "to operati on, it was qui te evi dent

that the pollution effects of the effluent were extending for

some distance into Morse Basin, an e.mayment to the north-

east of Wainwright Basin. There have been a large number of

technical problems with the pipeline installation. The poly­

ethylene line installed along the bottom of Porpoise Harbour

has burst several times, resulting in extensive repair costs.

We have not had an opportunity to fully tes t the effecti veness

of the pipeline in relieving the pollution load in Wainwright

Basin and in dispersing the high-BOD wastes in Chatham Sound.

The sulfite pulp mill at Port Alice has continually

given problems of low dissolved oxygen in the surface waters

(Fig. 6). There have been occasional fish kills reported by

the Fisheries Conservation and Protection Officer in the area .

... 12

.12

It is surprlslng that salmon can still go upstream, but there

have been no records of pink, the more sensitive species of

Pacific salmon, since regular records have been maintained inthe 1940's. The mill went into operation in 1917.

The problem here is associated with a large volume

of high-BOD waste and poor flushing characteristics of

Neroutsos Inlet (Wa1dichuk, 1958). The only solution appears

to be in changing the base of the sulfite process from

calcium to magnesium or to some other recoverable base or inapplying some suitable recovery system for the calcium-base

effluent. The former ameliorative measure is now beingactively planned.

A1berni Inlet continues to be one of the most

studied polluted bodies of water in British Columbia.

Predictions of pollution based on Tully's (1949) thesis have

checked out reasonably well with actual observati ons. The

basis for his model was that effluent would be discharged

into the upper mixed layer of A1berni Inlet (Fig. 7). The

water avai 1ab1e for dilution of effluent is that discharged

by the Somass River and the sea water entrained into the

fresh water as it moves seaward. Control of pollution to at

least the recent levels of production has been possible by

maintaining the flow of the Somass River above a certain

minimum discharge of about 1,000 c.Ls. This was accomplished

ori ginally by a make-shift dam at the Great Central Lake

discharge into the Stamp River. Eventually the B.C. Hydro

installed a regular dam which could provide better control.

... 13

.13

Unfortunately. Tully's model of ci rculation in Albem;

Inlet and his predictions of pollution from pulp mill effluent

did not include the long-term effects of solids deposited on the

bottom. We have found. in recent years. that these wood soli ds

accumul ate ins 1udge banks, undergo a decomposi ti on process andrelease gases. This putrefaction of wood solids removes 0llYgen

from the bottom water, and the release of gases (mostly methane)

probably strips some of the dissolved 0llYgen out of the water

as the gas bubbles ascend to the surface. Recent examination

by consulting engineers of the bottom-solids effect in the

0llYgen balance of the system suggests that it may contribute

substantially to the acute conditions observed in the waters at

the northeast end of Albemi Harbour. This is the location of

the long pond into which some of the effluent from the discharge

fl ume fi nds its way.

The consultants have made a nUnDer of recomendationsfor amelioration of pollution conditions in Albern; Harbour,

one of which has been the settling of solids in a mechanical

clarifier or in a settling pond. From closer examination of

the effects of wood solids deposited on the bottom, it appears

that it may not be as significant in the overall oxygen-balance

pi cture as thought earl i er. Therefore, the company accepted a

plan for biological treatment of the total waste, rather than

only settling out the wood solids. Construction of a lagoon

system is now underway with target date for completion some­

time in the latter part of 1970.

... 14

.14

Other problems of pUlp mill pollution in coastal

waters are comparatively minor. H",ever, one should not neglect

mentioning the pulp mill at Crofton (Fig. 8). Oyster gr",ers

have alleged from the outset of mill production in early 1958

that the eff1 uent has had adverse effects on thei r oys ters in

the area. Studies of water conditions in Osborn 8ay and

Stuart Channel have sh",n that relatively 1", levels of kraft

mill effluent exist in most of these waters (Wa1dichuk, 1964).

However, it seems inconceivable that the oysters in the

illlTl!diate vicinity of the outfall (Shoal Islands) would not be

affected by pollution in the long run. Part of this pollution

effect may ari se from the eff1 uent re leased from the two

outfalls discharging at a depth of 60 to 70 feet; but part of

it also may be due to the mill's water-front activities which

include unloading chip sc"'s, freighters, accidental or

deliberate disposal of wastes from pulp and newsprint cargo

shi ps, and storage of logs in the log pond adjacent to the

mill. While it has not been too clearly demonstrated

scientHi cally, the oysters appear to be in poor conditi on

most of the time, and the oyster gr",ers claim that the leases

near the pulp mill have been virtually wiped out for

cOIIITI!rcia1 production. An unknown factor here is the effect

of pulp mill effluent on the phytoplankton which serve as

food for the oysters. The effect of pulp mill effluent onthe l",er trophic levels is virtually unknown.

. .. 15

·15

NEW AND ANTICIPATED PROBLEMS

1. Gold River Pulp Mill

With the advent of interior pulp mills on the Fraser

River system. the installation of new mi 115 on the coast has

declined. In 1967, h""ever, the pulp mill at Gold River, on

the west-central coast of Vancouver Island (Fig. g), went into

production. This is a kraft mi 11 with a production of about 750

tons per day of fully bleached pulp. From examination of other

pulp mill areas along the coast and facilities used for treat­

ment and disposal of wastes into the sea, it was decided early

in the negotiations that a submarine diffuser should be used

to discharge the wastes from the Gold River Pulp Mill into deep

water. Because of the considerable depth of Mucha1at Inlet

(400 m), it was consi dered safe to use subsurface waters for

dilution of the effluent. The company accepted this proposal

and designed a scheme whereby the wastes are piped toward the

seashore through a pipeline and then through a tunnel in the

rock bluff before being released to depths of approximately

60 feet bel"" l""er 1"" tide through d""ncomer connected to a

horizontal header which diffuses the effluent. This diffuser

appears to have worked quite well, at least according to dye

tests and visual observations near the outfall. There is no

evi dence of much eff1 uent boi 1i ng to the surface and the

surface water appears to be comparatively clear. In a survey

conducted by us during August 196B and in tests conducted by

other groups, no evidence was found of low dissolved oxygen

... 16

.16

in the near-surface waters adjacent to Gold River. This suggests

that stagnation does not occur and that the effluent is being

rapidly dispersed. However, the effects of pulp mill wastes on

the enviromrent in an inlet like Mucha1at merit closer

examination to determine just how well such an effluent-

disposal system performs.

It has been suggested by sports fishermen that since

the Gold River pulp mill went into operation, there has been a

change in the migration pattern of the giant chinook sallOOn,

the falOOus Tyee. These prized specimens can only be taken

under special permit in a certain section of Muchalat Inlet for

a specified time in the fall of each year. The sports fishermen

claim that the Tyee hold out at the entrance to Muchalat Inlet

for a much longer period than they used to, and then sWiftly

IOOve through the inlet to the Gold River, their home stream,

leaving little opportunity for the anglers to catch them.

Their presence outside the special-pennit area, however, allows

the corrmercial fishermen, particularly the trollers to capture

a full quota. This presents a management problem to the

Conservati on and Protecti on Branch of the Canada Department of

Fisheries and Forestry. Consequently, the outer boundary of

the speci al-permit area has been shifted further seaward to

provide protection for the Tyee against the co_rcial

fi shery.

It is of interest to note that the IOOvement of pink

sa1100n to the Burman River, at the head of Muchalot Inlet,

... 17

.17

has been similarly delayed in the last three years. Whether the

cause for thei r delay is associ ated with that of the Tyee is

unk.nown. Nor has it been confinned by scientific research that

the Tyee are delayed by the presence of kraft mill effluent in

Muchalat Inlet. The possibility exists that their olfactory

perception is acute enough to detect the low concentrations of

effluent in the inlet waters. It is conceivable also that the

Tyee avoid entering the inlet for as long as the avoidance

reaction is greater than the spawning urge. However. the three

summers of 1967-1969 were abnormally dry, so that there may have

been a naturally-caused delay unti 1 the fi rs t autu"" rai ns

increased the flow of fresh waters in the rivers and out of the

inlet. This whole subject rrerits intensive research.

2. Kitimat Pulp Mill

A system of submarine disposal similar to that at

Gold River was recommended for the pulp mill being built at

Kitimat. on the northern mainland coast of British

Columbia (Fig. 10). However, it necessitated an extensive

pipeline along the shore to carry the effluent to some

distance beyond the head of the inlet. In re-examination of

this problem, the consultants for the company suggested

installation of a biological-treatment system. They propose

a holding pond to store the effluent for at least one day

and effect both toxicity reduction and BOO improvement.

Like Gold River, the Kitimat Pulp Mill is in an inlet and it

also benefits from greater depths and larger volumes of

... lB

.18

water than present in A1bemi Inlet. It is hoped that no serious

consequences will arise in salmon and trout runs of the KitimatRiver as a result of effluent disposal from the treatment lagoonof thi s mill.

3. 8ella Coola Pulp Mill

In preliminary stages of discussions, a pulp mill is

proposed for Bella Coola at the head of Burke Channel and North

8entinck Ann, on the central mainland coast of British Columbia

(Fig. 11). This mill could very drastically affect the runs of

pink salmon into this system. Oceanographic evidence obtained

during a five-year study of the early life of pink salmon in

the sea, suggests that there are periods when water is retained

at the surface of North Bentinck Ann for as many as three to

four days. This suggests that any effluent in the system could

be accumulated at the estuary for substantial periods and

result in unfavourable effects on both the juvenile and adultpink salmon.

It seems desirable to install treatment facilities at

the proposed Bella Coo1a mi 11 that would at least equal those

installed at the interior mills. It would even seem that a

more foolproof system of biological treatment in holding ponds

should be considered to avoid hannful effects of any accidental

spills. Also, the one-day retention applied at the Prince

George mi 11 s may be insuffi ci ent at thi s parti cular mi 11 . A

five-day retention seems most desirable. The standard of

quality applied for the interior 8.C. mills, i.e., no mortality

... 19

.19

in 65% effluent over 96 hours, should be upgraded to give zero

mortality in 100% effluent over 96-hours exposure. This level

of effluent quality can now be achieved with technology

available in pulp mills and is being demanded in those

situations on the East Coast where high levels of preservation

are required. Early negotiations with principals of this

proposed pulp mill suggest that they will be amenable to

considering the very stringent requireroonts for water quality

in the Bella Coo1a River and in North Bentinck Arm and foreffluent quality from the mill.

CHARACTERISTICS OF PULP MILL WASTES AS THEY AFFECTTAE AQUATIC ENVIRONMENT AND THE BIOTA

Some of the harmful characteri s ti cs of pulp mi 11

wastes have been alluded to already in earlier sections. These

were primarily oxygen uptake, low or high pH, and toxicity.

Other unfavourab le effects ari se out of the suspended sol i ds t

turbidity, colour and foaming properties. As recovery improves

and the primary adverse characteristics are reduced or

el im; nated t the second-order effects becorre re 1at; vely more

important. Thus, the toxi c properties of effl uent from the

kraft digesters and washers have been largely eliminated innew mills through re-circulation of wash waters and eventual

incorporation of the enriched effluent with the black liquor

from the digesters for evaporation and incineration. Evaporator

condensates with various toxic volati le components are returned

to the washers or white Liquor make-up. The bleach effluents

cannot be treated for recovery in the same way. but they can be

neutralized before discharge to render them much less toxic .

... 20

.20

With reducti on of the di sso1ved organi c cons tituents in the

effluent. not only is the toxicity minimized but the BOO is also

diminished.

The second-order effects of pulp mi 11 effl uent are

general1y those whi ch become apparent after an extended peri od of

time. They may be related to the deposition of organic solids on

the bottom. sometimes formi ng sludge beds, whi ch on decompos i ng

rob oxygen from the bottom water and release noxious gases. The

presence of fibrous mats and sludge banks may adversely affect

cOl1l11unities of bottom organi sms. In the case of fi shes, whi ch

spawn in the coastal littoral zone or in rivers, the spawning

gravels may become heavily coated by fibers and rendered

unusable for egg deposition.

Other chronic consequences may be associated with the

ill effects of the pul p mi 11 effl uent on the food organi sms of

fish and shellfish. If the sensitive species of plankton are

adversely affected to the point where they no longer serve

adequately as a food supply for the grazers. then the condition

of the dependent fish and shellfish wi 11 certainly be harmed.

This is clearly derronstrated in areas where oysters, subjected

to the i nfl uence of pul p mi 11 was tes, eventually exhi bit a

decl; ne incand; ticn factor. Effl uent caul d also be deleterious

in those coastal waters which serve as a nursery area for young

salmon before they head out for the open sea. Phytoplankton

production could be adversely influenced by a variety of

unfavourab le factors associ ated with pul p mill effl uent.

These incl ude the presence of taxi c components, reduct; on of

light penetration by turbidity and colour, and absence of the

proper combination of physical and chemical propertiesnecessary for plankton production.

. .. 21

·21

The sub-lethal stresses on fish may be as devastating

to a saloon run as an actual fish kill. For exarJ1J1e, the FraserRiver sockeye salmon migrate long distances (up to 600 miles) to

the Stuart Lakes spawning area in east-central British Columbia.

During certain years, some of the salmon do not reach the

spawning grounds because of the 1ack of an energy reserve toovercome certain natural obstacles in the system. It is

conceivable that the additional stress imposed by kraft pulp mi 11

effluent contributed by the four mills on the river system, even

though it is present in much lower than lethal concentration,

could keep even larger numbers of sockeye from reaching thespawning grounds.

Perhaps the greatest effect of kraft pulp mill

effluent is in general degradation of the aquatic environrnent.

A vari ety of effects occurs) none of whi ch by i tse 1f can be

regarded as very pronounced. The interaction of different

components in the effluent among themselves and with environ­

mental components leads to subtle ecosystem modification. No

one factor in this multiplicity of interactions can be

considered in isolation from the other factors, if a true

picture of the total ecosystem alteration is to be obtained.

The effect of pollutants on bottom organisms hasbeen often regarded as an index of degradati on of bottom

environnents. Because many organisms are sedentary, they tend

to be good integrators of any harmful effects over a period

of time. In the absence of pollution. indigenous species form

relatively stable communities. Any disturbing effect from

... 22

.22

poll utants shoul d be readily detectable. However. thi sis truer

for small streams and inlets, which respond more quickly to any

input of pollutants, than the larger coastal systems. The sapro­

bien approach to pollution studies has been most successful in

those areas where the ratio of effluent volume to receiving water

volume is c~arative1y large.

TECHNI~UES OF 10ENTlFICATlON ANO MEASUREMENTOF POL OTiONAl EFFECTS

A review of some of the methodology of evaluation of

pollution effects in the marine environment has been published

recently (Waldichuk. 1969). Emphasis will be placed here on

methodology concerning effects of pulp mill wastes.

Our early studies were strictly devoted to

measuring the obvious effects of pulp mi 11 effluents on the

marine environment (Tully, 1949; Waldichuk, 1962) and the acute

effects on organisms (Alderdice and Brett, 1957). The control

of pollution in Alberni Harbour was based on BOO of the kraft

pulp mill wastes (Greer, et aZ, 1956), inasmuch as it was

shown that toxicity would not present a serious problem

(Alderdice and Brett, 1957) if dilution was sufficient to

satisfy the BOD and sti 11 leave enough dissolved oxygen for

the fish (Fig. 12).

As new knowledge was acqu; red, it became obvi ousthat the criterion of mortality was no longer satisfactory for

... 23

.23

pollution control. Sub-lethal effects on aquatic organisms had

to be examined. It became evident from experiments (Alderdice,

1963) that the resistance of young Pacific coho salmon to a

toxic substance changes with variation of salinity, tefflJerature

and dissolved oxygen. The effect of pulp mill effluents on the

biota in an aquatic system must certainly be recognized at

concentrations before the animals cOfTllletely succunb. A nurrber

of techniques have been used on the West Coast, including

haematocrit detenninations, sustained swirrrning speed, condition

factor and fat ana1ys is. Brett (1 965) has conducted experi ments

on the swirrrning energetics of salroon in a respirometer which

could be readily adapted to studies of pollutiona1 effec.ts from

pulp mill effluents.

The Japanese have made advances ; n techn; ques to

measure the biochemical and physiological effects of pulp mill

effluents on fish. FUjiya (1961, 1965) has compared effects of

different concentrati ons of kraft mill eff1 uent on the hi s to­

chemistry of vital organs in fish and on the electrophoresis

patterns of blood serum.

The Briti sh Co1umbi a Research Council has been

applying routinely a simple technique of measuring buccal

cavity pressure in adult Pacific salmon (Schaumberg, 1967).

By means of a transducer placed appropriately in the mouth

of a fish, the pressure can be recorded as the fish is induced

; nto a cough; n9 react; on under di fferent concentrati cns of

pu1 p mi 11 eff1 uent. Whi 1e it is not fully unders tood why

... 24

.24

the fish reacts in this way, the test is quite diagnostic in that

the buccal cavity pressure created by the coughing increases with

hi gher effl uent concentrati ons.

A technique that has long been used in ""asuring non­

lethal effects of low levels of pollutants is avoidance reaction.

Early field studies (Brett and MacKinnon, 1952) in a river

tributary to A1berni Inlet showed little evidence of definite

avoidance reaction of migrating adult salmon to kraft mill

eff1 uent. However, more carefully-contro 11ed 1aboratory

studies conducted by Sprague and Drury (1969) showed that

Atlantic salmon exhibit a moderate avoidance to bleached kraft

mill effluent in the range of 10 ppm to 10% concentration.

HOlIIever, lower concentrations are not avoided. lethal

concentrations of 56% are strongly avoided. Tests were

conducted also on unbleached kraft mill effluent, with similar

results, suggesting that a constituent from the black Hquor

released in digestion is the one being avoided.

There have been few co~lete studies reported on the

bottom fauna in a marine system that span a period for some timebefore a pulp mi 11 has gone into operation and then continue

for several years during production. A pulp mi 11 on Loch Linnhe

in Scotland has received a great deal of attention since long

before it was constructed, because of the keen public interest

in maintaining the waters unpolluted for angling and other

recreation. SO"" of the results of these benthic studies will

... 25

.26

be reported by T.H. Pearson at the FAO Techni cal Conference on

Marine Pollution and its Effects on Living Resources and

Fishing in Rome, 9-18 Qecemer 1970. According to informal

reports on the study (R. E. Crai g. personal cOlnnuni cati on),

there is no startling evidence of faunal changes so far.

On the Canadian West Coast, most of the marine benthic

studies on effects of pulp mill effluents are being conducted in

deep inlets, where marked changes are not expected to show up

for a long time, if ever. Pollution of the Fraser River system

is more likely to yield evidence of bottom faunal changes in a

shorter time.

Saltkallefjord, the innermost part of Gullmarsfjord

on the west coast of Sweden north of GOteborg, is an inlet less

than 20 meters deep. It has received wastes for many years

from a sulfite pulp and paper mill via the Treki1sa1ven River

with a mean flow of 21 m3/sec. In July 1966, the production

of sulfite pulp ceased. Kaolin and fibres continue to be

discharged from the paper production.

A series of stations in Saltkallefjord have been

occupied since 1932 (Swedmark and Leppakoski, 1968). when the

number of organ; sms per square metre appeared to be lowes t onrecord. Data s; nee 1967 show defi ni te recovery ; n the number

of species and biomass of bottom organisms. particularly at

stations more than 1 km from the mouth of the river. In this

... 26

.26

inlet, the hannfu1 effect on the bottom fauna was obviously not

all caused by sol ids settling out, but could be attributed at

least partly to an inimical condition created by the sulfite

was teo

As stated earlier, pulp mill wastes, unlike heavy

metals and pesticides in large doses, do not generally lead to

acute taxi c tandi tions for aquati c organ; SITtS. Rather, they 1ead

to a general degradation of the aquatic environment over a long

period of time. A detailed ecosystem investigation is necessary.

Unti 1 only recently, when computer faci 1i ties became generally

available, studies have been confined to single, or at best. to

only a few components of the system. With more sophisticated

means of continuous data collection available and with data

processing progranmed for computers lit has now become possible

to conduct estuarine pollution research by systems analysis.

We understand that such an ecosystem study has been proposed by

the U.S. National Council on Marine Resources and Engineering

Deve1opment as one project in its Fi ve-Poi nt Interi m Mari ne

Science Program.

To execute such research. a systems approach is

mandatory, where each component of the ecosystem must be taken

into consideration. An eventual modelling of the system in

mathematical tenns would allow a predictive capability. It is

obvious that such a systems study would requi re collaboration

of an inter-disciplinary team of ecologists I biologists and

chemists with a systems modeller having a good appreciation of

ecology as well as mathematics.

27

.27

The slime bacteria, Sphael'OtiZus, are a problem

encountered in the southern states, such as Georgia, where kraft

mill effl uents discharge into camparati ve ly wann waters. Heavy

infestations of the slime have been noted from time to ti~ in

the Columbia River. Their main requirement is carbohydrate for

nutrition, which can be amply provided by both sulfite and kraft

wastes, and sui tab1e temperature for growth. They are largely

confined to fresh water, being rarely found in waters of

salinity greater than 5%. Leptothrix apparently has a wider

salinity tolerance and may be found in estuaries. A

biological slime was noted in the sulfite-polluted waters of

Neroutsos Inlet (Waldichuk, 1958), but it was not identified.

While biological slimes are not normally problems in

estuaries, where salinity is sufficiently above zero to make it

unsuitable for slime growth, they can be carried downstream

from polluted fresh water. Their main undesirable attributes

are unsightliness and clogging of fishennenls nets. In silt­

laden waters, like the Columbia and the Fraser, the nets

coated with slime pick up silt until they are weighted to the

point of sinking.

In BritiSh ColUmbia, we have not had serious slime

problems. However, it is considered possible that another

kraft pulp mi 11 at Ashcroft on the Thompson River, a tributary

of the Fraser River, could lead to development of SphaerotiZus.

The general condi ti ons in the Thompson Ri ver are ri ght for thi s

biological slime, and tests have shown that as little as 4 ppm

... 28

.2B

of BOD from pulp mill wastes can lead to SphasrotHus. In this

case, the slime would affect salmon spawning grounds downstream,

as well as being a nuisance to fishennen in the Fraser River

es tuary.

Another problem envisaged with effluent from the

proposed 700 ton/day mill at Ashcroft is temperature elevation.

There is evidence from present investigations and past data

that an inverse correlation exists between mean watertemperatures in December. January and February and the fry to

adult survival of early pink salmon runs to the Fraser River.

Low mean terrperatures are associ ated wi th good survi va1 and

high mean temperature with poor survival. Although the

meehan; sm of thi s effect is not well unders toed, any i "creasein temperature augurs poorly for the pink salmon runs.

Components in pulp mill effluents which are generally

neglected in any examination of the pollution problems they

create are the nuisance-control chemicals. The mercurialslimicides have been used for a long time for slime control.

Their use has now been generally discontinued because of the

fish pollution problem. In British Columbia, the pulp mill

industry voluntarily switched to other slimicides almost a

decade ago, because of the restriction by the Food and Drug

Administration on any mercury in food-wrapping paper. Other

slimicides, such as sodium pentachlorophenate, are highly

toxic to fish. Some create an offensive flavour in water

when chlorinated. Defoamers of various chemical cOlT1losition

have been used to reduce foams, conditioning agents are added

.•. 29

·29

to flotation save-alls to cut down fibre losses and probably other

chemicals are used from time to time to eliminate other nuisances.

CONTROL OF PULP- MILL POLLUTION

Research is a vital part of any system of pollution

control. It provides: (U a measure of the to~e1'Once of the

aquatic environment and organisms therein to various pollutants;

(2) teohniques for detection and measurement of low concentl'a­

tione of poHutant8; (3) technowgy for reduction of h<mllfu~

substances in effluents to acceptable levels; and (4) a basis

for monitoring both the r-eceiving waters and the effluent.

Proper legislation is requi red, of course t to control

pollutant discharge within permissible limits. Control of

pollution in fisheries waters of Canada has been maintained

under federal legislation, the Fisheries Act. However, any

prosecution must be based on proof of harm done to the

fisheries. This is not always easy to do in court,

particularly when there has been no fish kill and the harm done

is at the sub-lethal level. There are Amendments to the

Fisheries Act now being processed through the House of Commons

in Bill C-204, which would allow the Minister to examine plans

of industry for waste treatment before installation. In this

way, there would be officially some preventative control on

pollution.

Actually, the process of examination of plans and

negotiation with principals on waste disposal has been going on

... 30

.30

federally in British Co1urrbia for some time. Usually the

initiative has had to be taken by officials of the Department of

Fisheries and Forestry to invite company executives and theirconsultants to reveal their plans for waste disposal. Then

discussions bring all the available engineering and scientificinfonnation to bear on the problem. In this way, seriouspollution problell6 have been avoided, particularly in the saloon

ri vers of the i nteri or.

When waste disposal plans for some of the recent pulp

mi lls were negotiated, the paucity of infonnation on sub-lethal

effects of effluents on fish was appalling. Likewise, there

was an acute shortage of engineering data on waste treatrrent.Because of the large nurrber of pulp mills planned for eventual

construction on the Fraser River system, it was clear from theoutset that effluent quality would have to be controlled to

the fullest and that dilution by river water could not be used

as a bas i s for poll uti on control.

The treatrrent attainable, within economic andtechnical feasibility, in a kraft pulp mill was brought to our

attention in the early 1960's through a report on pollution

control in a West Virginia mill. It was found that five-day

retention in a pond could reduce the BOD of the effluent by

70% and leave the organisms in the receiving stream virtually

unharmed. Thus t these observations were translated intorequirements for interior pulp mills and later for coastal

.•. 31

.31

pulp mills. Basically, these were that a bioassay on a 65%

solution of the effluent in river water should give 100% survival

in 96 hours. Also, it was requi red that the fi ve-day BOD be

reduced by 60% and should not exceed 80 mg/1 at the outfall.

From examination of suspended solids reduction in pulp mills of

the Pacific Northwest states and effluent standards established

by pollution control agencies, a limit was set of 0.3 lb.

suspended solids per 1,000 U.S. gallons of effluent or 36 parts

per million.

It has been found that certain mi lls perform better

than others in terms of effluent quality, depending on the in­

plant control, the type of out-plant treatment system and the

experience of operators. Biobasins for treatment of pulp mill

wastes are in a fannative stage of development and rely on the

experience of operators rather than on practical handbooks.

The effectiveness of biobasins in effluent treatment is

dependent on the perfonnance of mi ero-organ; sms whi ch are

sensi ti ve to envi rOnilEntal changes, the organ; c content of the

effluent and the amount of nutrients provided. A culture which

has been painstakingly developed can be destroyed by sudden

changes in operating conditions and/or in properties of the

was tes.

In sorre plants the micro·organ;sms of the treatrrentponds have shown a remarkable degree of resilience and even

provi de a certai n bUffering capacity. The unbleached kraft

pulp mill at Springfield, Oregon, has a five-day treatment

... 32

.32

basin which receives influent ranging in pH from 4.5 to 12 and

averaging about 10. Without addition of acid for neutralization,

the effluent leaving the aeration pond ranges from 6.5 to g.O

and averages 7.8 in pH. It is an efficient system giving 92 to

95% 800 remeva1.

8y trial and error, it has been found that biobasins

perform best with: (aJ a minimwn of fiber and other suspended

solids preeent; (bi an opnmum level of phosphate and nitrate

nutrients; (c) adequate aeNtion; and raj good foam cover for

insulation in a cold climate.

Most of the new pulp mi lls in British Columbia have

had some success in achieving the objectives set by the

Department of Fisheries and Forestry. One of the best performers

is the Tabsis Co. pulp mill at Gold River, which produces 750

tons/day of fully-bleached kraft pulp. It has achieved a BOD of

121 mg/1 at the outfall and 73 ppm of suspended solids. This

compares with 167 mg/l and 214 ppm at the Intercontinental

Co. mi 11 and 156 mg/1 and 242 ppm at the Prince George Pulp and

Paper Co., both at Prince George, 8.C., for the same respective

parameters. For interior mills, there was 62.7% success to

November 1968 in meeting the requirement of no mortality in

65% effluent over a 96-hour period. Even in the best-controlled

mi 11 S t however, there have been aecas i onal upsets in effl uentquality. In the Kam100ps Pulp and Paper mi 11, where award­

winning pollution control has been practiced from the outset,

there was a seven-week period in 1968 when the effluent was

'" 33

.33

acutely toxic for sorre unknown reason. It has been postulated

that unseasoned chips were used in which the terpene level was

high and the terpenes were not detoxified in the biobasin.

SUtoI'IARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Pulp and paper manufacture is the major industry

contributing to water pollution in Canada. In British Columbia,

the forest industry ranks first in the economy and presents the

largest pollution problem. Mining and dorrestic sewage rank

about second and third in coastal pollution.

The largest number (11) and the oldest mills in

British COlumbia still exist on the coast. Sulfite mills, of

which there are only two, are the heaviest polluters. Many of

the old pulp mills have little or no pollution control

facility. New mills all employ the kraft pulping process and

are being required to install both in-plant and out-plant

fac; 1iti es for poll uti on contro1. Less stri ngent requ; rerrents

were placed earlier on the coastal pulp mills, than on interiormi lls, because only small stocks of salmon were usually

involved and it has always been considered that tidewaters

provide more dilution and better flushing. However, all mills

in British Colurmia are being reqUired to meet certain

objectives set by the DepartJrent of Fisheries and Forestry ineffluent quality.

. .. 34

.34

Clearly, in some of the coastal pulp mill locations,

particularly in the inlets, the amount of dilution water

available is little more than that in moderate-sized streams.

In many respects the waters discharged into inlets do not get

carri ed away as rapi dly and do not get as fully aerated as in thestreams fl owi ng through our mountai nous i nteri or. Ti de-sweptchanne ls provi de the bes t dil uti ng and di spers i ng capacity in

coastal waters. In many of the older mills, pollution

abatement often means considerable cost for improving in-plant

equipment and installation of external treatment facilities.

Pulp mill wastes largely affect the aquatic

environment and the fishes there in three ways: (Z) They

contribute te low dissolved oxygen in the water. (2) They may

be directly teric. (J) Suspended solide may blanket the

bottom" UJhich may destroy not only bottom food organisms but

also spaLJning growtds.

The pH, turbi di ty, co lour, nutri ents, surface tens; on

and foaming characteristics of the water may be affected also.

Some of these characteristics may lead to direct mortality of

fish while others may contribute to sub-lethal effects on

organisms and/or to the long-term degradation of the aquaticenvironment. The acute effects have been largely overcome by

advanced treatrrent of wastes. but the chron1 c tand; tions sti 11

persist. I'ore sophisticated techniques in clinical toxicology

are required to identify and measure the sub-lethal effects of

pollutants on aquatic organisms. These include histochemistry,

... 35

.35

blood haematocrit measurement, serum electrophoresis, enzymeact; vi ty mon; tori n9, metabol ;c measurements I and behavi ourstudies. An understandi ng of ecosys tem modifi cati on by

pollutants requires a multi-disciplinary attack with systems

analysis involving modelling for prediction purposes.

Control of pulp mill pollution in fisheries waters

of Canada has been achieved through federal legislation. the

Fi sheri es Act. Amendments to the Act. now bei ng processed

through Parliament. will allow federal officials to examine

plans of pulp mills. as well as those of other industries.

before installation to make sure that adequate pollution

control facilities are being incorporated. This will

formalize a procedure that has been practiced for some time in

British Columbia. As early as 1950. companies in this province

have been requested to fulfil certain requi rements for

po 11 uti on control. These requi rements have become part­

icularly stringent since mills have been .constructed on the

upper Fraser River, an important salmon river. To achievethese object; yes ; n effl uent qual; ty I or to approach them, ; t

has been necessary in each case to install a settling basin

or mechanical clarifier to sediment the suspended wood solids,followed by an aerated biological-treatment lagoon. At least

24-hour detent; on, and preferab ly fi ve-day storage, ; s needed

to substantially reduce the toxicity and BOD of the effluent.

The effecti veness of these treatment sys tems is dependent on

the in-plant control of waste. suspended solids in the

effluent,nutrients added in biological treatment,and constancy

of temperature, pH and other factors. The efficiency ;s often

dependent on the experience and general expertise of the

operator. Much work still needs to be done in the biological

engineering of pulp waste treatrrent.

. .. 36

.36

The trend in kraft pulp mills is toward closed systems

where most of the effluent can be re-circulated, evaporated and

burned. Future developments may see elimination of some of

the toxic chemicals used or fanned in the process, such as

sulfides in digestion and chlorinated phenols in bleaching. In

any case, we can expect to see continuing disposal of pulp and

paper mill wastes into the enviromrent for many years to cone

with some undesirable effects. The hope is that such effects

can be steadi ly minimi zed.

.,. 37

.37

REFERENCES

Alderdice, O.F. 1963. Sane effects of sil1lJltaneous variation in

salinity, temperature and dissolved oxygen on the resistance

of young coho salmon to a toxic substance. J. Fish. Res. Bd.

Canada, ~(2): 525-550.

Alderdice, O.F., and J.R. Brett. 1957. Sane effects of kraft

mill effluent on young Pacific salmon. J. Fish. Res. Bd.

Canada, l1J5): 7B3-795.

Betts, J.L., and G.G. Wilson. 1966. New methods for reducing

the tOXicity of kraft mill b1eachery wastes to young salmon.

J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada, llJ6): 813-824.

Brett, J.R. 1965. The relation of size to rate of oxygen

consumption and sustained swinming speed of sockeye salmon

(Oncorhynchu8 n8rka). J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada, llJ6):

1491-1501.

Brett, J.R., and D. MacKinnon. 1952. Some observations on

olfactory perception in migrating adult coho and spring

salmon. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada, Pac. Prog. Rept .• No. 90,

p. 21-23.

Fujiya, M. 1961. Effects of kraft pulp mill wastes on fish.

J. Water Poll. Cont. Fed., ll(9): 968-977 .

... 38

.38

Fujiya, M. 1965. Physio109ical estimation on the effects of

pollutants upon aquatic organisms. In: Advances in Water

Pollution Research. Proc. 2nd Int. Conf. Water Poll.

Res., Tokyo, 1964, Per9alOOn Press, Ltd., London, England.Vol. 3, p. 315-320.

Greer, 8.A., R.E. Gillespie and P.C. Trussell. 1956.

8i ochemi cal oxygen demand of total effl uent from full­

bleach kraft mill. TAPPI, l2.(8): 599-603.

Howard, T.E., and C.C. Walden. 1965. Pollution and toxicity

characteristics of kraft pulp mill effluents. TAPPI~:

136-141.

Schawlberg, F. 1967. An evaluation of the buccal pressure

test as an indicator of sub-lethal effects on sa1100nids

of wastewater. 34th Annual Meeting Pacific NorthwestPoll. Control Assn., Yakima, Wash.

Sprague, J.8., and O.E. Drury. 1969. Avoidance reactions of

sa lmoni d fi sh to representati ve poll utants. In: Advances

in Water Pollution Research. Proc. 4th Int. Conf. Water

Poll. Res., Prague, 1969, Pergamon Press, Ltd., OXford,England, Vol. 1, p. 169-179.

Swedmark, 8., and E. Leppakoski. 1968. Vattenvardsproblem

i Gullmarsfjorden. Vat ten ,1.; 187-193.

TUlly, J.P. 1949. Oceanography and prediction of pulp mill

pollution in A1berni Inlet. Bull. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada,No. 83, 169 p.

. .. 39

.39

Waldichuk, M. 1958. Some oceanographic characteristics of a

polluted inlet in British Colunbia. J. Mar. Res., 12.(Supp1.): 536-551.

Waldichuk, M. 1960. Effects of pulp and paper mill wastes on

the marine environrrent. Trans. 1959 Seminar, "Biological

Problems in Water Pollution". The Robert A. Taft

Sanitary Engineering Center Technical Report W60-3, p.

160-176.

Waldichuk, M. 1962. Marine aspects of pulp mill pollution.

Can. Pulp and Paper Ind., li(6): 36, 38, 40, 42-45, 48,

50, 75.

Waldichuk, M. 1962. Some water pollution problems connected

with the disposal of pulp mill wastes. Can. Fish

Culturist, No. 31, p. 3-34.

Waldichuk, M. 1964. Dispersion of kraft-mill effluent from a

submarine diffuser in Stuart Channel, British Colunbia.

J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada, n(5): 1289-1316.

Waldichuk, M. 1966. Effects of sulfite wastes in a partially

enclosed marine system in British Colurmia. J. Water

Poll. Cont. Fed., 38(9): 1484-1505.

Waldichuk, M. 1969. Effects of pollutants on marine or9anisms;

improvin9 methodology of evaluation - a review of the

literature. J. Water Poll. Cont. Fed., i!(9): 1586-1601.

.40

FIGURES

1. Chart of the British Co1urmia coastline showing the locationsof pulp mills.

2. Vertical section showing schematically the distribution andwater movement in a typical British Co1urmia inlet.

3. Schemati c di agram of a parti ally enclosed ermayment showi ngthe distribution of salinity and water fleA<.

4. Vertical section sheA<ing schematically the distribution ofsalinity, mixing, and net water JOOvelrent through a typicaltide-swept channel.

5. Track chart of stations occupied in Prince Rupert Harbourand contiguous waters, 14-21 April 1962. The pulp millsare located on Watson Island.

6. Track chart of stations occupied in Quatsino Sound, 4-5Novermer 1962. Location of the Port Alice Pulp Mill inNeroutsos Inlet is also sheA<n.

7. Section through Alberni Inlet showing vertical subdivisioninto various zones of different salinity and watermovement.

8. Track chart of stations occupied in Stuart Channel,8-11 Aprillg59. Insert shows on an enlarged chart ofOsborn Bay locations of surface samples taken on a lineacross the pul p-mi 11 outfall.

9. Track chart of stations occupied in Nootka Sound-MuchalatInlet, 6-8 October 1961. The pulp mi 11 has its outfalloff the poi nt neares t to Stati on M-l1.

10. A schematic illustration of diffusion and sea-waterentrainment above a diffuser discharging waste effluentin deep water.

11. Track chart of stations occupied in Douglas Channe1­Kitimat Arm, 16-19 October 1964. A pulp mi 11 is underconstruction on the Ki timat R. at about the northernlimit of the chart.

12. Variation of total dissolved oJlYgen availability, afterfish requirements are rret, with Somass River discharge.

tI CEN

.41

CO"ITA\. IRITISIol COLUWSIA pULP MILL LOCATIO""

'uvoo,u.t'.O"."'TiOto •

"""IlIr,4tllflllCllCOIISl"",,_ 0l'\IU'lIlU.1l.'LIo..... 0.

SCALE Of OI$T.... (£

CO· j " i,! I ~i<V .......--'-........'-'-....L-.........-'--'-

~~/~

Figure 1. - Chart of the British Columbia coastline showing the locations ofpulp mill••

.42

Figure 2. Vertical section showing schematically the distributionand water movement in a typical British Colunbia inlet.

.43

Itlll

"II

---------~

Figure 3. Schematic diagram of a partially enclosed enbayment showingthe distribution of salinity and water flow.

.44

Figure 4. Vertical section showing schematically the distributionof salinity, mixing, and net water movement through atypical tide-swept channel.

~

-~4-ii!O'

130-20' 1)0-10'

Track chart of stations occupied ln Prince Rupert Harbourand contl guous waters. 14-21 Ap.,l 1962. The pul p mi 11 sare located on Watson Island.

_!'o.

Figure 5.

14·ii!1 APRIL 19(;ii!

PRINCE RUPERT$colc ,n 1'I0uI,cal m,lu

Pt~11v 0 I ii! t "S II I A J. Al'lcllo' 5101'0"

.vi JT. \} \l -'i:Wi'

'110" 'I{-rx'""..,,~~~ .... ~

\\\'''''''"''',. ,,' l';. ';.~' IJ ~

",,,., \. ".! ~\. •0((" ~ -; ~~'1,-.-~-,-~br-.--~ -

~31'" •

I---1

\.'t/-./"""

:,::.

<-.t·;,>

Figure 6.

aUATSINO SOUND

S..loi ....·., .. fIllI..

q I , i 4 JL." lj~. ~..

.... ~hlt.o"'.

--10 •·20 .

Track chart of stations occupied in Quatsino Sound,4-5 Noveniler 1962. Location of the Port Alice Pulp Millin Neroutsos Inlet is also shown.

...'"

ALB f R

,..... 1::i,::.W..,:?i

.47

I N LET

Figure 7. Section through Alberni Inlet sh",ing verticalsubdivision into various zones of differentsalinity and water ""ve""nt.

CHANNELSTUART5<010 ,~ ftO.,'COI

2""I.. ~

o .' __~~- ~_"" •• l,..

OOh'ft_.20h...._

LEGll(O

J1[~STATlO"SUJl'A([ SlAnON

AHCI10III ITATlOH

I" ...

.48

Figure 8.I 8-11 Aprilied in Stuar~ Channc 'Bay locationsT'.ck chart of stati~~"~C:~~arged chart o~h~S~~~~_mil1 outfall.11)59. In5crt shows aken on a line acrossof 5urface samples t

MUCHALAT INLET.CO·......"..,' ..

, I , J

6-8 OCTOBER 1961

£ APlch,r $lolloPl

ISLAND

,J 'l~'~ 'l~'n' ,r~"o' I

Figure 9. Track chart of stations occupied in Nootka Sound-Muchalat Inlet,6.8 October 1961. The pulp mill has its outfall off the pointnearest to Station M-ll.

ii;

.50

L-- J

Figure 10. A schematic illustration of diffusion and sea-waterentrai nrrent above a di ffuser di scharg; ng was teeffl uent in deep water.

.51

DOUGLAS CHANNEL_.._­L-! 't'

...tOClllflDll ....I __ I', ...

Figure 11. Track chart of stations occupied in Douglas Channel­Kitimat Ann, 16-19 October 1964. A pulp mill is underconstruction on the Kitimat R. at about the northernlimit of the chart.

i-w

I

I

.52

I''--~--'--''''''--'------'--...--r---.---,

12

z~

oo

~::: 4<;

TOTAL DISSOLVED OXYGEN SUPPLY

DISSOLVEO OXYGENAVAILABILITY AFTER FISH

REOUIREMENTS SATISfiED

DISSOlVED OXYGEN REOUIREMENTFOR STABILIZATION OF WASTEFADM 500 TONS/DAY OF BLEACHEDI<RAfT PULP

500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000SOMA$S RIVER DISCHARGE -C·F·S·

Figure 12. Variation of total dissolved oxygen availability.after fish requirements are !ret. with SomassRiver discharge.