innovative practices in paratransit services€¦ · report, one of the outcomes of the research,...

Innovative Practices in Paratransit Services

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I N N OV AT I V E P R A C T I C E S I N PA R AT R A N S I T S E RV I C E S

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In 2002, under a contract from Easter Seals Project ACTION, Multisystems completed a national study of ADAcomplementary paratransit practice. Through surveys and site visits, an extensive amount of information was gatheredabout innovative practices being used in the delivery of ADA complementary paratransit throughout the country. Thisreport, one of the outcomes of the research, is designed for transit and paratransit providers and people with disabilities andagencies that serve them. It is a resource that can assist in having more efficient and productive paratransit operations.

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on Paratransit, the Community TransportationAssociation of America (CTAA) and Easter SealsProject ACTION (ESPA).

This volume is organized into four main sectionsrepresenting elements deemed critical to thesuccessful operation of paratransit systemsincluding:

■ One Paratransit Service Operations —techniques and strategies for achievinggreater efficiency in day-to-dayoperations

■ Two Paratransit Service Management —methods for determining quality andperformance standards and measuringall aspects of daily operations

■ Three Paratransit System Design — struc-tures for organization and management,types of services provided by paratransitsystems, procurement options and

strategies and a quick-referencetroubleshooting guide for maximizingservice quality and productivity

■ Four Supplementary and AssociatedPrograms — programs that can bedeveloped and implemented in existingsystems and community resources toprovide transportation to entirecommunities

Another purpose of this project was to begin thedevelopment of a paratransit database tocomplement information already collected by theNational Transit Database and in particular, permitagencies providing paratransit services to engagein peer comparisons. With the availability of asearchable/sortable database of ADAcomplementary paratransit characteristics, transitagencies and consumers would be better able tounderstand the options available for designing anddelivering services and to be able to identify those

The phrase “innovative practices” wasselected with great care by Multisystems.

The descriptor “best” was rejected because whatworks best in one community may not work inanother. However, practices identified in somecommunities were found to represent progressivethinking and thus worthy of the word“innovative.” Finally, transit systems themselvesare in the best position to determine effectivepractices for their communities as they select andimplement their choice of “innovations.”

Also included in this document are innovativepractices identified through related work and byparticipants in a 1997 workshop conducted inMonterrey, Calif., titled “Developing andDisseminating Creative Paratransit OperationsIdeas.” More than 100 invited paratransitprofessionals also included representatives of theFederal Transit Administration (FTA), theTransportation Research Board (TRB) Committee


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systems that appear to provide high quality andinnovative services that meet the needs ofcustomers. As of the date of this publication,work is continuing under another Easter SealsProject ACTION contract to refine the databasesystem, acquire additional information to enter,and prepare it for national use. Information aboutthe system becoming operational will beannounced through Easter Seals Project ACTION’smultiple communication channels including theweb site (www.projectaction.org), newsletter andcontacts with transportation and disabilityorganizations.

Data collection for this project began with a mailsurvey developed through a task force representingthe disability and transportation communities (see below).

Quantitative and qualitative questions in 11categories were distributed to 50 transit agenciesrepresenting a wide variety of geographic andoperating characteristics to pilot test theinstrument. Twenty-eight surveys were returnedrepresenting large urban, small urban and ruralsystems; different geographic areas of the country;systems with ADA complementary paratransitonly and those that also provide other paratransitservices; service directly operated by the transit

agency, contracted service and brokerage;dedicated versus non-dedicated fleets and systemsthat provided pre-ADA paratransit versus thosethat began paratransit service in response to theADA. Five of the agencies that returned thesurveys were selected for site visits that alsoproduced findings included in this document.

A complete report of the project, including thedata collection methodology, instrument design, and sample screen prints displaying dataare available on ESPA’s web site atwww.projectaction.org.

ESPA would like to extend special thanks toRosemary G. Mathias, Senior Associate withMultisystems, for her fine work in conducting thisproject. In addition, appreciation is extended tothe members of the task force that ably assistedand guided the development of the surveyinstrument. These individuals and the groups theyrepresented are:

■ American Public Transportation AssociationRichard De Rock, LINK, Wenatchee, Wash.Tina Morris, Transit Authority of River City,Louisville, Ky.

■ Disability Rights Education and Defense FundMarilyn Golden, Policy Analyst, Oakland Calif.

■ National Council on Independent Living Paul Spooner, Metrowest Center forIndependent Living, Framingham, Mass.

■ Transit Research Committee on ParatransitRoy Glauthier, Consultant, Costa Mesa,CaliforniaPam Ward, Ottumwa Transit Authority,Ottumwa, Iowa

■ Easter Seals Project ACTIONDoug Douglas, Dallas Area Rapid Transit,Dallas, TexasAlan Smith, Metro Regional Transit Authority,Akron, Ohio


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INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i

PARATRANSIT SERVICE OPERATIONS

Eligibility Determination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

In-Person Interviews

Functional Assessments

Public Information and Outreach

Trip-by-Trip Eligibility Determinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Coordinating Eligibility Determination and Travel Training Efforts . . . . . . 3

Reservations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Using Appointment Times as Well as Requested Pick-Up Times . . . . . . . 4

Establishing Compatible Pick-Up and Vehicle Wait-Time Policies . . . . . . 4

Verifying Trip Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Automated Booking Systems and Automated Trip

Confirmation/Cancellation Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Scheduling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Keeping Drivers and Riders in Sync on Pick-Up Times. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Reviewing Long Trips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Managing Subscription Services. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Changes to subscription trips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Interruptions of subscription service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Frequent cancellations or no-shows. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Reviewing Automatically Generated Schedules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Refine Schedules Using Input from Contractors and Operators . . . . . . . . 9

Automated Callbacks with Estimated Pick-Up Times. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Dispatching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Maintaining Control of All Runs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Stop-by-stop driver call-ins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Problem-only radio call-ins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Mobile data terminals (MDTs) or mobile data computers (MDCs). . 10

Pick-Up Notification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Will-Call Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

PARATRANSIT SERVICE MONITORING & MANAGEMENT

Service Quality Standards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Telephone Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

On-Time Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Travel Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Trip Denials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Types of trip denials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Planning and budgeting service capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Service Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Performance Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Data Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Service Quality Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Field Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

On-Street Driver Observation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Office-place monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Secret rider/client programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Contract Provider Reviews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

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Driver qualification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Vehicle standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Customer Comments and Complaints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

PARATRANSIT SYSTEM DESIGN

Management/Organizational Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Choosing the Right Management Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

In-house/direct management operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Transportation management/brokerage firm operation . . . . . . . . . . 24

Appropriate Services/Service Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Allocation of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Other Design Considerations Within a Paratransit System . . . . . . . . . . 29

Procurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

Set Rate Ceilings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

Avoid “low-ball” bids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

Minimize bidder risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

Per-hourly vs. per-trip service contracts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

Market share control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Trouble shooting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Local Service Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Mobility Managers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Local, regional and state transportation programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Additional community outreach transportation programs . . . . . . . . 35

Increase Efficiency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Improve Location Accessibility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Public Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Fixed-Route Innovations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Provision of Accessible Fixed-Route Information. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Improving Bus Stop Accessibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Automated Stop Announcements and Vehicle Identification. . . . . . . . . 37

Kneeling Buses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Low-Floor Buses and Universal Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

Wheelchair and Scooter Securement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

Passenger Assistance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

FEDERAL TRANSIT ADMINISTRATION ADA INFORMATION

Published by the Office of Civil Rights • Volume I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

Office of Civil Rights • Volume 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

ADA Business Brief: Service Animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

TABLES

Advantages & Disadvantages of Centralized Reservations. . . . . . . . . . . 27

Advantages/Disadvantages of Centralized Scheduling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Productivity – Troubleshooting Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32


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A more accurate and efficient determination ofapplicant eligibility can be accomplished throughin-person interviews, functional assessments andpublic outreach programs. Employers do not hireemployees based solely on a résumé; thesuccessful paratransit system administrator shoulduse information gathered in interviews todetermine which applicants can benefit most fromthe service and which would be better served byexisting, fixed-route systems. Interviews andfunctional assessments can be conducted in anumber of ways and many systems will benefitfrom a combination of some or all of thefollowing.

In-Person Interviews

■ Maintain a policy to contact every applicant bytelephone to discuss the information includedin their paper applications.

■ Ask all applicants to participate in in-personinterviews to discuss travel needs and issues.

■ Some situations may require in-homeinterviews, from which a representative gathersinformation about the location, specific needsand/or obstacles faced by the applicant.

Functional Assessments

A growing number of paratransit systems haveimplemented eligibility determination processesthat involve in-person interviews combined withfunctional assessments. Various tools are at yourdisposal to assess the special needs of applicants.

■ Work with local professionals to assessphysical and functional travel abilities.

■ Easter Seals Project ACTION’s resource titledFunctional Assessment of Cognitive TransitSkills (FACTS) can be a valuable tool.

■ Supplement information from in-personinterviews with information from professionalsfamiliar with the applicant—particularly forapplicants with vision disabilities, mentalillness and certain other health conditions.

Public Information and Outreach

Public information and outreach also can be usedto educate potential applicants and disabilityagencies about ADA paratransit eligibility.Straightforward public information about ADAparatransit eligibility, written in non-regulatorylanguage, is an effective means to educate thecommunity and maximize resources. Greaterpublic awareness of eligibility requirements canhelp reduce the number of applications received

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PARATRANSITSERVICEOPERATIONS

ELIGIBILITY DETERMINATION

Maintaining strict guidelines that complywith both ADA and U.S. Department of

Transportation regulations is vitally important tosuccessfully implementing ADA paratransitservices. A strict and thorough eligibilitydetermination process will help agencies allocateresources to serve people who truly need theparatransit service and identify those individualsable to use fixed-route service when combinedwith support services such as travel training andtrip planning.

Because many applicants may have limited or noexperience using fixed-route service, the key to athorough eligibility determination process isdetailed follow-up and contact with applicantsafter the initial paper application form is filed.Each applicant is unique. Providing complete anddetailed information about all issues that affecttheir travel on a short application form may bedifficult.


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from individuals who are able to fully use fixed-route service. Resources can then be used tobetter serve those applicants that do qualify.

■ A detailed service brochure with a “pre-application” can be effective in educating localcommunities.

■ Conduct seminars for local agencies to educatethem about ADA paratransit eligibility criteria.

As the community better understands ADAparatransit eligibility, the mark of a thoroughdetermination process is the ability to understandwhen and under what conditions ADAcomplementary paratransit is needed and whenapplicants are able to use accessible fixed-routeservice. Thorough determination processes areconsistently finding that 20 to 30 percent or moreof all applicants are able to use fixed-route serviceat least some of the time, but need paratransitunder certain conditions.

Trip-by-Trip Eligibility Determinations

For riders who are able to use fixed-route servicesome of the time, conditional and trip-by-tripeligibility may be determined. Such a determina-tion requires its own criteria and demandsadditional steps. Conditional and trip-by-tripeligibility can be managed as follows:

■ Identify specific barriers that prevent ridersfrom using fixed-route service during theeligibility determination process. For example, aperson may be unable to use fixed-routeservices (eligible for paratransit) if they have totravel more than 1/2 mile to get to/from busstops, if there are not accessible paths of travelto/from bus stops, or if there is snow or ice.

■ Riders who are sometimes able to use fixed-route service should be designated as“conditionally eligible” in the system and givena code identifying the types of barriers thatprevent fixed-route use.

■ Outside of the reservations/scheduling process,the transit system evaluates trips thatconditionally eligible riders make. This requiresdetermining the distance to/from stops,evaluating the path of travel to/from stops, etc.As specific trips are evaluated, they aredetermined either to be paratransit eligible ornot and the exact origin and destination isrecorded in the system. A “trip eligibility file”

is thus created in the system that might looksomething like:

10 Elm St. to 50 Main Street — eligible (C5)

10 Elm St. to 2100 Common Avenue — not eligible

■ The “C5” notation after the first trip is a codethat indicates why the trip cannot be made onfixed route (e.g., not yet accessible). When thetrip is booked, the code is entered into a“conditional trip eligibility” field. By recordinghow many trips are provided for conditionallyeligible riders and what barriers preventedfixed-route use, the system is then able toidentify and correct barriers that are creatingsignificant paratransit demand. In the aboveexample, if this person makes this trip daily, itmay be more cost-effective to put accessiblebuses on this route.

■ When conditionally eligible riders call to booktrips, the reservationist opens the trip eligibilityfile to see if the trip requested has already beenevaluated. Depending on whether the trip islisted as eligible or ineligible, the reservationistaccepts or denies the trip accordingly.

■ If the origin and destination of the triprequested is not in the trip eligibility file, thereservationist tells the person the trip has notyet been evaluated, books the paratransit trip


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as presumptively eligible and tells the personthe agency will evaluate the trip as soon aspossible and will let them know if a fixed-routeoption exists.

Coordinating Eligibility Determinationand Travel Training Efforts

The eligibility process can also be used to identifythe potential to use fixed-route services with someinstruction. Individuals who might benefit frominstruction or training are then offered this service.A growing number of transit agencies arecontracting with professionals and agencies in thecommunity to make travel training available. Someagencies are hiring travel trainers and developingtravel-training services in-house.

Systems with comprehensive travel trainingprograms can offer many different types and levelsof instruction. For individuals with physicaldisabilities or seniors who are simply unfamiliarwith how to use fixed-route services and who maybe anxious about trying the fixed-route system,more general transit system orientation trainingmay be offered as follows.

■ Customer service staff can travel withindividuals on one or two trips and provideindividual instruction in planning trips andunderstanding route and schedule information.

■ Volunteers can be used to train seniors how touse fixed-route services.

■ Group instruction followed by planned outingsusing fixed-route buses. Work with schoolsand senior centers as well as other local com-munity agencies that are interested in providingthese general transit orientation sessions.

■ For individuals with cognitive disabilities, sometransit systems contract with agencies thathave experienced travel trainers available toprovide more extensive one-on-one instruction.The Southwestern Ohio Regional TransitAuthority (SORTA) in Cincinnati, Ohio, has aparticularly innovative arrangement. Thecontractor that makes ADA paratransiteligibility determinations also provides traveltraining. Two full-time, trained travel trainerssplit their time between conducting eligibilityinterviews and assessments and providing one-on-one travel training.)

■ For people with vision disabilities, transitsystems typically contract with local agenciesfor expanded orientation and mobility training.Support from transit allows agencies to offerinstruction to many more people and allowsthe transit agencies to make referrals ifindividuals who are interested in instructionare identified in the eligibility determinationprocess.

Travel training has proven to be very cost effective.For an annual expenditure of $161,580 on traveltraining in 2000, Seattle Metro estimated that itsaved $417,000 in paratransit costs by successfullytransitioning individuals to the fixed-route system.SORTA in Cincinnati reported that by spending$84,000 a year on training, it saves about$250,000–$300,000 a year on paratransit. BrowardCounty Transit estimated that it saves $2,300 peryear for each person who is successfully traveltrained.

RESERVATIONS

The relationship among reservations, sched-uling, dispatch and drivers is a key predictor

in the overall performance of any paratransitsystem. Reservationists receive and recordcustomer requests for trips. That information isused to create schedules, either using a computeror developing them manually. Drivers then use theschedules to provide service to their customers.Dispatch troubleshoots and manages the deliveryof trips in real time. Any mistake made inreservations will have a ripple effect throughoutthe entire process. At best, a reservations mistakeis an inconvenience. At worst, a reservationsmistake means a missed trip, wasted resourcesand unhappy passengers and drivers.


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Using Appointment Times as Well as Requested Pick-Up Times

It is important to ensure that people are not onlypicked up on time but that they get to where theyare going on time as well.

When most people make plans to travel, theythink first about the time that they need to be at their destination and then plan backward to thetime that they need to leave. This is certainly thecase when people use fixed-route service—theyfirst look at the schedule to see when the bus gets to the stop near their destination and thenread backwards to find the time they need tocatch the bus.

Both desired pick-up times and appointment/desired arrival times should be considered inparatransit operations. USDOT ADA regulationsstate that any pattern or practice that limits theavailability of service to eligible candidates isprohibited. Effective use of both pick-up andarrival times for scheduling purposes can increaseon-time performance and still achieve efficientscheduling.

Some systems have argued that riders need tounderstand that the service is a shared-ride serviceand that they need to allow adequate time to getto their destinations when placing reservations.

Given the complexity of paratransit operations,placing the burden of estimating appropriate pick-up times on riders can present difficulties.Most riders don’t fully understand the implicationsof “shared-ride service” let alone understanding all of the related scheduling, pick-up and travel-time policies. The paratransit agency shouldprovide riders with information that clarifies thesestrategies.

■ On outgoing trips, riders should makereservations using either a requested pick-uptime or a desired arrival/appointment time. If the rider needs to be at the destination at aspecific time, the system should calculate apick-up time, which can then be offered to therider. Both the negotiated pick-up time and the appointment time should be captured andconsidered in subsequent scheduling andservice delivery. Additionally, “windows” canbe set around each time to allow for groupingof trips. For example, there could be a 30-minute window around the drop-off/appointment time that would allow the systemto get the person there up to 30 minutes early(but 0 minutes late). A 30-minute pick-upwindow also could be set (e.g., 15 minutesbefore to 15 minutes after the negotiated pick-up time).

■ Conversely, if a caller wants to be picked up ata specific time, it is still a good idea for thereservationist to ask whether there is a set timethat the person needs to arrive. Then thereservationist can be sure that the person isleaving enough time to be at his or herdestination on time.

■ Systems that fail to request or recordappointment/desired arrival times may uninten-tionally be providing poor on-time service ifpassengers are consistently late arriving at theirdestinations.

Establishing Compatible Pick-Up andVehicle Wait-Time Policies

To operate paratransit services efficiently, it isimportant that vehicles do not linger for anexcessive amount of time at pick-up locations.Some riders have difficulty understanding both theon-time pick-up window and the vehicle wait-timepolicy. For example, consider a system that has a30-minute pick-up window “centered” on thenegotiated pick-up time (i.e., the vehicle can arriveup to 15 minutes before or after the negotiatedpick-up time) and has a 5-minute vehicle waittime policy. Vehicles may arrive 15 minutes beforethe time given to riders and could leave 10minutes before the negotiated time and record therider as a no-show. Even though riders may be


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told they need to be ready 15 minutes before, theymay not understand that the vehicle can leavebefore the negotiated pick-up time they have beengiven, as long as the vehicle arrives within thewindow and waits for the prescribed time.

To address this issue, adjustments to pick-upwindow policy or changes in the way that pick-uptimes are stated when confirming reservations isin order. Two possible approaches are describedbelow.

■ Give callers a pick-up window rather than aspecific time. For example, if the automatedsystem suggests a 9 a.m. pick-up time, thereservationist tells callers that they will bepicked up between 8:45 and 9:15 a.m.

■ Change the pick-up window to prohibitvehicles from arriving before the negotiatedpick-up time. Rather than having a 30-minutewindow centered on the negotiated pick-uptime, the window might allow vehicles toarrive no earlier than the negotiated pick-uptime and up to 30 minutes after. (Note that ifthis approach is used, it is even moreimportant to pay attention to appointment/desired arrival times. Pushing the on-timeperformance window forward may causearrivals to be 15 to 30 minutes later thanscheduled.)

■ In either case, it is important to constantlyeducate and inform riders about the pick-upwindow. Reservationists should make sure thatthe rider understands the pick-up window bysaying, “You have a 9 a.m. pick-up, whichmeans that you need to be ready between 8:45and 9:15 a.m.”

■ Reservationists also should make sure thatriders are aware that the driver can only wait ashort time (e.g., 5 minutes) when it arrivesduring the pick-up window.

Verifying Trip Information

The paratransit trip booking process can berelatively complex. It is easy for incorrect informa-tion to be entered or for riders to misunderstandquestions or times. Reservationists might assumethat the trip is originating from the person’s home,use the home address that automatically comesup on the client screen without verifying theorigin of the trip. Riders might hear so many timesmentioned as the reservationist searches for tripoptions that they end up not writing down thefinal negotiated pick-up time. To ensure that thereservationist has booked the trip correctly andthat the rider has recorded the correct times, thereservationist should repeat key trip informationback to the rider at the end of the bookingprocess.

■ Key information includes pick-up andestimated arrival times, pick-up and drop-offaddresses, how many people will be traveling(rider, companions, PCA), the fare for the tripsand other key information.

■ To emphasize the importance of verifying tripinformation, some systems prominently displayposters or signs that say things like “ALWAYSVERIFY” in the reservations area.

■ State-of-the-art reservations/scheduling soft-ware systems have a screen that provides tripsummary information to facilitate this process.

It is also important that riders write down tripinformation so that they remember it correctly onthe day of service. Several methods can beimplemented to encourage this process.

■ Provide a Rider Guide that urges riders to havea pen and paper handy when they call to makea reservation.

■ Print trip information note pads and send themto registered riders. The pads may list keyparatransit telephone numbers and providespaces for the rider to record the trip date, thepick-up times and other information.

■ To reduce problems with late return rides fromdoctors’ offices, consider providing riders withreturn-ride appointment cards. The passenger


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gives the card to the medical officereceptionist. The card indicates at what timethe passenger is scheduled to be picked up andasks the office to notify the transit agency ifthe appointment is running late.

Automated Booking Systems and Automated TripConfirmation/Cancellation Lines

Automated telephone services can help improvetelephone access and service. Interactive voiceresponse (IVR) systems allow riders to check onscheduled ride times and to cancel trips withoutwaiting on hold for a reservationist.

IVR telephone systems can also be used forscheduling, confirming and canceling service.Consideration should be made to make thesystem accessible from touch-tone, rotary andpulse telephones as well as when automatedservice can be accessed (e.g., seven days a weekanytime between 2 a.m. and midnight).

SCHEDULING

Sometimes scheduling is performed byschedulers whose only role is to assign trips

to runs based on reservation requests. As auto-mated scheduling has become more common, therole of schedulers has changed from creating runsto managing runs. In addition, sometimes reser-vationists now perform tasks more traditionallyhandled by schedulers. No matter what thearrangement, there is no substitute for the humanelement. Computers can be programmed togenerate schedules based on parameters (such assystem speed), but humans still must review theschedules and manage the process. Regularlymonitoring schedules to ensure that pick-up timesare met, ride lengths are reasonable and schedulesare manageable within the system is critical to asuccessful paratransit system.

Keeping Drivers and Riders in Sync on Pick-Up Times

In a shared-ride paratransit operation, manydifferent trip times must be recorded and used.The various times can be defined as follows.

■ Requested pick-up or drop-off time: The timerequested by the rider. These requested timesmight be adjusted as reservationists search fortrip options. At the end of the booking

process, a pick-up time is agreed upon. This isusually referred to as the pick-up window.

■ Negotiated pick-up time. The time agreedupon between the rider and reservationist andis based on available trip options. (Thenegotiated time may undergo furtheradjustment within the pick-up window whengrouped with other trips. The adjustment maybe made by schedulers as they review andmake final changes to runs or by an automatedscheduling system.)

■ Scheduled pick-up time. The time that thesystem estimates the driver will actually makethe pick-up.

■ Estimated time of arrival (ETA). Thecomputer may add this time based on thescheduled pick-up time.

■ Actual pick-up time. The time recorded by adriver when the actual pick-up and drop-off ismade.

With so many different times and with potentialchanges in times as schedules are developed, it iseasy for riders and drivers/dispatchers to end upwith different understandings of when pick-upsare to be made. The most common problem isdouble use of the scheduling and on-timeperformance windows. For example, systems oftenwill allow schedulers to adjust pick-up times


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within a certain window, often the same as thenegotiated pick-up window. Drivers also aretypically given an on-time pick-up window basedon the final scheduled pick-up time.

■ For example, suppose a rider has been given apick-up time of 9 a.m. (the negotiated pick-uptime) and has been told to be ready between8:45 and 9:15 a.m. If the system allowsschedulers to adjust the pick-up time by up to15 minutes on either side of the negotiatedpick-up time, the scheduled pick-up time couldbe moved to 9:15 a.m., which is still withinthe negotiated pick-up window. However, ifthis happens, the driver might assume an on-time pick-up window of +/– 15 minutes,based on the new scheduled pick-up time of9:15. As a result, the driver could make thepick-up as late as 9:30 (30 minutes after thenegotiated pick-up time and 15 minutesbeyond the negotiated pick-up window) andthink that it is still within the on-time window.However, the pick-up actually would be 15minutes late. To further complicate matters,the scheduling program might even generate adifferent ETA based on the scheduled pick-uptime!

The following approaches may be used to makesure that drivers and riders share the same under-standing of pick-up times.

■ Computer scheduling programs should retainthe original negotiated pick-up time and theassociated on-time window. Passengers shouldbe notified of any scheduling changes thatwould significantly move their pick-up outsideof that window.

■ List both the scheduled and the negotiatedtimes on manifests. Drivers are instructed tocomplete the run based on the scheduled timein bold (e.g., 11:15) but to be aware of theoriginally negotiated time (11:00) if they needto vary from the scheduled time.

■ Show the scheduled times on manifests andthen show the on-time windows based on thenegotiated times. For example, a rider mayhave been given a negotiated pick-up time of 11:00 and told to be ready between 10:45and 11:15. The final scheduled time might be11:15. Thus, in addition to being given the11:15 scheduled time, the driver would begiven the negotiated window for this trip of10:45 to 11:15, which lets the driver know heor she can show up before the scheduled timebut not after.

■ Use different font sizes and enhancementfeatures (bold, underline) to emphasize timeson the manifest. Be sure drivers are well trainedand understand what the emphasized timemeans.

Reviewing Long Trips

To meet all trip requests and provide service ascost efficiently as possible, more grouping of tripsmay be necessary and ride times may increase.Standards should be set that limit ride length. To ensure that ride times are not excessively long,ride lengths should be monitored regularly toidentify scheduled trips that last longer than thesystem standard. For instance, it may be feasibleto ensure that ride lengths do not exceed 1.5times the same trip on a fixed route, includingwait times and transfers. Schedulers should reviewlengthy trips to determine whether the ride timeappears to be reasonable. In some cases, the tripsmay be inherently long or regional trips and longride times may be appropriate. In other cases, the trip may just be poorly scheduled and on avery circuitous route. If this is the case, thescheduler should attempt to reschedule the trip ona better run.

In addition to looking for single occurrences oflong trips, regularly review group runs. Riders whoare the “first on, last off” on these regular groupruns usually constitute many of the long trips inthe system. By regularly reviewing the on-boardtime of the riders picked up first (or dropped offlast) on these runs you can keep travel timeswithin acceptable limits. The longest ride times on these runs should be compared to fixed-route


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travel times using the system’s ride-timestandards. When the ride times exceed thestandard, the group run should be split ontodifferent vehicles.

Identify runs that “double back.” That is, thevehicle may be scheduled to pass close by a rider’sdestination on the way to another pick-up/drop-off and the rider must “double back” to finallycomplete the trip. Even if the total travel time isnot excessive, this approach may anger riders whocannot understand why they are kept on board. In these instances, consider more direct routing.Some state-of-the-art scheduling systems alsohave parameters that can be set to minimize thisfrom happening.

Managing Subscription Services

In most systems, subscription service (also calledstanding orders) accounts for more than 50 percent of the total number of trips provided.Typically, these trips are placed on runs beforeother non-subscription trip requests are receivedand form the base level of service around whichother trips are scheduled. Doing an effective job ofscheduling subscription trips can, therefore, have a significantly positive impact on system-wideproductivity and service quality. However, if notwell managed, subscription service can contributeto service problems including trip denials. If riders

are always placed on schedules but then regularlycancel or fail to show for scheduled rides, this canhave a negative impact on efficiency. Similarly, ifsubscription trip times are not effectivelynegotiated, they may not fit well with otherdemand and can lead to inefficient runs.

The first step in managing subscription service isto clearly define what trips qualify for thisdesignation. The USDOT ADA regulations allowfor trip-purpose restrictions, priorities, waiting listsand other capacity constraints for subscriptionservice. Every system should have a clearlydefined policy for subscription service thataddresses route, frequency and trip-purposeissues. For example:

■ Subscription trips must be from the sameorigin to the same destination at the sametimes on a recurring basis (e.g., same day eachweek).

■ Require that the trip be made at least once aweek (even two or three times a week,depending on local demand) to be consideredfor subscription status.

■ Specify that subscription trips can be for onlycertain purposes, such as work, school, ormedical treatments. Specific policies regardingtrip purposes or the required frequency of thetrip will depend on the ability of the system to

meet all expected requests for subscriptionservice.

■ If waiting lists for subscription service emergeor are anticipated, consider tighter policies.

■ Require new subscription riders to call in theirrequested trips for the first few weeks to ensurethat the standing order will actually occur asplanned. Once the pattern is established (i.e., the trip is made on the same day, at thesame time, to/from the same origin/destinationfor several weeks), then the actual standingorder or subscription trip can be established.The passenger no longer needs to scheduleevery trip.

Following the set standards may cut down onsubscription trip changes and cancellations.

Changes to subscription trips

If riders need to adjust their work hours or if theymove to a new place or their work locationchanges, will the trip still be kept as a subscriptiontrip? Most minor changes are easilyaccommodated, but riders should understand thatthe request will be reviewed. Review the currentschedule to determine whether or not the changecan be implemented efficiently. From a “quality ofservice” perspective, it may make sense tocontinue to honor the commitment to provideconsistent transportation to work once the person


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is accepted as a subscription rider. Re-evaluate therequest as a subscription trip and, if necessary,renegotiate the pick-up times. Riders should notbe placed at the end of the waiting list forsubscription service.

Interruptions of subscription service

Short-term interruptions in travel plans should behandled in a similar fashion. For example,students may require regular transportation whenschool is in session but do not need transporta-tion during breaks. For an established subscriptionservice, quality of service standards should dictatethat temporary suspensions of subscriptionservice are feasible, as long as the interruption ofservice is predictable and not too frequent.

Frequent cancellations or no-shows

Finally, the policy should allow for a review ofsubscription service if scheduled trips arefrequently canceled or no-showed. This will helpto discourage riders who simply want to hold atime slot for trips made occasionally. Reviewcancellations and no-shows made by subscriptionriders and contact riders who do not appear to bekeeping their planned schedules. Require a 30-daytrip history before considering a specific trip forsubscription.

In addition to carefully defining a subscriptionpolicy, schedulers should regularly review theplacement of subscription trips on runs. The waythat subscription trips are placed on runs willdefine how the fleet is distributed throughout theservice area throughout the day. Consider review-ing on a regular basis, perhaps every few months,how subscription trips are assigned each day thatmanifests are reviewed. If changes need to bemade, schedulers should contact riders to adjustsubscription schedules appropriately. The full listof subscription trips may then be “re-mastered”periodically to account for small changes in triptimes and locations over that period.

Reviewing Automatically Generated Schedules

Schedule development must consider things likeindividual customer needs, individual driverefficiency and traffic conditions at various times ofthe day. Automated scheduling systems havebecome very sophisticated and can be adjusted toconsider many factors. However, even with thebest automated systems, a careful review ofmanifests is needed.

Conduct a careful review of schedules theafternoon/evening before the day of service, butalso review runs several days in advance as theyare being built by the automated scheduling

system. Schedulers may find a better assignmentfor certain trips, even before they are full, that willminimize deadheading or keep vehicles in areas attimes when other demand is expected. Byconstantly reviewing the runs as they are created,schedulers help the automated system make betterdecisions on subsequent trip assignments.

Refine Schedules Using Input from Contractors and Operators

Schedules that look good on paper sometimes donot always work on the street. Contractors andindividual operators are important sources ofinformation and provide good “reality checks” forschedulers. Develop a process to ensure that inputfrom contractors and operators is channeled backto schedulers. For example, a “Manifest CorrectionSheet” might be created to record changes.Resolutions are recorded on the sheet and a copyis returned to the driver.

In a system that uses separate contracts for thereservation and scheduling of trips and for serviceprovision (e.g., one contractor books trips andcreates schedules and another hires and super-vises drivers and operates the vehicles), regularmeetings with each company to discuss andresolve service issues will allow corrections to bemade quickly.


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Combining regular meetings with contractor staffto review how runs are structured and to discussproblems that have been encountered withoperator feedback may facilitate a close workingrelationship between scheduling and contractoperations. The additional input may help developefficient and workable runs.

Automated Callbacks with Estimated Pick-Up Times

Systems that use batch scheduling (schedulingtrips after some or all of the reservations havebeen received) must have a system for follow-upcontact with passengers to inform them of thescheduled pick-up times for their trips. IVRtechnology can be used to assist in makingcallbacks. Once the final run schedules are createdon the afternoon before the day of service,callbacks are made to all riders to provide themwith the exact time of their pick-up. IVRtechnology is linked to the automated reservationsand scheduling system to allow these thousandsof callbacks to be made automatically.

DISPATCHING

The dispatch or control center is the pulse ofany paratransit system. It is here where

dispatchers control the provision of service in realtime. In addition to maintaining control overdrivers and their runs, dispatchers often interactwith the public in response to “Where’s my ride?”questions or “will-call” return trips.

Maintaining Control of All Runs

To be effective, dispatchers need to have anunderstanding of the status of all runs throughoutthe day. Approaches for maintaining this level ofdetail include the following.

Stop-by-stop driver call-ins

Regular contact with each driver keeps dispatchersup-to-date on slack time in each run and whichdrivers might need help. Active involvement of thedispatchers results in very good on-timeperformance; trips are shifted between runs assoon as potential problems are identified. Thispractice lets drivers know they are part of a teamthat is delivering all of the trips for that day (ratherthan feeling responsible only for the trips on therun they have to perform). This practice may notbe as effective in a larger system in which driverswould have to wait too long for clear air in orderto call in their times.

Problem-only radio call-ins

Dispatchers assume that runs are on time whendrivers do not check in. This approach requiresthat drivers adhere to the radio policy and do infact let the dispatcher know if they are making apick-up early or if they are running behindschedule. Provide drivers with an incentive toradio in when appropriate by requiring drivers thatfail to do so to call in every pick-up and drop-offfor three days following their “missed” calls.

Mobile data terminals (MDTs) or mobile datacomputers (MDCs)

Advanced technology can also be very helpful.With advanced systems installed in their vehicles,drivers will “perform” every pick-up and drop-off.In other words, drivers press the appropriatebuttons to indicate they have arrived and departedfrom each location. As actual pick-up and drop-offtimes are recorded by the system, new estimatedarrival times are calculated for subsequent trips. Ifa late pick-up or drop-off will cause a subsequenttrip to be late, the system automatically highlightsthat trip for dispatch. The dispatcher can thenfocus on reassigning these trips or reassigningother trips on the run to get it back on schedule.When working correctly, the level of control overruns is impressive and the dispatch area is surpris-ingly quiet and calm.


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Pick-Up Notification

Implement procedures to notify riders a fewminutes before the scheduled pick-up. Anautomated system can be designed whereininformation captured by the reservations,scheduling and dispatch software triggers atelephone call to alert riders 5 minutes before thescheduled pick-up.

Will-Call Management

Some systems allow passengers to leave theirreturn trip times unscheduled, having thepassenger call when they are ready to be pickedup. These trips are often termed “will-calls” or“call when ready” trips. Others do not allow will-calls at all and require passengers to state a returntrip pick-up time, even if they have to call toadjust it because an appointment is running late.

Effectively managing will-calls can be quite achallenge for dispatchers. An important aspect ofwill-call management is knowing how many will-call returns to expect and when they might occur.Given that many will-calls occur in the afternoon,following appointments, peak hour demands mayaffect a system’s ability to respond in a timelyfashion. Thus, it is helpful to capture a list ofexpected will-call returns so that dispatchers canbe aware of the number and approximate times forwill-call trips on any given day. It also is important

to have a clear system of assigning will-calls todrivers so that enough information is captured on the manifest to facilitate trip reconciliation forbilling and statistical purposes.

When will-calls are part of the system, aresponse-time standard should be set andmonitored. A standard may be set to respond towill-call requests within an hour or 90 minutes,perhaps as long as two hours in some systems.Note that this measure of on-time performanceshould be captured and included in statisticalreports. If will-call response times are long orexceed the established response-time standard,passengers will rightfully consider these trips late,even though that information may not be captured by the system.

I N N OV AT I V E P R A C T I C E S I N PA R AT R A N S I T S E RV I C E S12


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PARATRANSIT SERVICE MONITORING & MANAGEMENT

It has been said, “What isn’t monitored isn’t managed.” Keeping careful watch on the level and quality of service providedand on adherence to established policies, procedures and standards is important for ensuring quality and cost-effectiveparatransit operation. In addition, USDOT ADA regulations require that service performance be monitored for patterns orpractices that would indicate capacity constraints. This section includes a discussion of service quality standards, followedby a discussion of service monitoring.

SERVICE QUALITY STANDARDS

The first step in service monitoring is toestablish standards for each aspect of the

operation against which actual performance canbe measured. Standards should be set both forservice quality (or effectiveness) as well as serviceefficiency. Following are examples of thoroughand detailed standards for telephone performance,on-time performance, travel time and trip denials.

Telephone Performance

Reliable telephone access to place and changereservations and to check on the status of rides isan important part of paratransit service quality.Long delays in getting through to arrange forservice or to check on rides can discourage people

from using the service. Similarly, large numbers ofabandoned calls can indicate telephone accessproblems. Telephone performance standardsshould focus on hold times for importanttelephone lines, speed in initially answering calls if they are not automatically routed to a centralqueue, and the number of abandoned calls.Following is an example of a telephone standard:

XYZ Transit Agency Sample TelephonePerformance Standard

Answer all calls within 5 rings or less. Nomore than 10 percent of all calls within any30-minute period on hold for more than 2minutes. No more than 5 percent of all calls

®

within any 30-minute period on hold formore than 3 minutes. No calls in any 30-minute period on hold for more than 5 minutes.

* The percentage goals and hold times are examplesonly and will vary from system to system. Thesestandards should be set with input from the localdisability community and ADA advisory committee.

Reporting time intervals. Do not rely solely ondaily or monthly average hold times. Becausethere will be low-volume times of the day when allcalls are answered immediately, averages over longperiods of time will hide poor performance at peakcalling times. Average daily performance may


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appear to be very good even though hold timesduring peak calling times may be very long.Performance should be measured hourly (or by thehalf-hour if telephone reports can capture informa-tion that frequently). Find out what reporting timeintervals are available given the telephone systemin place and set the standard to be measured foreach of these intervals.

Secondary holds. When monitoring telephoneperformance, it also is important to consider initialand secondary hold times. For example, if thetelephone system is set up to allow reservationiststo handle more than one call at a time, a call maybe picked up quickly but then placed on hold asecond time while the reservationist handlesanother call. These secondary hold times can behidden if not specifically referenced in the stan-dard and identified in regular reports. Similarly,customer service staff or dispatchers may pick upcalls off a central queue quickly, but may thenplace callers on hold for long periods while thestatus of a ride is determined. Again, if this is aproblem, it is important that the standard andtelephone reports identify and separate out thesesecondary holds.

On-Time Performance

A complete on-time performance standard needsto consider several factors. First, the standardshould consider on-time performance for bothpick-ups and drop-offs. Next, the standard shouldconsider when pick-ups and arrivals are “on time.”This is typically defined as a window of timearound the time negotiated with the rider. Finally,the standard needs to define the percentage oftrips that should be performed on time.

On-time pick-ups. Often a 20- to 30-minutewindow is used to define on-time pick-ups. Thiswindow can be centered on the negotiated pick-up time (e.g., 15 minutes before to 15 minutesafter the negotiated pick-up time). It also can beset beginning at the negotiated time (e.g., from 0to 20 minutes after the negotiated pick-up time).

On-time arrivals. Usually, an on-time arrival isdefined as arriving at the destination no later thanthe appointment/desired arrival time. A windowending at the appointment time could be specified(e.g., from 30 minutes before to no later than theappointment time). On-time arrivals are typicallyonly considered on the outbound trip when thereis an actual appointment.

Causes of Late Trips. All transit systems shouldstrive to provide all trips “on time.” However,some trips may be late due to traffic, weather, or

other factors outside of the control of the transitagency. Systems need to ensure that operatingpolicies and practices that are within their controldo not cause trips to be late. Examples of practicesthat cause late trips might be:

■ Poor reservations and scheduling practices thatresult in manifests containing incorrectaddresses, times, or other information.

■ Tight scheduling parameters or overbookingruns that result in manifests that are notreasonable.

■ Inadequate vehicle or driver backup that causeslate or missed pullouts.

■ Poor dispatching practices that are not effectivein adjusting runs when in-service problemsarise.

A standard for on-time performance between 90and 95 percent is not unreasonable. More impor-tant than the precise percentage is the reason forthe untimely performance. For example, a goal of100 percent on-time performance might beestablished, with a standard of 95 percent ontime. A review of untimely trips might show thatfor every 5 trips that are late, 3 are because ofinternal practices and only 2 are caused bycircumstances beyond the control of the system.This may not be acceptable performance even


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though 95 percent of the trips are on time,meeting the internal standard. Such an analysismight suggest that the system needs to focus onthe internal practices that regularly contribute tountimely service.

Considering all of these factors, an on-timeperformance standard might appear something like this:

XYZ Transit Agency Sample On-timePerformance Standard

The goal of the XYZ Transit Agency is toperform all trips on time. A trip will beconsidered to be performed on time if: Thepick-up is made within the pick-up window,which is from the negotiated pick-up timeuntil up to 20 minutes after that negotiatedtime; and the drop-off is made within thedrop-off window, which is up to 30 minutesbefore, but no later than, the stated appoint-ment time (if applicable). While there maybe a goal of 100 percent of all trips beingperformed on time, XYZ Transit Agency mayadopt a standard of something less than 100percent on time, such as 95 percent on time,with no patterns of untimely service becauseof operating practices within the control ofthe system. All trips will be scheduled to beperformed on time. Adequate backup will bemaintained to ensure that there is no pattern

of missing scheduled pullouts. Adequate in-service backup will be maintained so thatthere is no pattern of not being able torespond to same-day service problems. Infor-mation errors in the reservations process willbe minimized.

* This standard is an example only and will vary fromsystem to system. These standards should be estab-lished with input from the local disability communityand ADA advisory committee.

Travel Time

According to USDOT regulations, capacityconstraints may include an inordinate number ofexcessively long trips. The local standard shoulddefine what makes a trip excessively long andshould also provide for an allowance of long trips.This determination should be made in consulta-tion with the local ADA advisory committee.

The FTA has advised that consideration be madeto the comparable trip time of a fixed route (at thesame time of day) including a set standard toallow for walking time to/from the stop. It wouldseem reasonable for transit systems to have a goalof always scheduling trips to be performed in areasonable (not excessive) amount of time. In-service problems and circumstances beyond the system’s control may develop and cause a tripto be long, but policies and practices in operations

that would lead to an excessively long ride shouldbe avoided.

Policies and practices that might lead to excessivelylong trips might include:

■ Too many pick-ups and drop-offs scheduledinto group runs; and/or

■ Inadequate backup capacity to handle same-day service problems, resulting in trips addedto already tightly scheduled runs throughoutthe day.

Excessively long trips may be defined in one of thefollowing ways:

■ Trips that are longer than a set amount of time(e.g., trips longer than 60 or 90 minutes); or

■ Trips that are considerably longer thancomparable fixed-route trips (e.g., trips that aremore than twice as long as fixed-route tripsfrom and to the same origins and destinationsat the same time of day).

In some cases, systems that use set amounts oftime also have different thresholds based on triplength. For example, the standard might be nomore than 60 minutes for trips less than 10 milesand no more than 90 minutes for trips more than10 miles in length.


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Each of these approaches has its benefits andflaws. Standards based on set times are easiest touse but may be inappropriate for the full range oftrips in the system. An hour may still be too longfor a trip that is only 1 to 2 miles in length. Inaddition, even 90 minutes may not allow enoughtime for trips that are cross-region, which mighttake two or more hours by fixed route.

Standards that are based on general comparisonsto fixed-route travel times (150 or 200 percent offixed-route time) may not be appropriate for veryshort or very long trips. For example, if a trip takes180 minutes by fixed route, would it be appro-priate to allow for a paratransit ride that is 270 or360 minutes (4.5 to 6 hours)? Probably not.

In recent ADA compliance assessments, FTA hasmade direct comparisons between paratransittravel times and comparable fixed-route traveltimes, including an allowance for the extra time itmay take traveling to/from a stop or station andwaiting for the bus or train. So, for example,defining a paratransit trip as excessively long if itis more than the fixed-route travel time for acomparable trip plus 40 minutes might be moreappropriate. The extra 40 minutes might be areasonable surrogate for the extra time to walk tothe bus stop, wait for the bus and walk to thedestination, depending on the distances involved.

Considering all of the above, a possible travel timestandard might be (see below):

XYZ Transit Agency Sample Travel Time Standard

The goal of XYZ Transit Agency is to provideall trips in a reasonable amount of timewhen compared to fixed-route service. A tripwill be considered to be excessively long if ittakes more than 40 minutes longer than afixed-route trip from the same origin to thesame destination at the same time of day.XYZ Transit Agency’s goal is to perform alltrips in a reasonable and comparable time.A minimum of 98 percent of all trips will beperformed within this standard, with nopatterns of excessively long rides due tooperating practices within the control of thesystem. All trips will be scheduled to beperformed within this time standard. Ade-quate backup services will be maintained toensure that there is no regular pattern ofextra trips being added to already full runs,causing other trips to be excessively long.

* This standard is an example only and will vary fromsystem to system. These standards should be setwith input from the local disability community andADA advisory committee.

Trip Denials

The FTA has issued guidelines on how trip denialsshould be defined and on goals/standards thatshould be established for ADA complementaryparatransit service, which indicates that:

■ A trip request should be considered “denied” if it cannot be accommodated at all or if itcannot be accommodated within one hourbefore or after the requested pick-up time.

■ Trips scheduled more than one hour from therequested time should be recorded as denialseven if the person accepts the different time(since they may be taking the time offered onlybecause they have no other option).

■ When a customer requests a round trip andonly one leg of the trip can be accommodated,if the customer declines the one-way offer,both legs of the trip need to be counted asdenials.

■ Trip requests need not be considered denials if a time within one hour of the requested pick-up time is offered but is not accepted by thecustomer.

Defining trip denials in this way creates record-keeping challenges. Trips may actually bescheduled and provided that should be recordedas denials (if outside of the hour scheduling


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window). It also suggests that different types ofdenials need to be identified.

Types of trip denials

It is useful to categorize the various types of tripdenials for more accurate monitoring of servicequality. Categories such as “capacity denials” and“adversarial denials” can help illustrate wherescheduling problems exist.

■ Capacity denial — Recorded if a trip requestcannot be accommodated at all or cannot beaccommodated within one hour of therequested pick-up time.

■ Adversarial denial — Recorded if a trip isoffered within an hour of the requested timebut is refused by the caller.

In addition to denials such as these, it may behelpful to distinguish between trips that are neverscheduled and those that are accepted andscheduled outside of the ADA-allowed schedulingwindow (one hour before or after the requestedpick-up time). These trips might, for example, beconsidered “scheduled denials.”

Planning and budgeting service capacity

Systems should plan and budget in good faith tomeet 100 percent of expected demand. Forexample, if the planning and budgeting processindicates that 500,000 trips will be requested in

the coming year, the system design and budgetshould provide for 500,000 trips.

When planning and budgeting for paratransitservices, consider:

■ Past trends/growth in demand. These trendsshould be projected out for the coming year(s).

■ Denied trips. If there have been denials in thepast year, additional capacity should beplanned to meet this demand in the comingyear.

■ Latent demand. If performance issues havedepressed demand, the coming year’s budgetshould allow for a correction of theseperformance problems and for a growth indemand once service is improved.

■ Inflationary cost increases. In addition to theabove demand considerations, the budgetshould also allow for expected inflationary costincreases.

SERVICE MONITORING

Detailed notes about daily operations areneeded to accurately investigate service

issues. It is important to be able to determine whytrips are early, late or excessively long or whyother issues arise. Reasons behind variationsbetween scheduled and actual pick-up/drop-offtimes should be detailed to accurately reflect thesource of the changes. Changes can occur for avariety of reasons including rider requests,scheduling errors, driver error, vehicle breakdown,traffic problems or other circumstances beyondthe control of the system.

Although most automated reservations/scheduling/dispatch systems have features thatallow detailed notes to be added to the trip file, itstill may be useful to run a daily dispatch log oftraffic situations, breakdowns, incidents, etc., astheir impacts may not be directly evident forindividual trips but may have an effect on thesystem. It also is good to keep a daily dispatch logindicating there have been no major events thatmight have disrupted service.

Notes detailing these variations are a valuableresource when meeting with contractorrepresentatives to review service performance andscheduling issues.


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Performance Reports

Key information gathered through service moni-toring should be reviewed regularly to determineboth service quality and service efficiency. Thisservice data can be used to identify trends overtime as well as to compare performance with peersystems. Following is a summary of the types ofinformation that should be reported, along withlessons learned by systems for accurate andmeaningful collection of key data. Examples ofways that some systems use and analyze the datato ensure compliance with the ADA requirementsare also provided.

To properly gauge service quality, a transit agencyshould measure:

■ Effectiveness — achieving a desired level ofservice as measured by predeterminedstandards (doing the right things).

■ Efficiency — achieving maximum service forminimum cost, subject to minimum servicecriteria (doing things right).

■ Productivity — a performance measure thatindicates the relative operating efficiency of atransportation service, usually expressed as thenumber of passengers carried per hour or permile of vehicle operation.

■ Reliability — relates to the variability ofpredicted and actual waiting times, punctualityand arrival times; also employed in its commonmeaning of dependability when referring toattitudes on transit.

Data Definitions

Recently, an effort was undertaken to improve thedata definitions used for paratransit reporting inthe annual National Transit Database (NTD). Thiseffort was spearheaded by the American PublicTransportation Association (APTA) AccessCommittee. The committee offered severaldefinitions that might better capture relevantoperating characteristics for ADA complementaryparatransit.

These definitions included:

■ Total vehicle-hours for the year — defined ashours when the vehicle is on its way to pick upor is actually carrying a passenger.

■ Total revenue-hours for the year — defined ashours when the vehicle is actually carrying apassenger.

■ Total vehicle-miles for the year — defined aspullout to pull-in.

■ Total revenue-miles for the year — defined asmiles from first pick-up to last drop-off minusdriver breaks and lunch.

Systems should account for and distinguishbetween service provided by dedicated and non-dedicated vehicles, as well as service provided bythe transit agency versus contracted service. Forexample, it is difficult to measure productivity of ataxi vehicle used in non-dedicated service (i.e., itmay serve passengers other than ADA paratransitcustomers). On the other hand, measuringproductivity is much easier in a system where allvehicles are dedicated to that program. Ifincorporated into the NTD, these elements willhelp to advance the data quality reported for ADAparatransit.

Service Quality Reports

There are several reports that should be generatedroutinely to help measure and track service qualityand performance. These reports are useful formanagers and their governing boards. Bothsystem-wide performance and individual perfor-mance of carriers should be measured. A few ofthese reports include:

■ Telephone system reports — Daily reportsthat show total calls, calls answered, callsabandoned, average hold times and maximumhold times by time of day. Reports should be


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generated to show this data by the hour (oreven half hour) of each day.

■ Trip denials — All types of defined denials—“capacity denials,” “scheduled denials,”“adversarial denials,” “eligibility denials,” etc. It may be helpful to analyze denial patterns.Examine denials by number of days in advancethat trip requests are placed by time of day, dayof the week, and for trip requests from riderswho are ambulatory versus those who are non-ambulatory. This type of analysis helpsdetermine high-capacity times as well asneeded changes to fleet composition. Makesure reservationists properly code denials toavoid undercounting or incorrectly categorizingdenials. Only one denial should be attributedto any one trip. If both legs of a roundtrip arerefused, two denials should be recorded,regardless of whether or not one of the legs ofthe trip satisfied the rider’s needs.

■ On-time performance — Compare actual pick-up times to negotiated pick-up times todetermine on-time pick-up performance. A similar comparison between actual andnegotiated drop-off times should be conductedwhere applicable. Examine time-of-day andlocation patterns to accurately locate poorperformance areas. If the paratransit fleet is not100 percent accessible, an analysis of

performance for riders who use wheelchairsshould also be made periodically. Informationgenerated should be used to adjust schedulingparameters and to address internal operatingissues (e.g., trips late at the beginning of shiftsdue to pullout problems).

■ Trip length — Tabulate trips by duration(number and percentage less than 60 minutes;number and percentage 61–90 minutes;number and percentage more than 90minutes). Periodically compare these times tofixed-route travel times for reasonableness.

■ Missed trips — Record all trips that were notperformed by the carrier through no fault of thepassenger.

■ Accidents/incidents — Record accidents(sometimes called crashes) and incidents bytype, driver and provider. Develop measures ofaccidents (crashes) per 100,000 vehicle milesand incidents per 100,000 vehicle miles forperformance comparison.

■ Complaints — Record all complaints; developsubtotals of complaints determined validversus not valid; track complaints by provider,vehicle and driver; link the complaint processto regular service monitoring (if there is apattern of complaints for a particular provideror driver, schedule on-street monitoring tocheck on the performance of that provider/

driver); calculate a ratio of valid complaints per1,000 trips provided as a way to compare thenumber of complaints with other systems.

Field Observations

Actual on-street observations, as well as office-place monitoring, are important for verifying theaccuracy of service data that is collected. Thismight include verifying that service was actuallyprovided or performance reports were accuratelyrecorded. Service observations can also confirmcompliance with service policies and procedures,including compliance with vehicle design andmaintenance standards, driver qualificationstandards, the level, type and appropriateness ofassistance provided by drivers and safe vehicleoperation.

On-Street Driver Observation

Service monitors must be accurate and thorough.On-street observation can be done by streetsupervisors, audit departments or othermanagement staff, as well as by service brokerswhere applicable.

On-street monitoring can include:

■ Observing driver performance at pick-ups anddrop-offs


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■ Following vehicles to confirm safe operation

■ Spot-checking vehicles being used andcomparing the information with an approvedvehicle list

■ Spot-checking vehicle condition

■ Comparing pick-up and drop-off times with dataon completed manifests or in final trip files

Office-place monitoring

First-hand observations of other operationalfunctions, such as reservations and customerservice, can help isolate system breakdown anddeficiencies. Many systems record telephone linesused by riders and then periodically review theserecordings to ensure that reservationists anddispatchers are following established policies andare treating callers appropriately. For example, toensure that reservationists are properly recordingany trip denials, reservation lines are monitored fora selected period of time, any denials recorded.Recorded denials are then cross-checked withcomputerized trip records to be sure that theywere recorded as denials.

Systems that are voice-radio dispatched may alsohave a mobile unit installed in the office of theservice monitoring staff so that radio trans-missions can be monitored and the appropriatehandling of same-day service issues verified.

Secret rider/client programs

In addition to using transit agency or broker/contractor staff to make service observations,consumer-based service monitoring programs(“secret rider” programs) can provide an effectivemeans of assessment. A selected group of riders istypically trained to keep detailed trip logs. Thesetrip logs can include information about all aspectsof the service, including:

■ Telephone service and hold times

■ Requested versus offered trip times (and tripdenials)

■ Trip dates

■ Origin and destination information

■ Actual pick-up and drop-off times

■ Driver and vehicle identification information

■ Driver assistance and performance

■ Vehicle and equipment operation andcondition

■ General observations and comments

Riders who participate in the program are typicallycompensated in some way. This might includefree fare vouchers or a payment per completed triplog.

It is important in these programs to protect theconfidentiality of riders who agree to monitor theservice. For this reason, consumer-based programsare often coordinated by people outside of theparatransit service provider or transit agency (inthe case of in-house operation). This mightinclude a local disability agency or a contractor that specializes in setting up programs of this type.

Contract Provider Reviews

For systems that contract out for paratransitservice, it is important to have a process to verifycompliance with contract requirements. Inaddition to ongoing observations of day-to-dayservice, a process for verifying compliance withdriver qualification and training requirements,vehicle design standards, vehicle maintenancerequirements, insurance standards and othercontract provisions is needed. The transit agencyshould have access upon request to all providerrecords and should plan to spot-check recordsregularly.

Driver qualification

To ensure compliance with driver qualification andtraining requirements, contractors should berequired to provide up-to-date lists of drivers hiredto provide paratransit service. Using this list, thetransit agency can spot-check personnel files toensure that drivers on the list have proper


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qualifications and that appropriate backgroundchecks have been run. Dates of training and otherinformation may also be included in the files. On-street monitors can use the current driver listto ensure that only authorized drivers are beingused to provide the service.

Vehicle standards

To ensure compliance with vehicle designstandards, all vehicles used in service should beinspected by an agent of the transit system beforethey are placed in service and a list created. On-street monitors can examine the current list toensure that only authorized vehicles are utilized.Maintenance and insurance records of vehicles on the list should be checked periodically toensure adequate service and required coverage aremaintained.

Customer Comments and Complaints

All customer comments, complaints andcommendations should be included as a criticalpart of service monitoring. In contractedoperations, complaints and commendationsshould be taken centrally by the transit agency. Inbrokered systems, the broker should manage thecomplaint process only if they are paid anegotiated fee for managing the service. If thebroker is paid on a unit of service basis and hiresthe service providers, then the transit agency

should maintain central control of complaints. Foran in-house operation, transit systems shouldconsider having complaints managed by thecentral customer service office rather than theparatransit operations division.

The process for commenting or filing a complaintor commendation should be advertised in servicebrochures and rider guides. Comment cards andposted information about the comment/complaintprocess made available on vehicles are effectivemeans of gathering data from customers.

All comments and complaints should bedocumented and separated into “valid” and “notvalid” categories. (A complaint that a same-daytrip request was denied in a system that requiresone-day advance notice would be considered “notvalid.”)

Consider acknowledging complaints with apostcard, e-mail, or telephone call noting that thecomment was received and is being investigated.

In thorough processes, the investigation of thecomplaint goes well beyond simply forwarding thecomplaint to the provider for comment andresolution. Information to corroborate thecomplaint should be gathered. This might includelistening to telephone recordings, examiningcompleted driver manifests and computer trip

records and contacting other riders on the vehiclefor statements.

Consideration also should be given toconfidentiality. Complainants should be asked ifthey are willing to have their identity revealed tothe service provider. Every effort should be madeto identify the complainant in the file in caseadditional information or clarification is required,or to verify the validity of the complaint, ifneeded. Under some circumstances it may beappropriate to protect the rider’s anonymity fromthe service provider.

It also is important to link the complaint processwith the first-hand service observation process.First-hand observations or inspections of specificdrivers or vehicles should be scheduled usingcomplaint information. Periodic reviews ofprovider records should also be used to verify thatagreed-upon corrective action was actually taken.For example, if the outcome of a complaint is thata driver will be given refresher training, the nextdesk audit of that provider should include a checkof that driver’s personnel file to verify that thetraining was completed.

I N N OV AT I V E P R A C T I C E S I N PA R AT R A N S I T S E RV I C E S22


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PARATRANSIT SYSTEM DESIGN

The overall goal of a paratransit service design should be to implement a service delivery structure that produces theoptimal balance of service quality and unit cost. The corollary goal to balancing cost, productivity and quality is totranslate the needs and expectations of the passengers (and their sponsoring agencies) into an appropriate and cost-effectiveservice delivery network.

When considering system design/structure issues, paratransit management needs to determine the following:

■ What is the most appropriate management/organizational structure?

■ What are the most appropriate services and service designs?

■ What is the most appropriate procurement strategy?

®

Management/Organizational Structure Options

Administration Oversight Day-to-Day Management Vehicle Operations

Sponsoring Agency Sponsoring Agency Sponsoring Agencyor orManagement Firm Carrier(s)orCarrier(s)

With the desired balance of productivity,quality and cost in mind, the first task is to

vest management and functional responsibilitieswith the most appropriate organization. Servicesprovided by the system can be provided in-houseor contracted out to external brokers and agencies.An in-house (direct) management/organizationalstructure is perhaps the most prevalent. The nextmost prevalent structure is one in which carriers

under contract to the sponsoring agency performthe vehicle operations component. The day-to-daymanagement of the operation can be outsourced

either to a management firm or the contractcarrier(s) themselves. These options are some-times portrayed as follows:

MANAGEMENT/ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURES


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Choosing the Right Management Structure

Across the United States, most paratransitprograms fall into one of the management/organizational models described below. There areboth exemplary programs and poorly managedprograms reflected in all of the models, indicatingthat there is not one structure that enhances thesuccess of achieving the desired balance of unitcost, productivity and service quality. At the sametime, there does appear to be a set of relatedfactors that have a direct bearing on where certain functions should be housed. These factors include:

■ The perceived objectivity of the prospectiveorganization and the support and trust thatthat organization holds with the community

■ Its capabilities in terms of experience,resources and stability

■ The will it has to carry out the mission

■ The ability to be flexible and adaptive

Additionally, it makes sense to look at themanagement/organizational structure of similarparatransit services in other communities orregions that have similar demographics, servicesand goals. It should be noted that nationaldatabases of paratransit services have very littleinformation about management structure.

In-house/direct management operation

In-house (direct) operation offers the sponsoringagency more direct control over and flexibilitywithin the operation. This can directly translateinto the ability to balance the appropriate servicequality and service level with the available budget.On the other hand, direct operation can require an enormous capital investment not only in termsof procuring and maintaining the vehicles, butalso in housing the staff. It is also true that thecost structure of any paratransit operation islargely dictated by driver wages, which typicallyreflect approximately half of the cost structure. Formany sponsoring agencies, the use of in-house,and often unionized, labor may be more costlythan the use of contract carriers. While in-housemanagement offers more direct control and flexi-bility, it is typically more costly.

Transportation management/brokerage firm operation

The primary reason to consider a transportationmanagement/brokerage firm to manage a para-transit service is financial. A private entity may beable to achieve cost efficiencies to the point atwhich the management cost plus the operationscost is lower than the cost of in-house manage-ment, while maintaining or improving the level ofservice quality. Savings can be found in amanagement firm’s ability to obtain favorable and

appropriate rates and to shift market share amongcontract carriers, in contrast to public agenciesthat are more constrained by procurementrestrictions.

A sponsoring agency may decide to retain amanagement firm for a host of other reasons,including:

■ A desire to outsource paratransit management

■ Lower costs

■ A lack of in-house expertise

■ An inability to attract experienced personnel oran in-house hiring freeze

■ Union concerns about contracting vehicleoperations

Moreover, in the case of a multi-sponsorcoordinated system, a management firm serves asan objective third-party entity from which serviceis purchased.


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APPROPRIATESERVICES/SERVICE DESIGN

Paratransit is only one component, albeit apotentially broad one, in the menu of

service options available to an organization orgroup of organizations charged with sponsoringtransportation for its constituents, customers, orclients. There also is an obvious need for theparatransit practitioner to plan for the delivery ofparatransit in a holistic manner, i.e., in considera-tion of the other transportation resources availableand in consideration of community goals foroverall mobility. A typical menu of availabletransportation services in any community mayappear as follows.

■ Public transit is a core transportation infra-structure in more populated areas. These mayinclude a network of rail services, bus rapidtransit, bus ways, express bus routes, localfixed-route bus service and even flexibly routedbuses at times or in areas where there is lessdemand for service.

■ Paratransit services that are delivered in eithera coordinated or an independent fashion.These include ADA complementary paratransitservices in areas where fixed-route transit isprovided and general public paratransit (dial-a-ride) services that act as feeders and

distributors, as well as local circulators in areaswith a demand that cannot support transit. In addition, with the advent of Federal Welfare-to-Work and Job Access Reverse Commute(JARC) programs, paratransit provides asolution for transportation to child-care sitesthat cannot be accessed via other modes.

■ Dial-a-ride services may represent the solemode of public transportation in some lesspopulated communities where fixed-routetransit is not provided.

■ Human service paratransit programs may beoffered by sponsoring agencies that provideservice for their clients who are unable to usepublic transit or paratransit options. However,it may be more efficient and cost effective forthe local transit agency to provide theseservices.

■ Taxis and livery operators, while often servingas contractors to public and private paratransitprograms, also provide an on-demandtransportation resource.

■ University shuttle programs coordinateservices and benefits provided by transitagencies, particularly for students withdisabilities.

■ Commuter transportation makes up anotherlayer of transportation. This may include

privately provided shuttles connecting majortransit points with employment sites, subscrip-tion vans/buses for groups of commuters andrideshare/vanpool programs, many of whichrely on taxis or paratransit programs to providea guaranteed-ride-home service. In some areas,the lines between paratransit and vanpoolingare blurring as the agencies responsible forADA complementary paratransit provide vansto human service agencies for clients withdevelopmental disabilities whose daily trips areADA-eligible.

■ School transportation forms the final layer.While school transportation and publictransportation have evolved as industries intheir own right, there are numerous exampleswhere public transit and paratransit servicesare used to transport students. Manycommunities are also beginning to bettercoordinate their public and school transporta-tion resources. Meanwhile, special needstransportation providers often are the samecarriers that participate in public/agency para-transit programs.

Thus for the paratransit practitioner, the menu ofparatransit service types depends on how para-transit is to be used. In most cases, the paratransitservice will be an ADA complementary paratransitservice, a senior dial-a-ride, a general public


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dial-a-ride, an agency transportation program, or acombination thereof. What is important is thatthe paratransit practitioners understand thesynergies among the different paratransit programsand among the different components of thecommunity’s transportation network.

Allocation of Functions

The allocation of functions among the sponsoringagency, the managing agency (if different), andthe contract carriers (if different) depends on themanagement structure and the types of servicesthat will be provided. Primary functions related toparatransit include:

■ Procuring a management agency (if differentfrom sponsoring agency)

■ Procuring carriers (if not directly operated)

■ Procuring and providing vehicles

■ Providing hardware and software

■ Determining eligibility, certification andregistration

■ Reservations intake and processing

■ Cancellations intake and processing

■ Scheduling trips onto dedicated vehicle runs

■ Assigning other trips to carriers operatingundedicated vehicles

■ Dispatching

■ Handling “Where’s my ride?” calls

■ Collecting and accounting for fares

■ Documenting/tracking actual service data

■ Processing carrier invoices

■ Monitoring service

■ Managing complaints

■ Reporting

■ Training

Which entity performs certain functions can havea significant impact on productivity, quality andcost. For example, consider:

■ Who should procure carriers?

■ Who should provide the vehicles?

■ Who should provide the call-computerhardware/software?

■ Who should perform eligibility certification?

■ Who should perform reservations?

■ Who should perform scheduling?

■ Who should perform dispatching?

■ Who should handle the “Where’s my ride”calls?

■ Who should handle customer complaints andcomments?

■ Who will train the drivers and other personnel?

A couple of examples may help to illustrate thepoint. Table 1 shows the advantages anddisadvantages of centralized reservations. Table 2shows the advantages and disadvantages ofcentralized scheduling. One thing that doesappear to be clear, regardless of whether thesystem is centralized or decentralized, is that it isfar easier to manage a system when reservations,scheduling and dispatch are housed in the samelocation.


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Table 1

ADVANTAGES (+) & DISADVANTAGES (–) OF CENTRALIZED RESERVATIONS

Staffing + Potentially reduces total number of reservation agents; may depend on whether vendors have other business.– Additional staff may be required to support centralized reservations.

Service Quality + Allows flexibility and control over reservations agents, e.g., the time they spend with each caller, call-taking procedures.+ Provides equity, e.g., all callers are in the same queue.+ Provides opportunities to eliminate scrip / vouchers and implement centralized fare accounts.– Potentially eliminates user choice.– May add to consumer confusion about which entity customers should call and under what circumstances.

Accountability + Provides uniform and comprehensive telephone management.+ Provides control over client and trip eligibility.+ Potentially reduces "phantom" trips.– Eliminates clear lines of responsibility, e.g., complaints about late or missed service.

Operator Reaction – Potential conflicts based on quality and reliability of information taken from callers (reservations, cancellations) and timelinessof data transmission. Negates use of vendor’s existing reservations and scheduling infrastructure.

Operating Cost + Potential cost reductions depend on reduction in vendor reservation staffs. + Potential cost reductions as a result of control over trip eligibility.– Potential additional cost of support staff and automation.

Start-up Costs – Telephone system, hiring, training, information dissemination and computerized reservation system software/hardware andtraining.


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Table 2

ADVANTAGES/DISADVANTAGES OF CENTRALIZED SCHEDULING

Staffing + Potentially reduces total number of schedulers; may depend on whether vendors have other business.– Additional staff may be required to support scheduling.

Service Quality + Allows flexibility and control over the vendor / vehicle to which a trip is assigned and over the balance between service reliabilityvs. productivity.

+ Gains in cost efficiency may translate into more, better service.+ Provides control over trip prioritization, standing orders.+ Provides equity, e.g., all callers are in the same queue.+ Improves communication between reservation agents and schedulers.

Accountability – Reduces clear lines of responsibility between schedulers and vendor dispatchers and operators, e.g., poor on-time performance,complaints about late or missed service.

Operator Reaction – Potential to cause conflicts based on quality of the scheduling, the timeliness of data transmission and distribution of tripsamong carriers (in a multi-carrier environment).

– Negates use of vendor’s existing reservations and scheduling resources/investment.

Operating Cost + Potential labor cost reductions depend on reduction in vendor scheduling staffs.+ Potential cost reductions (or increase in cost efficiency) as a result of productivity gains, i.e., increased ridesharing opportunities.– Potential additional cost of support staff and automation.– Eliminates opportunities for cost reduction by not taking advantage of vendors' undedicated vehicles.

Start- Up Cost – Scheduling staff, hiring and training.– Computerized scheduling system software/hardware, training.

Other Design Considerations Within aParatransit System

Single vs. Multiple Carriers — In a single-carrier system, the responsible agency-sponsordirectly operates the service or elects to retain acarrier. Typically, systems use more than onecontractor because the advantages of usingmultiple carriers usually outweigh the disadvan-tages. An advantage to having more than onevendor is that it tends to enhance service quality.Where riders have a choice, the quality of serviceprovided by a carrier is market driven.

Single vs. Multiple Service Areas — If themanaging agency decides to pursue a design withmultiple carriers, the agency can opt to divide theregion into service zones. This approach can bepursued in cases where the managing agencyperforms the scheduling or in cases where userchoice (of carriers) is desired. Market share can bepredetermined based on bid rates and capabilities.For example, the carrier with the lowest rateand/or best capabilities receives the lion’s share ofthe work; other carriers are scaled accordingly.Where the service mix (see below) includesdedicated vehicle service, the allocation of workcan simply be accomplished by allocating aspecific number of vehicles, vehicle runs and/orrevenue hours to each carrier. The allocation oftrips to carriers operating undedicated vehicles is

more difficult, as the managing agency must keeptrack of trip allocations against daily trip orbudgetary ceilings for each carrier.

The key to sizing service zones is to accommodate a high volume of trips within each zone in orderto keep the dedicated vehicles productive, whileminimizing the interzonal trips, and to takeadvantage of the local carrier locations and tomaximize the number of carriers interested inbidding.

Paratransit-to-Paratransit Transfers —Although seldom seen, paratransit-to-paratransitinterzonal transfers are generally initiated toreduce long-distance trips that would adverselyaffect the productivity of a dedicated vehicle, orthat could be very costly for an undedicatedvehicle. On the other hand, too many transfers orpoorly executed transfers can decreaseproductivity, performance levels and customersatisfaction. Transfers do have a place in a multi-carrier, multi-zone system design, but that theyshould be minimized so as not to decrease theservice quality of the majority of riders. Here, too,the paratransit practitioner should look to thebalance of cost, productivity and quality.

Service Mix — The split between dedicated andundedicated vehicle service is delicate and highlydependent on the characteristics of the trips. For

example, a service that has a relatively condensedservice area (with shorter trips and common trippatterns) will benefit from a high percentage ofdedicated service. In contrast, a regional service(with longer trips and more diverse trip patterns)would probably benefit from a higher percentageof undedicated service.

Flexible Capacity — Through flexible capacity,systems may be better able to efficiently and cost-effectively accommodate all trip requests. Flexiblecapacity is typically achieved through a separatecontract (or allowing the primary service providerto have a subcontract) with taxi or other privatevan operators in the area. Trips that cannot beefficiently scheduled on dedicated vehicle runs arethen referred to these providers. These overflowproviders typically make vehicles available on anon-dedicated basis and payment is usually madeon a per-trip or per-mile basis. Examples of typicaloverflow providers include general public taxicompanies, general public “chair-car” or“ambulette” lift-van companies, or local humanservice agencies that operate transportationservices in the area.

Usually, the number of trips referred to overflowproviders is small (roughly 1 to 5 percent of totaltrips). As the number increases, additional regularruns with dedicated vehicles should be created.


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PROCUREMENT

Again, with an eye toward achieving adesired balance of cost, quality and produc-

tivity, there are several procurement practices, thesuccess of which depend greatly on the servicedelivery design.

Set Rate Ceilings

For systems with constrained budgets, a commonprocurement strategy is to establish rate ceilingsfor each type of trip, service, or vehicle, abovewhich carrier bids would be rejected. However, itis very important that these rate ceilings berealistically set. The primary purpose of thisstrategy is to thwart ridiculously high profitmargins. They should be established so thatprivate for-profit contractors can make areasonable profit and so non-profit carriers cancover their costs. But remember, it does no oneany good to negotiate a rate that will directlycause a carrier to go out of business or to breach acontract.

Avoid “low-ball” bids

If bids are too good to be true, they probably are.The most common ramification of these bids isthe inability of the carrier to attract and maintaingood drivers, which can make or break a system.As a rough guideline, driver wages and fringe

benefits should comprise approximately half thecost structure. In addition, driver wages should bewell positioned relative to other driving positionsin the community; otherwise, as soon as a driveris trained, s/he will probably leave for a higherpaying driver position.

Minimize bidder risk

Sometimes another goal of the procuring agency isto minimize the risk to the bidder, less risk equalslower bids. There are several ways in which theprocuring agency can minimize risk to bidders.

■ Provide vehicles and software to carriers.

■ Lengthen the contract period to enable biddersto cover financing periods.

■ Purchase dedicated vehicle service by the hour,as opposed to by the trip. Carriers’ coststructures are mostly calculated on an hourlybasis. Buying dedicated service on an hourlybasis thus offers less risk to the carrier.

■ The level of dedicated vehicle servicepurchased should be commensurate with thedemand, with run construction scaled tomatch areas and times that have the tendencyto generate higher volumes.

Per-hourly vs. per-trip service contracts

Note that hourly rates for dedicated service shouldalways be accompanied by incentives and

penalties relating to cost, productivity and servicequality, especially if scheduling is decentralized. Incontrast, it is very tempting for sponsoringagencies to purchase dedicated service by the trip;such a cost structure is easy to administer and itfacilitates budget adherence. However, danger liesin inaccurate forecast trip volume. In cases wherethe actual volume falls short, the managingagency or carrier is unable to cover costs andbreaches contract. The same result can occur withtrip lengths: much longer trip lengths will reduceproductivity, which in turn increases costs per trip.In addition, in other cases where the actual tripvolume significantly exceeds the forecast levels,the carriers can achieve an inappropriately highprofit. None of these results benefits the system.The industry experience suggests that use ofhourly rates for dedicated service makes the mostsense. Another option is a cost-plus-fixed-feecontract form, which works very well and reducesthe risk for both the contracting agency and thecontractor. This practice is not seen very oftenand does require close monitoring and an audit ofservice invoices and contractor performance.

Undedicated vehicle service should generally bepurchased on a per-trip basis if the characteristicsof the trips are relatively homogeneous. If the tripcharacteristics are very diverse or unknown,undedicated service should be purchased by the


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passenger-mile, again to reduce the risk for thecarriers. (Undedicated service may also be a cost-saving device by which prospective contractorswith other contracts can pass along a “shared”per-trip rate.) Again, the goal is to develop theproper mix of dedicated and undedicated servicethat will minimize the collective, system-wide costper trip and cost per passenger-mile, whilemeeting or exceeding established service qualitystandards.

Market share control

In a multiple carrier setting, the procurement ofparatransit service also should guard againstmonopolies. The establishment of ceilings onmarket share is therefore a good practice. Theexperience around the country suggests that thisceiling should range between 33 and 50 percent.Market share can be controlled and allocated by:

■ controlling the number of trips that arescheduled onto a carrier’s vehicles (or perhapsmore simply, assigning a certain number ofvehicle runs to each carrier commensurate withthe controlled market share), or

■ assigning a carrier to a specific service zonethat equates to the controlled market share.

■ promising a higher percentage of the businessto the qualified carrier with the lowest rate.(For example, if three contract carriers are

sought, the procuring agency could give 50percent of the market share to the lowestqualified bidder, 30 percent to the next lowestand 20 percent to the third lowest. Thisstrategy has proven to be successful in anumber of sites.)

In addition, the procuring/managing agency should make it understood that this is only the startingpoint and that subsequent market share gains andlosses during the course of the contract will bebased on ongoing performance of each carrier.

In seeking prospective carriers, consider putting apremium on existing carriers from the community,while not excluding the national firms fromcompeting. Not to be overlooked among the localoperators are private, non-profit carriers andespecially agency operators. When using agencyoperators, attempts should be made not to over-extend their capabilities. In this way, thepurchasing agency can gain a low-cost resource,giving them work within their sphere of comfort,while using the for-profit carriers to handle therest of the system. Where for-profits and non-profits are competing for the same service, theprocuring agency should create as level a playingfield as possible by ensuring that lower non-profitrates at least reflect grants and that the non-profitrates truly reflect fully allocated costs.

TROUBLESHOOTING

It is hoped that the information in the SystemDesign section is presented in a way that

gives the paratransit practitioner an overview ofservice delivery design components and howdifferent elements interact. Table 3 presents atroubleshooting guide to easily identify commonproblems that have prospective design-changesolutions.

LOCAL SERVICE OPTIONS

Avast array of complementary services thatmay be effective in meeting the transporta-

tion needs of many potential customers can beincorporated into a paratransit system. Programscan also be established in conjunction with otheragencies to provide services. Coordination rangesfrom informal cooperation between agencies tocomplete consolidation of services.

Mobility Managers

As a local Mobility Manager, a transit agency (or sometimes another entity) works as a clearing-house of information about all transportationservices available locally. They may or may notdirectly operate all of these services, but theyserve as a one-stop center providing guidance andinformation to consumers about existing options.


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Table 3

PRODUCTIVITY – TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE

1. Low Productivity

Problem Potential Service Delivery Solutions

a. Too many long trips (large service area; Allocate fleet by service zone; convert to multiple-carrier, zone-based structure (if enough trips)too many vehicles scattered; too much create service zones with transfer requirements to reduce number of discretionary, longer trips initiatedeadheading) zone- or distance-based fares, if allowed feed long-distance trips to fixed-route transit use flexible

capacity (e.g., taxi, for long-distance trips)

b. High cancellation rate of pre-scheduled trips Reduce advance-reservation period; introduce immediate-response requests; introduce (or follow)(high no-show and/or late-cancellation rate) policy for customer abuse; develop appropriate policies for addressing late cancellations and/or

no-shows; change definition of late cancellations; increase number of subscription trips (if limited)

c. Poor scheduling Allocate fleet by geographic area or by service zone; change location or number of transfer zones;automate scheduling process; vest scheduling function with contractors

d. Too many poorly executed Reduce/eliminate transfers, replacing with (limited) direct service; give dispatchers more toolsparatransit-to-paratransit transfers (e.g., automatic vehicle location, mandatory driver call-ins)

e. Too many will-calls (call when ready) Limit number of will-calls per day; replace with conservative pick-up times; schedule trips ontofloaters; broker trips onto taxis (give taxis accessible vehicle); introduce hospital service route orshuttle

f. Too many idle drivers on dedicated vehicles Enhance dispatch capabilities / radio infrastructure (more dispatchers, channels per area or sub-fleet;better match supply and demand with split shifts and/or ancillary carrier with undedicated vehicles;change driver early-wait time policy

Continued next page


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g. Too many lost drivers Enhance dispatch capabilities / radio infrastructure; give dispatchers more tools (e.g., automatic vehiclelocation, mandatory driver call-ins); give drivers map books and instructions on use; print directionsand/or nearest intersection on driver manifests; reduce driver attrition rate (e.g., via higher wages)

h. No incentive to improve productivity Introduce/change incentives and penalties (e.g., including bonuses and deductions, and more or lessbusiness); be careful to balance productivity and service quality incentives; contract on a per-hourbasis instead of a per-trip basis and set productivity standard

2..High Operating Cost


a. One, high-cost operator (not enough If direct operation, consider use of contractors for all or part of the service; if contracted operation, competition; large service area; high risk convert to multiple carriers; infuse competition into the procurement by converting to multiple awardsfactor in rates; higher driver wages (union); (50/30/20) and with realistic rate ceilings; use ancillary, lower-cost carriers; infuse competition intostraight-shift policy; overtime policy—too ongoing service delivery via performance-based incentives / penalties and work allocationmuch overtime (can’t attract drivers)) adjustments; attract more drivers via higher wages; attract more part-time drivers with split shifts;

revise overtime policy; reduce risk in procurement via hourly rates; vehicle and software provision /buyout; coordinate procurement with other paratransit sponsors or retain a broker

b. Low productivity See above

c. Fraud Improve report / manifest monitoring improve street supervision (key locations, dispatch points; secretriders, telephone follow-up); improve automated checks (time/location stamping and card readers);stronger contractual language and penalties regarding fraud

3. High (In-House) Administrative Costs


a. High eligibility determination costs May be worth it in lieu of demand reduction contract with lower-cost vendorContinued next page

Table 3 (Continued)


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b. High reservation and scheduling costs Review shifts to better match call demand; automate function to reduce staff requirements; if alreadyautomated with automated scheduling capabilities, switch to real-time or batch (depending on staffskills) to reduce staff / defray cost by coordinating with other sponsors; vest functions with broker orcarriers

4. Poor Service Quality


a. One operator: attention to service quality If contracted, meet frequently with management to resolve problems and ensure staff / drivers haveis secondary proper training; if contracted, switch carriers and / or introduce more competition and / or multiple

carriers; if contracted, bring in-house; if direct operation, privatize: nationals or locals?; for profit ornon-profit?; with movement to multiple-carriers: user choice or carrier assignment?; broker or nobroker?; if problem can be traced to quality of drivers, increase wages to attract better skilled labor

b. No incentives to improve quality of service Include incentives and penalties for service quality in contract; revise pay structure (to hourly rates)

c. Poor on-time performance (scheduling too tight?) Include incentives and penalties for service quality in contract; if contract includes productivityincentives and penalties in contract, are they realistic?; revise pay structure (to hourly rates)

d. User-choice is not working See 4c comments above; eliminate user choice; change service delivery structure to service zone-based carriers with one carrier per zone

Table 3 (Continued)

As a community outreach campaign, this servicecreates awareness of paratransit service and estab-lishes a positive image within the community.

Local, regional and state transportation programs

Another opportunity rests in brokering seniortransportation within a community. Local privateand government agencies may be recruited to helpfund such a program. A paratransit agency canserve as coordinator of several different transitprograms, integrating traditional fixed-route,paratransit, shuttle and route deviation services.Another example of coordination opportunityincludes involvement with governmentcommissions that strive to ensure access totransportation services for individuals defined asbeing transportation disadvantaged. Servicesincluding fixed-route bus service, water ferries,community circulators, free shuttles andcommuter transportation options can also beoffered through such efforts.

Additional community outreach transportation programs

Several other programs can be implemented toreach transportation disadvantaged residents ofmany communities with varying degrees ofinvolvement for the fostering paratransit system.Paratransit agencies can:

■ Subsidize taxi service — Low-incomeresidents, people with disabilities, the elderlyor other eligible candidates can purchase taxiscrip books at a reduced rate. For example,each book might contain $10 of scrip at 50percent of face value. Scrip can then be used topurchase transportation at standard meter ratesfrom any of the taxi companies that participatein the program. Benefits include no trip-purpose limitations and same-day service thatcan be requested at any time whereparticipating taxi service is provided.

■ Provide retired vehicles and/or service —Paratransit or vanpool vehicles, replacedperhaps by new vehicles with lowermaintenance costs, might be provided toagencies dedicated to providing limitedtransportation to clients. Free maintenance andlimited operations funding can be allotted tolocal non-profit human service agenciesinterested in providing transportation directlyfor clients. Eligibility requirements mightinclude evidence of regular transit service overa designated period of time, awarding thoseagencies providing the highest volume ofservice the retired vehicles, those providingslightly less service might receive maintenancewaivers or limited operating support.

■ Serve as a local transit information resource— Maintain or coordinate an expandeddatabase that includes transportationinformation and options from several agenciesin the region. Sell discounted transit fare ticketsto city and county human service agencies,who then use the tickets at their discretion tosupport client transportation. The tickets canbe used for travel on either fixed-route buses orthe sponsoring agency’s paratransit system.

Increase Efficiency

To focus demand on certain times and locationsto create more efficient paratransit service,agencies can:

■ Operate shopper shuttle service — Inaddition to regular paratransit service a shuttlecould provide regular transportation fromriders’ homes to selected large grocery stores atset times.

■ Coordinate guaranteed subscription service— Through the help of government aid,arrange for regular, guaranteed subscriptiontransportation for riders as part of a specialprogram. This service may be arranged throughexisting local human services agencies. Federaland state funding may be available to supportthe system.


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■ Establish a travel host program — Work withlocal non-profit job training and placementagencies that provide aid to people withdisabilities to create a program. Travel hostscan provide assistance to a daily list of riderswith special needs. Representatives meet theseriders as they arrive and help them get to thenext bus to complete their trips.

■ Establish a bus buddy program — Localagencies can provide travel companions forseniors or other eligible clients. This programlinks volunteers who are familiar with thefixed-route service with others who want totravel on the buses. The volunteers serve ascompanions to assist these riders as well as toteach them how to use the service.

Improve Location Accessibility

■ Identification — Focus effort to make busstops throughout the local system asaccessible as possible. Unique bus stopsignposts can be mounted to allow for easyidentification by people with vision disabilities.

■ Instruction — Provide individual instruction inboarding and exiting buses for those notfamiliar with accessibility features of fixed-route buses. Training might be coordinatedwith knowledgeable volunteers from the localpublic transit system. Institute a volunteer

driver program to support existing transitsystems.

■ Equipment/Features — Lead the charge indeveloping accessible features for existingsystems. (Lane Transit District of Eugene,Oregon, has engineered a simple device thatreportedly facilitates scooter securement. Thesecurement system consists of a single strapthat attaches to the floor on either side of themobility aid. The strap is placed over the“floor” [footrest] area of the scooter andcinched tight. When not in use, the strap isdetached from the aisle-side securement pointand attached to the underside of the flip-seatin the securement area.)

PUBLIC INFORMATION

Asimple, relatively inexpensive and effectivestrategy to create a more efficient transit

system is the provision of transportationinformation throughout the local community.Often, transit agencies spend little time or effortmarketing their ADA complementary paratransitprograms, sometimes arguing that they don’t wantto generate additional demand. However, publicinformation programs can be employed to bothpromote paratransit services and educate thepublic about them.

There are a multitude of possibilities to create ahigher profile for any system to increase publicawareness and knowledge, which in turn may helpincrease efficiency and productivity.

■ Color-coordinated brochures that highlight all facets of the programs and services offeredby the system provide easily identifiableinformation.

■ A readily identifiable logo helps solidify animage of the system in the minds of potentialclients.

■ A newsletter that provides information aboutscheduling changes or concerns, trip routes,extended services and hours of operation,among other items can help reach clients.

■ Advisory groups can provide valuableinformation regarding operation issues andspecific needs of various groups.

■ Community meetings can draw public interestand address common complaints, or garnerpraise.

■ Highly integrated transit services backed byencouragement to customers to use the servicethat is most appropriate based on programeligibility and need can facilitate operation andimprove productivity.


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Of course, it is important to ensure that these andother publicity materials and outreach efforts aredistributed throughout the entire region of service.Community and advisory group meetings shouldbe held at various locations to allow representa-tives from every sector of the region to attend.Remember that educating the public andproviding good public information materials willhelp customers to learn to use the overall systemmore effectively.

FIXED-ROUTE INNOVATIONS

This section identifies innovative approachesto fixed-route service for people with

disabilities. By enhancing access to fixed-routeservices, additional ADA complementaryparatransit capacity will be available for those whoreally need it and are unable to use fixed routebecause of their disabilities. These innovations areimportant in that they may be sufficient to permitsome ADA complementary paratransit riders touse fixed-route services, which are typically lesscostly and more responsive to spontaneous tripmaking. These innovations also support the spiritof the ADA, which is to include individuals withdisabilities in all aspects of daily living.

Provision of Accessible Fixed-Route Information

The Bi-State Development Agency in St. Louismaintains a list of all fixed-route riders who haverequested route and schedule information inaccessible formats. The list identifies the routesthat each individual uses and for which they haverequested information. Each time the schedulesare changed, the Customer Service Office sendsupdated route and schedule information specificto the particular needs of each person on the list.Information is sent in large print or in Braille asrequested.

Many transit agencies now provide web sitescompatible with text translation programs so thatpeople with vision disabilities can directly accessschedule and route information via their homecomputer.

Improving Bus Stop Accessibility

As mentioned above, some systems are usingunique bus stop signposts to make bus stop signsmore easily recognizable by people with visiondisabilities. Solar-powered lights and integratedbus benches are available at some stops.

Automated Stop Announcements andVehicle Identification

USDOT ADA regulations require that operators offixed route vehicles announce stops at all transferpoints with other fixed routes, at major inter-sections and destination points, and at intervalsalong the route to better orient people with visionimpairments and other disabilities to their loca-tion. Additional stops also must be announced atthe request of passengers with disabilities.

The regulations also require that methods ofcommunication and/or systems of identificationmust be established at stops that serve more thanone route to permit people with vision impair-ments or other disabilities to identify vehicles or toallow operators to identify potential passengers.

Intelligent Bus Systems will generate automatedstop and vehicle identification announcements incompliance with the requirements of the USDOTADA regulations. This technology will relievedrivers from having to make stop and vehicleidentification announcements by voice or PA andshould greatly improve compliance with the ADArequirements.

Kneeling Buses

Many transit buses are equipped with a kneelingfeature, which lowers the bus making it easier for


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passengers to board. Despite their prevalence,many drivers appear not to use them or offer themto passengers. A key aspect, according to bothsystems, is driver sensitivity training and propermaintenance of the kneelers. Trained drivers thatoffer the kneeler to passengers who appear toneed assistance in boarding will help increaseefficiency as well as service quality.

Low-Floor Buses and Universal Design

In recent years, many bus systems have movedtoward low-floor buses and other strategies thatmake their vehicles more accessible to a variety ofcustomers. For example, while low-floor busesallow the use of ramps instead of hydraulic lifts forboarding passengers who use wheelchairs, theyalso make it easier for passengers with babystrollers, luggage and packages to board as well.Larger destination signs are now easier foreveryone to read. These and many other so-called“universal design” elements are becoming morecommonplace. It is important to note that busspecifications should be developed in consultationwith the local disability community and ADAadvisory committee. Some low-floor buses havebeen found to be too tight for wheelchairs to bemaneuvered into position.

Wheelchair and Scooter Securement

Securing some wheelchairs and particularly three-and four-wheel scooters has proven to be asignificant challenge for transit operators. Somesecurements systems (e.g., clamp or claw devices)simply cannot be used on certain types ofmobility devices. Others including the popularfour-point securement systems can be somewhattime consuming in fixed-route applications. Inrecent years, several new restraint systems havebeen developed to improve wheelchair and scootersecurement. Noted in this report is the simplestrap system developed at Lane Transit Districtand pictured in the LTD case study. Others includea new four-point system that is permanentlyanchored to the floor.

Passenger Assistance

As noted throughout this handbook, the humanelement remains a key factor in the successful useof fixed-route services. Some of the programs thatcome to mind include various peer-to-peer or busbuddy programs that pair prospective transit riderswith volunteers who teach them how to use thesystem. Other agencies use a timed-transfersystem where all the buses arrive at the maintransfer center at about the same time. Drivers arethen able to actively assist passengers who needhelp finding their buses.

Another issue that often surfaces has to do withpassengers traveling with service animals onpublic transportation. ESPA has a trainingpublication prepared by Multisystems thatdescribes how drivers should assist passengerstraveling with these animals. The U.S. Departmentof Justice (DOJ) also has issued guidelines forbusiness owners dealing with this topic. The April2002 DOJ brief is included in Attachment 2A.

SUMMARY

The intent of this handbook is to provideinsights into innovative ideas that can be

implemented when creating or updating anexisting paratransit system. As described in theintroduction, not all of these innovative ideas will work in every community and, in some cases,the benefits may not be easily measured orquantified. Nonetheless, these innovations havebeen found to be effective where they were triedand many may be transferable to other systems.The next section of this report provides a detailedaccount of the five case studies conducted as part of this project.


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Federal Transit Administration

ADA Information

www.fta.dot.gov/ada

PUBLISHED BY THE OFFICE OF CIVIL RIGHTS

Volume 1: Questions and Answers Concerning Common Wheelchairs and Public Transit

Is an electric scooter or other mobility device a common wheelchair?

If an electric scooter or other mobility devicemeets the physical specifications of a commonwheelchair as defined by the DOT’s ADAregulations, it must be treated as a commonwheelchair.

May a transit operator require commonwheelchairs be secured to the vehicle?

Yes, provided that the transit operator hasestablished such a policy. Section 37.165(c)(3) ofthe DOT’s ADA regulations allows a transitoperator to establish a policy that requires allriders to have their common wheelchairs securedwhile aboard a transit vehicle. Therefore, the

operator may decline to provide service to a riderwho refuses to allow his or her common wheel-chair to be secured.

Alternatively, transit operators may adopt a policythat allows common wheelchairs to rideunsecured. If the rider wishes his or her wheel-chair to be secured, however, the operator’spersonnel must provide the requested assistance.

What kinds of securement equipment must be provided?

Section 38.23(d) of the DOT’s ADA regulationsrequires all ADA-compliant vehicles to have a two-part securement system, one to secure thecommon wheelchair, and a seatbelt and shoulder

®

What is a "common wheelchair?"

Section 37.3 of the DOT’s regulations implement-ing the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990(ADA) (49 CFR Parts 27, 37, and 38) defines a"common wheelchair" as a mobility aid belongingto any class of three or four-wheeled devices,usable indoors, designed for and used byindividuals with mobility impairments, whetheroperated manually or powered. A "commonwheelchair" does not exceed 30 inches in widthand 48 inches in length measured two inchesabove the ground, and does not weigh more than600 pounds when occupied.


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harness for the wheelchair user. Section 38.23(a)requires vehicles over 22 feet in length to haveenough securement locations and devices tosecure two common wheelchairs, while vehicles22 feet and under must be able to accommodateat least one common wheelchair.

May a transit operator deny boarding to a rider whose common wheelchair isdifficult to secure?

No. If the transit operator has a policy thatrequires securement, or if a rider asks that thewheelchair be secured, Section 37.165(f) of theDOT’s ADA regulations requires transit personnelto use their best efforts to secure any mobilitydevice that meets the regulatory definition of acommon wheelchair. Section 37.165(d) states thattransit operators cannot refuse to accommodate acommon wheelchair – including a scooter or otherspecialized mobility device that complies with theADA regulation’s specifications -- because thewheelchair cannot be secured to the driver’ssatisfaction. Given the diversity of "common"wheelchairs, transit operators should consult withthe manufacturers of securement devices andwheelchairs, as well as the owner of thewheelchair, to determine the best means ofsecurement.

Does a wheelchair user have to use the seatbelt and shoulder harness?

Under the broad non-discrimination provisions inSection 37.5 of the DOT’s ADA regulations, atransit operator is not permitted to mandate theuse by wheelchair users of seatbelts and shoulderharnesses, unless the operator mandates the useof these devices by all passengers, including thosesitting in vehicle seats. For example, on fixed routebuses, if none of the other passengers are requiredto wear shoulder belts then neither can the personin the mobility device be required to do so.

Transit operators may establish a policy thatrequires the seatbelt and shoulder harness to beused by all riders, including those who use wheel-chairs as well as those who use vehicle seats, ifseatbelts and shoulder harnesses are provided atall seating locations. In some cases, state lawcould require an operator to adopt such a policy.

What kind of services must transit personnel provide?

Because safe and nondiscriminatory transporta-tion is the responsibility of the transit operator,Section 37.173 of the DOT’s ADA regulationsrequires transit operators to train their personnelto properly assist and treat individuals withdisabilities with sensitivity, and to operate vehiclesand equipment safely. This includes training

personnel to use the accessibility equipment andto accommodate the different types of commonwheelchairs.

Attendant-type services (e.g., carrying passengers,personal baggage, or suitcases) are not required,but assistance with boarding and disembarking,including pushing a manual wheelchair up aparticularly steep ramp, is required.

What if the accessibility equipment is missing or not working?

Section 37.161 of the DOT’s ADA regulationsrequires transit operators to maintain and repairthe accessibility equipment. Section 37.163requires public transit operators to establish aschedule or system to ensure regular and frequentmaintenance checks and to take a vehicle out ofservice to repair or replace any broken or missingequipment before returning the vehicle to service.In some instances, a transit operator must providealternative accessible transportation if theaccessibility equipment is not present or notworking.

Does a common wheelchair need brakes in order to use public transit?

No. The DOT ADA regulations’ definition of acommon wheelchair does not include arequirement for brakes or any other equipment.


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A transit operator may not deny transportation toa wheelchair user because the wheelchair does nothave brakes or the user does not choose to set thebrakes.

Can an operator refuse to carry a person witha disability, especially a person using anelectric scooter that meets the definition of a“common wheelchair,” because of higherinsurance rates or liability concerns?

No. Section 37.5(g) of the DOT’s ADA regulationsprohibits an operator from denying service to anindividual with a disability because its insurancecompany conditions coverage or rates on theabsence of individuals with disabilities or personswho use common wheelchairs.

Can a transit operator require a person totransfer from a wheelchair to a vehicle seat?

No. Section 37.165(e) of the DOT’s ADAregulations allows persons who use wheelchairs totransfer to a vehicle seat, if one is available. Such a move is the rider’s decision and the transitoperator cannot force a rider to transfer to avehicle seat, although the transit operator cansuggest a transfer in a non-coercive way.

For more information on this and other topicsrelated to the ADA and public transit, contact:

Federal Transit Administration Office of Civil Rights 400 7th Street, SW Room 9102 Washington, DC 20590

Volume 2: “Premium Charges” for Paratransit Services

Is a transit operator permitted to establish“premium charges” for complementaryparatransit services that exceed the minimumrequirements established by the Department ofTransportation’s ADA regulations?

In general, any paratransit services that a transitoperator provides above and beyond its regulatoryobligations, including service to individuals whodo not fall under one of the three categories ofeligibility established under the ADA, are notsubject to the service criteria for ADA complemen-tary paratransit (i.e., service area, response time,fares, trip purpose, hours and days, and capacityconstraints). Transit operators may therefore electto establish “premium charges” for such services.

Under the ADA, paratransit functions as a “safetynet” for people with disabilities who are unable to

make use of the fixed-route — e.g., “mainstream”— transit system (bus or rail). It is not intendedto be a comprehensive system of transportationthat meets all of the travel needs of persons withdisabilities. As such, the level of service is requiredto be comparable to the fixed-route system, andservice is required only for individuals whosedisability — permanent or temporary — preventsthem from using the fixed-route system. Theeligibility requirements are incorporated into§37.123 of the Department’s regulations, and theservice criteria are established by §37.131.

Section 37.131 establishes the minimum require-ments for complementary paratransit providedunder the ADA; transit operators are free toprovide any level of additional service that they ortheir communities find necessary. This couldinclude providing paratransit service to individualswho do not meet the eligibility criteria, operatingparatransit service beyond the fixed-route servicearea, providing service when the fixed-routesystem is not running, or by exceeding the basicnext-day service requirement. In such cases, theoperator would not be bound by the servicecriteria for ADA complementary paratransit,including the requirement that limits the fare to nomore than twice the fare for a comparable trip onthe fixed-route system.


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While “premium charges” would therefore bepermitted for such services, transit operators whowish to do so are strongly advised to thoroughlyreview Subpart F of the Department’s ADAimplementing regulations before making anychanges to the operations, eligibility, or farestructure of their existing ADA complementaryparatransit systems. Not only must transitoperators ensure that any proposed changes areconsistent with the basic ADA requirements, butthey must also meet the applicable publicparticipation requirements.

With regard to public participation, §37.137(c)requires a paratransit operator to create an“ongoing mechanism” for the participation ofindividuals with disabilities in the continueddevelopment and assessment of services topersons with disabilities. While this provisiondoes not require a transit operator to conduct apublic hearing for minor adjustments to its ADAparatransit service, the use of some form of publicparticipation process in the establishment of“premium services” is strongly advised.

A public hearing is required, however, for changesto the paratransit reservations system. Under§37.131(b)(4), any changes to the reservationsystem must comply with the public participationrequirements in §§37.137(b) and (c) of theDepartment’s ADA implementing regulations.*These require that public participation include:outreach, consultation with individuals withdisabilities, opportunity for public comment, apublic hearing and the creation of a mechanismfor continued participation of persons withdisabilities in the development and assessment ofservices to persons with disabilities.

Transit operators are also advised that they muststill meet the basic ADA paratransit servicecriteria, and should avoid any practice by whicheligible riders are “steered” into a service categoryto which “premium charges” are applied.Furthermore, transit operators should not look to“premium services” as a means of relievingdemand for ADA complementary paratransitservices by eligible riders.

__________________*Note: §37.131(b)(4) of the Department’s ADA regulations, as amended, contains a typographical error; reference to

§37.131(b) and (c) should read “37.137 (b) and (c).”


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Under the Americans with Disabilities Act

(ADA), businesses and organizations that serve

the public must allow people with disabilities

to bring their service animals into all areas of

the facility where customers are normally

allowed to go. This federal law applies to all

businesses open to the public, including restau-

rants, hotels, taxis and shuttles, grocery and

department stores, hospitals and medical

offices, theaters, health clubs, parks, and zoos.

■ Businesses may ask if an animal is a service

animal or ask what tasks the animal has

been trained to perform, but cannot require

special ID cards for the animal or ask about

the person’s disability.

■ People with disabilities who use service

animals cannot be charged extra fees,

isolated from other patrons, or treated less

favorably than other patrons. However, if a

business such as a hotel normally charges

guests for damage that they cause, a cus-

tomer with a disability may be charged for

damage caused by his or her service animal.

■ A person with a disability cannot be asked

to remove his service animal from the prem-

ises unless: (1) the animal is out of control

and the animal’s owner does not take effec-

tive action to control it (for example, a dog

that barks repeatedly during a movie) or

(2) the animal poses a direct threat to the

health or safety of others.

■ In these cases, the business should give the

person with the disability the option to

obtain goods and services without having

the animal on the premises.

■ Businesses that sell or prepare food must

allow service animals in public areas even if

state or local health codes prohibit animals

on the premises.

■ A business is not required to provide care

or food for a service animal or provide a

special location for it to relieve itself.

■ Allergies and fear of animals are generally

not valid reasons for denying access or

refusing service to people with service

animals.

■ Violators of the ADA can be required to pay

money damages and penalties.

If you have additional questions concerning

the ADA and service animals, please call the

Department’s ADA Information Line at

(800) 514-0301 (voice) or (800) 514-0383

(TTY) or visit the ADA Business Connection

at www.ada.gov

Duplication is encouraged. April 2002

U.S. Department of Justice

Civil Rights Division

Disability Rights Section

Americans with Disabilities Act

ADA Business BRIEF:

Service Animals

Service animals are animals that are individually trained to perform tasks for people withdisabilities — such as guiding people who are blind, alerting people who are deaf,pulling wheelchairs, alerting and protecting a person who is having a seizure, or perform-ing other special tasks. Service animals are working animals, not pets.

®

Easter Seals Project ACTIONProject ACTION offers these FREE resources to the disabilitycommunity and transportation industry:

◗ Toll-free Information and Referral line 1-800-659-6428

◗ Quarterly newsletter with information on funding, publications,research, and upcoming trainings and conferences

◗ Website at www.projectaction.org

◗ Training and technical assistance on a variety of topics

◗ Clearinghouse with over 100 free print, video and audio resourceson:

■ Consumer education■ Transit personnel training■ Outreach & marketing■ Technology■ Paratransit eligibility■ Other topic areas

Creating solutions,changing lives.

Easter Seals Project ACTION

700 13th Street, N.W., Suite 200

Washington, D.C. 20005

(202) 347-3066 • (800) 659-6428

TDD (202) 347-7385 • Fax (202) 737-7914

www.projectaction.org

innovative practices in paratransit services€¦ · report, one of the outcomes of the research,...

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