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Work Based Learning e-Journal, Vol. 9, No.1, (2020)
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InvestigatingWork-basedLearningInfluences,
OutcomesandSustainability:AConceptualModel
FRANCESLOUISEFINN1
DepartmentofNursingandHealthCare,WaterfordInstituteofTechnology,Ireland.
DuetopolicychangesacrossEurope,work-basedlearningpedagogiesareontheincreaseinHigher Education programmes. This paper discusses the development of a theoreticalframeworkandconceptualmodelusedtounderpinaninvestigationofwork-basedlearninginpostgraduatenurseeducation.Anoriginalconceptualmodelforanalyzingtheinfluencesand outcomes ofwork-based learning and studying these concerns froma social learningtheoryperspectiveispresented.Themodelisbasedontheassumptionthatindividualslearnwithinandacrosscommunitiesofpractice,yetalsorecognizesthedualityofindividualandsocialcontributionsrequiredforsuccessfulwork-basedlearning.The research aimed to explore how different cultural tools and processes, in addition tosocialandpersonalcontributions, influencedandsustainedoutcomesduringandfollowingwork-basedlearning.Aqualitativecasestudywasemployedtoinvestigatetheexperiencesand perceptions of WBL students and those in support roles, using interviews anddocumentaryanalysis. Fourmaincategoriesofdataemerged fromthe thematicanalysis:navigating workplace cultures and contexts; learning within and across practices;practitioner trajectories and transformations; and practice transformations.The findingssupport the conceptual model proposed in this paper as a means of investigating,understanding and promoting discourse concerning the interrelated influences andoutcomesofWBLindifferingcontexts.
Keywords: Work-based learning, higher education, nursing, conceptual model, culturalhistoricalactivitytheory,communities/landscapesofpracticetheory.
Introduction
Work-based learning (WBL) in Higher Education is a complex system of learning for self,
workplaceanduniversitylevelcreditthatinvolvestripartiterelationshipsbetweenlearners,
employers and academic settings. Due to policy changes across Europe,WBL pedagogies
and practices are on the increase in Higher Education programmes (Nottingham, 2016).
1Email:[email protected]
Work Based Learning e-Journal, Vol. 9, No.1, (2020)
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Seeneitherasadistinct ‘mode’ordisciplinary ‘field’ofpractice,WBL inHigherEducation
differs from themore traditional university based programmes that focusmainly on the
students’ attainment of academic credit (Costley & Armsby, 2007). An emphasis on the
learners’ workplace and practice is evident in the many pedagogical models and
interpretationsofWBLinHigherEducation(Manleyetal.,2009). Primarilysituatedinthe
workplace,learnersundertakingWBLprogrammesapplytheelementsoftheirprofessional
role and activities to academic study within University level programmes (Nottingham,
2016).Thetripartiterelationshipbetweenthe learner (employee), theiremployerandthe
university for negotiating and supporting learning, in consideration of both learner and
organizational developmental needs, is a significant feature of WBL (Basit et al., 2015;
Manleyetal.,2009).Consequently,theemployerandtheworkplaceplayanimportantrole
in learning, inadditiontotheuniversityandlearner(Critten&Moteleb,2007;Basitetal.,
2015),thuscontrastingwiththepreviousemphasisonlearnersandtheirrelationshipwith
the university alone. WBL is ‘multi-modal and complex’ as it is influenced by multiple
socioculturalcontexts,boundariesandpeople(Billet&Choy,2013:273).Thereforeamulti-
facetedapproachtofurtheringunderstandingoffactorsthatinfluenceWBLexperiencesand
outcomes,forlearnersandtheiremployers,isrequired.
In health care contexts WBL has been argued as a means of continued professional
developmentthattransformspractitionersandpractice(Manleyetal.,2009).Theresearch
presentedinthispaperaimedtoexploretrajectoriesofchange(inparticipantsandpractice)
during and following WBL whilst asking ‘how’ the different cultural tools and processes
situated within the WBL programme, in addition to social and personal contributions,
influenced and sustained outcomes. Positioned within an interpretivist paradigm, a
qualitative case study design was employed to investigate one WBL postgraduate nurse
educationprogramme,inIreland.Thispaperdiscussesthedevelopmentandapplicationof
the theoretical framework and conceptualmodel underpinning the research. A review of
keyideasandconceptsfromsocioculturaltheory,culturalhistoricalactivitytheory(CHAT),
communities/landscapes of practice theory is presented and their importance for
understandingandpositioning researchonWBLdiscussed. Specific conceptsandareasof
analysisusedtoexploreWBL influencesandoutcomesare integratedwithinaconceptual
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model. The researchmethodsand findings aredescribed, followedbyadiscussionof the
findingsrelatedtotheconceptualmodelanditsimplicationsforpractice.
TheoreticalPerspectives
Thepurposeofthispaperistoenableresearchersandacademicstofurtherunderstandand
investigate the complexities ofWBL in Higher Education though a sociocultural lens. The
sociocultural theorist considers the broader social context and systems inwhich learning
takesplaceandhowlearnersdevelopbasedonparticipationinculturallysituatedactivities
(Scott & Palincsar, 2013). It is from this position that the theoretical framework and
conceptualmodelunderpinningthisresearchwasdeveloped.
SocioculturalTheory
Vygotsky, in hiswork in the 1920’s claimed that learning and human developmentmore
broadly, occurred within a social world and therefore must be examined on a
multidimensionallevelthattakesaccountoftheindividualandthesocialcontext(Vygotsky,
1978). He argued that development of mind and cognition occurred on two planes;
externallyfirstandtheninternallyandwasalwaysmediatedthroughtheuseoftoolssuch
aslanguageorsigns(Vygotsky,1978).Thissocioculturalperspectiveonmindandcognition
asserts that individual development and higher mental functioning originate from social
interactionwithothers(ScottandPalincsar,2013).
Mediation isoneof themost important concepts in sociocultural theory (Wertsch,2007).
Mediation is considered an umbrella term that encompasses the differentways inwhich
material tools, psychological tools and other people mediate human mental processes
(Guerrero Nieto, 2007). Of these mediational tools, Vygotsky claimed speech and social
interaction tobe themost importantmediatorofpsychologicalprocesses (Kozulin,1998).
This links to his assertion that individual mental functioning develops first externally
between people on the interpsychological plane, then second internally on the
intrapsychologicalplane(Vygotsky,1978).Consequently,mediationisseenintermsofthe
criticalroleindividualsplayinmediatingthelearningofothersasthe‘humanmediator’,and
the roleof toolsand signsas ‘symbolicmediators’ (Kozulin,2003:18).Given themultiple
‘human’ and ‘symbolic’mediators at play, the typesof tools, structures andmediational
Work Based Learning e-Journal, Vol. 9, No.1, (2020)
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means employed inWBL,mediation is a key concept and important area of analysis for
researchers.
Vygotskyalsoemphasized the importanceof theenvironmenton learning,arguing that it
wasnotthematerialqualitiesofasituation,buthowitwasexperiencedorinterpretedby
anindividualthatwasinterrelatedtotheirdevelopment(Vygotsky,1994).Similarlycontext
canbeviewedintermsoftheimmediatecontextasthetaskandcontentoflearningwithin
a specific physical and relational environment and the larger contexts of social, historical
andculturalsettingsinwhichtheinteractiontakesplace(Latucca,2002).Typically,culture
refers to the ideas, customs, and social behaviour of a particular people or society.
Individualsarerepresentedwithinmanyculturessuchofthosesurroundingwork,education
and family contexts. This plural notion of culture, indicating that an individual is not
represented within one but many, is relevant in considering the differing contexts and
culturessurroundingthosewhoparticipateinprogrammesofWBL.Theinterplaybetween
workplace ‘affordances’ (learning opportunities afforded to individuals) and ‘constraints’
(Wertsch, 1998: 45) and how learning is influenced by these are important areas for
analysis.
Central tounderstandinghumandevelopment fromasocioculturalperspective is the idea
thatcultureisembeddedinandrepresentedthroughtoolsanddiscourses;‘culturaltools’as
mediational means. Tool and artifact are often used synonymously however Cole (1996)
seestool (bothphysicalandpsychological)asasubcategoryofartifactwhichrepresentsa
wider range of cultural and historical embodiments. This wider interpretation of culture
through the concept of ‘artifact’ as suggested by Cole (1996) is useful in exploring how
behaviours,interactions,andhistoriesofgroupsinfluenceindividuallearningthroughtools
anddiscourseasmediationalmeans.Ananalysiswhichtakes intoaccounttheinterplayof
socioculturalfactorsandtheindividual(Palincsar,1998),isimportantinunderstandingWBL.
These key ideas originating fromVygotsky’s sociocultural theory are seen in the evolving
generationsofCHAT.
CulturalHistoricalActivityTheory
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CHAT evolved through three generations (Engeström, 2001) and can be viewed as an
ongoingtraditionofbothsocioculturalpsychologyandactivitytheory(Edwards,2005).The
concept of mediation and mediational means in addition to activity (and later activity
systems), are central to CHAT as the key foci of analysis. Vygotsky’s idea of cultural
mediationinvolvesathreewayrelationshipofsubject,objectandmediatingartifactwhich
shows how cultural tools mediate actions (Engeström, 2001). The concept of ‘object’ is
understoodasthepurposeofactivityandconsequentlyrenderstheactivitymeaningful.The
subject (person) achieves their purpose (object) by employing cultural tools or artefacts.
However,Leont’ev(1981)arguedthattheobjectofactivityisnotalwaysunderstoodbythe
different actors in an activity system. Shared understandings of the object are important
and ifnotpresenttensionsandconflictsmayarisewhich inturncan leadtodifficulties in
negotiating activities andmeaning (Timmis, 2013). In investigating the influencesofWBL,
where projects or learning activities are negotiated within tripartite relationships, this
‘sharedunderstanding’isworthyofanalyticattention.
Towards a second generationof CHAT, Engeström (1987) turns the analytic focus toward
‘complex interrelations between the individual subject and his or her community’
(Engeström, 2001: 134). Engeström recognises that ‘object-orientated actions are always
explicitly, or implicitly, characterisedby ambiguity, surprise, interpretation, sensemaking,
and potential for change’ (2001: 134). Where tensions and contradictions between
elements of the activity system exist, interpretation and meaning making is not always
aligned by all actors. This idea relates to a key concept of ‘multi-voicedness’ of systems,
recognisingthemultipleviews, traditionsand interestsofacommunity (Engeström,2001:
136-137). Furthermore, activity systems change and transform over time and concepts
‘historicity’andthepossibilityof‘expansivetransformation’arecentralprinciplesofCHAT;
meaningthattheycanonlybeunderstoodagainst‘theirownhistory’andundergocyclesof
change(Engeström2001:137).
InathirdgenerationofCHAT,thefocusofanalysismovestonetworksofinteractingactivity
systemswiththepossibilityof jointlysharedobjects,transitionsandreorganizationwithin
andbetweenactivity systems (Engeström, 2009).Greaterattention ispaid to theways in
which people have to work andmove across boundaries between activity systems; such
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boundarycrossingrequiringnegotiationofactivityandjointlysharedmeaningoftheobject
(Engeström, 2001). Furthermore, individual subjectivity, agency and relationality become
key considerations (Engeström, 2001). The relational inter-dependence between personal
agency,subjectivityandsocialfactorsareimportantinWBL(Billet,2011).Forpractitioners
who are required to work across organisational boundaries, strong forms of agency are
essentialastheyneedtorecogniseandaccesstheresourcesthatothersbringtotheobject
(Edwards,2005).Thisrelationalagency,‘acapacitytooffersupportandtoaskforsupport
fromothers’ (Edwards,2005:168) isausefulconcept inhighlightingan importantareaof
analysis. Relational agency shifts the focus from the system to the impact of those who
engageinjointactionbetweenandacrosssystems(Edwards,2005).
Key ideas and concepts that have evolved through three generations of CHAT, such as
community, boundary crossing, agency, culture, history, multi-voicedness and
transformation, are beneficial in furthering understandings of the myriad of factors
influencingWBLexperiencesandoutcomes. These importantareas foranalytic attention
arelinkedtosimilartheoriesofcommunities/landscapesofpractice.
CommunitiesandLandscapesofPractice
Inhisworkoncommunitiesofpractice,Wenger (1998) claims thatwe learnandbecome
whowe are as a result of our engagement in social practice. The community of practice
concept isunderpinnedby fourmaincomponentsof social learning:meaning (learningas
experience); community (learning as belonging); identity (learning as becoming); and
practice(learningasdoing)(Wenger,1998).Theintegrationoftheseconceptsprovidesthe
conceptual framework of a ‘community of practice’ within which to analyse ‘social
participationasaprocessoflearningandknowing’(Wenger,1998:4).
Participation in culturally valued collaborative practices, that produces something useful,
motivatesindividualstolearn(Lave&Wenger,1991).Wenger(1998)employstheconcepts
ofparticipationand reification in theorisingmeaningful learning.Participation isanactive
processoftakingpartinsomething,ofconnectionwithothersandaction.Reificationrefers
toengagementasproductive,inthatexperienceismadeintoathing;aconcreteobjectsuch
as a document or tool (Wenger, 1998). Situated in context, meaningful learning is
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essentiallyasocialactivityofengagementwhereskillsaredevelopedinpracticeandperson
identitiesareproducedandtransformed(Lave&Wenger,2005).Wenger(1998) identifies
threemodesofbelonging:alignment,aprocessofcoordinationofownactivitiessotheyare
alignedwith the community; engagementwith others in the socialworld and developing
trajectory;andimaginationwherebytheindividualvisualizestheirownpositionwithinthe
community and imagines their future. In exploring learner trajectories and the initial and
longer term (sustainable) outcomes of WBL, concepts of alignment, engagement and
imagination provide important ways of looking at the processes and tools that mediate
learning.ByanalyzinginwhatwaysWBLpromotesparticipationandreificationandenables
trajectories of learning towards personal and professional identity development through
alignment,engagementandimaginationwithinandacrosscommunitiesinpractice,arange
ofinfluencesandoutcomescanbeinvestigated.
Thenotionofmultiplecommunitiesasalandscapeofpracticeisusefulintheinvestigation
ofWBL,asinherentinthisconceptistheideathatboundarycrossingbetweencommunities
has the potential for rich insightful learning and innovation (Engeström, 2001; Wenger-
Trayner & Wenger–Trayner, 2015a). Whilst active experience and engagement within a
communityofpracticeis importantwithregardthenotionofpractitionersdevelopingand
maintaining competence (Wenger, 1998), learning in a landscape of practice enables
practitionerstobeknowledgeableaboutamultiplicityofrelatedpractices(Wenger-Trayner
&Wenger-Trayner, 2015a). It is the connectionwith amultiplicity of practices across the
landscapethathelpsdevelopknowledgeability;thatistherelationshipspeoplebuildacross
the landscape to be knowledgeable about other practices and relevance to their own
(Wenger-Trayner&Wenger-Trayner, 2015a). This suggests that in addition to developing
competencewithinasinglecommunityofpractice,knowledgeabilitywouldbeanimportant
outcomeofWBLifprofessionalsaretodevelopandsustainrelationshipsacrossboundaries
ofpractice.
Boundary objects and brokering are two types of connections that link communities of
practice (Wenger-Trayner&Wenger-Trayner,2015a).Boundaryobjectscanbeconsidered
the products of reification such as documents and other artefacts around which
communities are interconnected. For example, the tools and processes within a WBL
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framework such as learning contracts can be seen as the boundary object that connects
academic andpractice communities.Whereas brokering refers to activities of persons on
the periphery of various communities, that provide connections between them and
consequentlyintroducepracticesacrossthem(Wenger,1998).
Whilst Wenger (1998) argues that learning and identity is associated with individual
trajectories across landscapes of practices. Wenger-Trayner andWenger-Trayner (2015a:
15)furtherstressthatthe‘landscapeispolitical’andthepowerdynamicshavearoletoplay
with competing voices and claims to knowledge. Wenger-Trayner and Wenger-Trayner
(2015a: 17-18) claim that ‘crossing boundaries, boundary encounters and boundary
partnerships are necessary for the integration of a landscape of practice’. However,
boundariescanalsobeareasofconfusion,conflictandmisunderstandingsascommunities
hold different perspectives, values and interests. Engeström’s (2001) concepts of ‘multi-
voicedness’and‘contradictions’(asprinciplesofCHAT)cometotheforeinWenger-Trayner
and Wenger-Trayners’ (2015a) interpretation of boundary crossing as both a source of
challengeandinnovation.Yet,Wenger-TraynerandWenger-Trayner(2015b:108)claimthat
‘meaningfulengagementacrossboundariesistransformative’ofbothpracticeandidentity.
Thelandscapeofpracticesconceptandtheroleof‘brokers'and‘boundaryobjects’canhelp
in furthering understandings of what occurs at the peripheries and across boundaries of
interconnectedcommunitiesofpractice.Furthermore,theycanhelpinanalysingthetools
andpartnershipsnecessaryforboundaryencountersandsuccessfulWBL.
DevelopmentofaConceptualModelofWBL
Thetheoriesdiscussedinthispaperemphasisesocialandculturalcontributionstoindividual
cognition, contrasting with psychological explanations that focus on the person (Billet,
2011).Bothactivitytheoryandcommunitiesofpracticecanprovideusefulframeworksfor
analyzinglearningatwork(Fulleretal.,2005).Althoughtheydivergeinareasandconverge
inothersitisthekeyconceptsthatspansomeofthesehistoricaltheoreticaldevelopments
thatareuseful inframingastudyofWBLthat investigatesboth influencesandoutcomes.
CurrentthinkingonWBLrecognisestherelational interdependenceofsocialcontributions
andindividualagencyrequiredforlearningatwork(Billet,2011).WhilstEngeström(2001)
recognisestheimportanceofagencywithinCHAT,Wenger’s(1998)communitiesofpractice
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theoryappearstopay littleattentiontohow individualcharacteristicsandtraits influence
learning which leaves a gap in this analytic framework. The inclusion of the concepts
subjectivity,selfandagencyinaconceptualframeworkmeanstheeffortsoftheindividual,
their subjectivities and degree of interest are identified as factors that influence learning
throughandforwork(Bandura,2001;Billet,2011).Agencyconcernstheintentionto‘make
things happen by ones actions’ and ‘embodies the endowments, belief systems, self-
regulatory capabilities and distributed structures through which personal influence is
exercised’ (Bandura, 2001: 2).Whereas relational agency is concernedwith the ability to
offer support and/or accept support from others (Edwards, 2005). With the addition of
theseconceptstothetheoretical framework,bothsocialandpersonal influencesarepaid
analyticalattention.
Figure 1 depicts the conceptual model arising from the theoretical framework and key
conceptsdiscussedwithinthispaper.
Figure1:AConceptualModelforInvestigatingWBLinHigherEducation
Themodelisbasedontheassumptionthatindividualslearnwithinandacrosscommunities
ofpractice(Wenger,1998;Wenger-Trayner&Wenger-Trayner,2015a).Eachcommunityof
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practice that the learner may engage with through WBL is represented by overlapping
circles in the center of the model, thus signifying the landscape of practice. Such
communitiesofpracticecouldincludeforexamplethelearner’sclinicalpracticecommunity;
related practice areas/communities with the organisation such as management; and the
academic community (peers, lecturers). Participation and reification are recognised as
central to leaning within and at the boundaries of communities of practice whereby
individuals engage in meaningful activity with the aim of producing something useful
(Wenger,1998).
The duality of individual and social contributions required for successful WBL are
representedontheleftofthemodel,thusindicatingtheseinterrelatedconceptsasfactors
influencingWBLexperiences andoutcomes.Agency, self and subjectivity (Bandura, 2001;
Billet, 2011) concern the role of the individual in learning; their personal traits and
intentionsasinfluencesonengagementandoutcomesofWBL.Theinfluenceofworkplace
culturesonWBLisconsideredwithintheconceptsofworkplaceaffordancesandconstraints
(Billet, 2011;Wertsch, 1998). In addition,multi-voicedness recognises themultiple views,
traditionsandinterests(fromlearnerorsupportperspectives)andthepotentialfortensions
and contradictions influencing activity (Engeström, 2001), central to participation and
reificationincommunitiesofpractice(Wenger,1998).Withtheinclusionoftheseconcepts,
theinterplayofindividualandsocioculturalfactorsthatinfluenceWBLareaccountedforin
themodel.
On the right side of the model attention is drawn to how learning is mediated and
scaffoldedthroughculturaltoolsanddiscourse.Thesesociocultural influencesonWBLare
understoodusingthekeyconceptsofmediatingartifactswhichincludepeopleandcultural
tools as mediational means (Kozulin, 2003). Boundary objects, boundary encounters and
brokersrepresentthedifferentmediationaltoolsanddiscourseexperiencedbywork-based
learners at the boundaries of communities (Engeström, 2001; Wenger, 1998; Wenger-
Trayner&Wenger-Trayner,2015a).
The cyclicalnatureof themodel reflects trajectoriesof changeand sustainableoutcomes
achievedthroughWBL.Thetransformationofpractitionersandtheirpracticeisunderstood
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throughtheremakingofcultural tools fortheircommunity (Billet,2011)andtheensuring
development of competence and knowledgeability (Wenger-Trayner & Wenger-Trayner,
2015a). This engagement, and ensuing learning trajectory and identity development of
individuals,isbelievedtobeinfluencedbyhowlearnersimaginetheirfutureandalignself
withcommunitygoals(Wenger,1998).Consequently,theroleofimagination,engagement
andalignmentarerecognisedasinfluencesonlearningtrajectory.
TheResearchApproachandMethods
Developing a theoretical framework is an essential task of designing and conducting
research. The ontological and epistemological positioning of the researcher, the
methodological approach and the theoretical lens thoughwhich to situate questions and
interpret findings are key considerations. The conceptualmodel (Figure 1)was used as a
theoreticallenstounderpinthisqualitativecasestudyofWBLinfluencesandoutcomes.The
investigationwassituatedwithinonepostgraduatenurseeducationprogrammeinIreland,
ofwhichIwasthecourseleader.
Thecase
The ‘case’ in this study consists of the interrelated parts of the WBL programme: the
Postgraduate Diploma inNursing curriculum; the students on the programme; and those
involved in supporting learning (academics supervisors, clinical supervisors and nurse
managers). The programme curriculum framework is aligned with Boud’s (2001) WBL
curriculumelements,outlinedinTable1.Theprogrammeethossupportsaduallybeneficial
approach to learning that aligns practitioner developmentwith practice development for
service improvements through negotiated learning activities. Students undertaking the
programmeareallqualifiednurses,workingfullorparttimeinclinicalsettings,whowishto
further develop their knowledge, skills and competence within their area of practice.
Students are supported through a tripartite system of supervision that includes a clinical
supervisor (from their practice setting) and an academic supervisor (a lecturer from the
programme).Tripartitemeetingsareheldinthepracticeareathreetimespersemesterwith
theaimofnegotiatingandsupportingstudentlearning.
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Table1:PostgraduateDiplomainnursingWBLcurriculumframework
WBLCurriculum(Boud2001)
PostgraduateDiplomainNursingCurriculumFramework
Establishwork-basedlearningintheschoolandclinicalpracticeAddressthediverserangeofknowledgeandskillsofstudentsattheoutsetLocatetheoutcomesofwork-basedlearninginanacademicframeworkPromotingthedevelopment&negotiationoflearningactivitiesEncouragecriticalreflectionthroughouttheprogrammeSupporttheon-goinglearningofstudentsinsituDocumentlearninginaformthatcanbeassessed
ProgrammeDevelopmentandPhilosophy:• PartnershipapproachthroughoutbetweenHigher
EducationInstituteandHealthServiceOrganisation• Reflectsatransformativework-basedmodelthatbuilds
onthepotentialforlearningwithinthework/practiceenvironmentthroughstructuredacademicandclinicalsupervisionandnegotiatedpractitionerdevelopmentalignedwithpracticedevelopmentopportunities
• Processandguidelinesforrecognitionofpriorlearning(RPL)developedforaccesstothepostgraduateprogramme
• 6modules,totalling60creditsatNQAI(2003)level9(EQFlevel7)
Teaching/learning/Approaches:• Combinedwork-basedlearningasamodeofstudywith
collegebasedlecturesandseminars• Work-basedlearningactivitiesnegotiatedwithinlearning
agreements• Additionalexternal(negotiated)clinicalplacementsin
centersofexcellencetoenablecompetencydevelopmentwithinspecialistpractice.
• Reflecting,enquiringandcreatingunderpinacademicallyrigorouslearningforprofessionalpractice
• Individualenquiryandcriticalreflectionsupportedwithinsupervisorydiscourseandseminars
SupportMechanisms/Roles:• ClinicalManagementsupportandcommitmentrequired
onapplication• Academicsupervision(AS)andClinicalSupervision(CS)
andsupportprovidedthroughtripartitemeetings(betweenAS,CSandstudent)throughoutprogramme
AssessmentMethods:• Theoreticalandcompetencyassessment;formativeat
tripartitemeetings;summativeatendofeachsemester• Academicassignments• PortfolioofEvidence• ReflectiveLearningLog
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Theparticipants
InordertoexploretheinfluencesandoutcomesofWBLfrommultipleperspectives,itwas
necessary to investigate the views of different stakeholders. Participants in this study
includedpast studentswhohadcompleted theprogramme;practitioners in support roles
(clinical and academic supervisors); and nurse managers and Directors of Nursing from
clinicalpracticesettings.Paststudentswhohadcompletedtheprogrammeby2012(N=55)
wereinvitedtoparticipatevialetter2.Thetemporalaspectofthesamplewasimportantin
investigatingthesustainedoutcomesofWBL(interviewswereconductedin2013).Clinical
supervisors,nursemanagersandDirectorsofNursing involvedwith theprogrammewere
recruited via purposeful sampling. Thosewho had experience of supporting two ormore
studentsoverthecourseoftheprogrammewereinvitedtoparticipatebyletter3.Academic
supervisorswereapproachedinformallyfirstbytheresearcherthenrecruitedviaemail.
Thepurposivesamplingstrategyyieldedaheterogeneouscompositionofparticipants(N=
21). They includedpast students of the programme (N = 11) and those acting in support
roles (clinical supervisors, academic supervisors and nurse managers) (N = 10). Some
participants occupied dual roles at the time of interview; for example some clinical
supervisors or nurse managers had previously undertaken the programme. All the
participantsinthestudywerequalifiednurses.Practitionerparticipantsworkedinavariety
of clinical settings; mental health; general; community; maternal and rehabilitation. An
overviewof thedemographicandpractice relatedvariablesof the sampleareoutlined in
Table2.
2Approvaltocontactstudentsforevaluationandresearchpurposesobtainedonprogrammecommencement3Letterssenttoworkaddressesknowntoresearcheraspartofprofessionalworkingpartnerships.
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Table2:Participantdetails
Code M/F YearsofExperience
AreaofPractice Position ProgrammeRole
P1 F >20 Maternal/ChildHealth
StaffMidwife PastStudent
P2 M >20 Regional DirectorofNursing CommissionerP3 F 12 Education LecturerinMental
HealthNursingAcademicSupervisor
P4 F 6 Education LecturerinNursing AcademicSupervisorP5 F 15 HighDependency StaffNurse PastStudentP6 F >20 MentalHealth ClinicalNurse
ManagerPastStudent
P7 M 15 HighDependency ClinicalNurseManager
PastStudent/ClinicalSupervisor
P8 F >20 CommunityHealth
ClinicalNurseSpecialist
PastStudent
P9 F 12 Habilitation/Rehabilitation
ClinicalNurseSpecialist
PastStudent/ClinicalSupervisor
P10 F 10 InstituteofTechnology
LecturerinGeneralNursing
AcademicSupervisor
P11 F 4 IntellectualDisability
StaffNurse PastStudent
P12 M 12 Education LecturerinMentalHealthNursing
AcademicSupervisor
P13 F >20 Maternal/ChildHealth
AdvancedNursePractitioner
ClinicalSupervisor
P14 F 4 MentalHealth StaffNurse PastStudentP15 M >20 Community
MentalHealthClinicalNurseSpecialist
ClinicalSupervisor
P16 F 8 CommunityMentalHealth
StaffNurse PastStudent
P17 F >20 GeneralNursingAcuteCare
ClinicalNurseManager
NurseManager
P18 F >20 HighDependency StaffNurse PastStudentP19 M >20 MentalHealth DirectorofNursing DirectorofNursingP20 F >20 Community
MentalHealthClinicalNurseSpecialist
PastStudent/ClinicalSupervisor
P21 F >20 GeneralNursingAcuteCare
NurseManager ClinicalSupervisor/NurseManager
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Datacollectionandanalysis
Semi-structured interviewswere conductedwith all participants (N = 21) at their chosen
location,betweenMarchandAugust2013.Theylastedbetween30–40minutesandwere
digitally recorded following permission. Questions explored topics relating to participant
role and area of practice; experiences of undertaking (or supporting) WBL; factors they
perceived to facilitate or hinderWBL; andoutcomesofWBL. Documentary data sources
includedthereflectivelearninglogsandportfoliosofevidenceofthepaststudents(n=11).
Students completed these assignments during their WBL and submitted on programme
completion.Combined,thesedocumentsprovidedstudentreflectionsontheirlearningover
the duration of the programme, evidence of competency development, practice
development project reports and records of tripartite meetings. In interviewing past
students post programme completion, it was conceivable that perceptions could change
duetorecallabilityorthepassageoftime.Thereforedocumentaryanalysisinadditionto
interviewshelpedbuildapictureofWBLinfluencesandoutcomesovertimeforeachpast
student.
Phaseddata analysis activitieswerebasedon an analytic hierarchy (Spenceret al., 2003)
(see Table 3), to ensure a systematic yet iterative approach, which involved three main
stages: (1) thematic analysis (2) process tracing (3) a theoretically informed analysis.
Microsoft word (2010) was used to support data management, coding and synthesis.
Interviewanddocumentarydata(studentportfoliosandlearninglogs)underwentthematic
analysis.Interviewsweretranscribedinfull,recurringthemesidentifiedandthengrouped.
Memos and notes were used to identify then code initial themes in the analysis of
documents.Acomparisonofdocumentaryandinterviewdatathroughthedevelopmentof
thematicchartsleadtothefinalcategoriesofthemes.
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Table3:AnalytichierarchyadaptedfromSpenceretal.(2003:212)
StageofDataAnalysis ActivitiesUndertaken
DataFamiliarisation
CONTINUOUSREFLEXIVITY
Readingofallinterviewtranscripts
Readingofallportfoliosandlearninglogs
Readingofinterviewtranscriptswhilstlisteningtoaudio
ofinterview
DataManagement:Interview
transcriptsand
learninglogs
Initialidentificationofrecurringthemesandkey
conceptsbasedonresearchquestionsandtheoretical
framework
Buildingofathematicframeworkandgroupingof
smallerthemesintomainthemes
Applicationofcodingsystemtorawdata.
Clusteringofdataintothemesandsubthemes
Portfolios
Identificationoflearningoutcomesattained,
competencydevelopment,practiceimprovement
examples(basedonresearchquestion2)
Developmentofcategoriesofdatafromportfolios
DescriptiveAccounts
Datasynthesisandcreationofthematicchartsrelativeto
participantcharacteristicsandcontext
Reviewandcategorisationofdataintothemesand
subthemes
ComprehensivenarrativesofIndividualcases(past
students)developed
Similaritiesidentified
ExplanatoryAccounts
Explanationsfrombothimplicitandexplicitaccounts
weredeveloped.
Linksbetweeninfluencesandoutcomesidentified
thoughcausalprocesstracing
Applicationoftheoreticalframework
Relatedtootherstudies
The analytic strategy of process tracing offers a temporal aspect to data analysis and
enables links tobeascertainedbetweencausesandoutcomes (Collier, 2011).Blatter and
Haverlands’ (2014) methods were applied to individual case analysis of past student
participants. Careful examination of documents and interview transcripts enabled the
developmentofacomprehensivestory line foreachpaststudent.Applying ‘smokinggun’
and ‘confessions’asobservationalmethods (seeTable4.) strengtheneddescriptiveclaims
andinferencesbetweentheinfluencesandoutcomesofWBLforeachparticipant.
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Table4:Keyaspectsofcausal-processtracing(Blatter&Haverland,2014:7-9)
Causal-ProcessTracing
Emphases Configurationalthinking
Basedonassumptionsthat:socialoutcomesaretheresultofacombinationofcausalfactors;therearedivergentpathwaystosimilaroutcomes(equifinality);andtheeffectsofthesame‘causalfactor’canbedifferentindifferentcontextsandcombinations(causalheterogeneity).
Causalmechanisms
Configurativeentitythatcombinesdifferenttypesofsocialmechanisms
Temporality Timeandtemporalityplayamajorroleincausalprocesstracing.Configurationalthinkingwithtemporalitycomplementsqualitativecomparativeanalysis
Typesofobservations
Comprehensivestoryline
Narrativestyleofpresentingrelevantcausalconditions,majorsequencesofprocessandcriticalmomentsthatshapetheprocess
Smokinggunobservations
Connectedtootherobservations,showsthetemporalandspecialproximityofcausesandeffects(nottotesthypothesis)Referstothetemporalclosenessbetweenobservationspointingtoaspecificcauseandothersthatprovideevidenceaboutconsequencesofthecause
Confessions Carefulexaminationofthecontextsinwhichactorsprovideinformationabouttheirperceptions,motivationsandanticipations.Anawarenessoftypicalbiaseswithrespecttomotivations,ininterpretingstatementsofactorsinspecificcontexts.
The final stage of data analysis involved application of the theoretical framework and
conceptualmodeltosynthesiseddata.Alldataanalysisphaseswerediscussedthroughthe
peerdebriefingprocess.
Ethicalconsiderations
Ethical approval was granted by the University and Regional Health Service Ethics
Committeespriortodatacollection.Permissiontoundertakethestudyandgainaccessto
clinicalstaffwasgrantedbytheDirectorsofNursingwhereparticipantsworked.Potential
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participants were informed fully of the nature and process of the study during the
recruitmentprocess(usinginformationsheets)andinvitedtocontacttheresearcherifthey
had questions.Written informed consent was obtained prior to data collection activities
(interviews and document review) and participants reminded of their right to withdraw
from the study at any time. Confidentiality and anonymity of participants (and their
employingorganisations/practicesettings)wereprotectedthroughout.
Ascourse leaderof theprogramme Ihadaprofessional relationshipwith theparticipants
and therefore considered carefully the potential impact of being an insider researcher
throughout this study. Taking steps to limit bias, I engaged in peer debriefing with an
experiencedcolleagueandusedareflectivediary.Thisprocessofcriticalreflexivityenabled
me to examine decisions made, question any assumptions and ensure conclusions were
drawn from research data rather than previous knowledge and experience of the WBL
programme.
Findings
Fourmaincategoriesofdataemergedfromthethematicanalysis:
• Navigatingworkplaceculturesandcontexts
• Learningwithinandacrosspractices
• Practitionertrajectoriesandtransformations
• Practicetransformations
Navigatingworkplaceculturesandcontexts
This category of data encompassed the role of social and personal agency, colleagues’
attitudesandworkplacesupportsaskey influencesonexperiencesandoutcomesofWBL.
Both personal and social expectations of WBL, knowing what to expect, indicated a
perceivedneedforstrongpersonalagencyforthoseundertakingtheprogramme‘youneed
to be open to it and know what you are getting in to’ (P20, Past Student – Interview).
Previous experiences and expectations of postgraduate educationwere seen to influence
bothstudentandclinicalsupervisors’engagementas‘understandingofwhatitisallabout’
was seen as an issue by student and supervisor participants, suggesting socially derived
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individual subjectivities influenced agency (Billet, 2011). The paradigm shift towardsWBL
challengedpractitionerswhosepreviousexperiencewasgroundedininstrumental,content
driven education as one manager argued the need for ‘people who will actually teach
specificsofeachcourse’(P17,NurseManager).
Participantsrevealedtheimportanceofpositiveattitudesandsupportatwork.Themajority
oflearnersweresupportedbymanagersandcolleaguesandwereaffordedopportunitiesto
engage inWBL. DirectorsofNursing recognized their responsibility in creatinga learning
cultureandpositivelearningenvironmentswithintheirorganisationsforWBLtothrive.
Iworkedwiththemultidisciplinaryteam,theywereverysupportiveandmynursemanagersweresupportive…alwaysenquiringhowIwasgettingon. Iwasgiventhefreedomtoattendcollege,tolookatanddeveloppractice(P20,PastStudent).
Youmust fosteranenvironmentwhere the student canopenlyquestion their ownpractice,the practice of the unit …and that they can then be supported to identifyweaknesses (P2,DirectorofNursing).
However less supportive cultures, negative attitudes frommanagers and colleagueswere
experienced by some past learners, as one described her need to ‘fight for everything’.
Anotherdescribed thepoorattitudesof staff inherworkplace towardsher further study.
Yet strong personal agency appeared to override workplace constraints for most past
studentsinthisstudy.
ThekeyroleofthenursemanagerinempoweringstafftoengageinWBLprojects,especially
forstudents indirectcarepositions,wasobservedbymany.Some learnersexpressedthe
need for dedicated time to engagewithwork-based learning activities; the difficulties of
securing time were evident. Workplace affordances were often connected to learner
positionwithintheorganisation.Forsomepaststudentsinstaffnurserolesthisinfluenced
their ability to secure time and access to learning opportunities. Whereas learners who
wereinadvancedpositions(suchasnursemanagersorclinicalnursespecialists)duringthe
programmewereabletonegotiatetimeforprojectworkwithintheircurrentrole,afinding
thatwasalsorecognisedbythoseinmanagementpositions.
Ithinkthereprobablyshouldbeafewhours,notevenaday,fromaworkperspectivethatyoucouldjusthavededicatedtoyourbitofresearchinwork(P5,PastStudent).
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The students who are at themanagerial level… they’ve got the position power to do it. Itdepends on the relationship between the student and manager at local level (P17, NurseManager).
Learningwithinandacrosspractices
WBLwasexperiencedbyparticipantsacrosscommunitiesofpracticespanningclinical(local
practicesettingsandexternalclinicalplacements);managerial(managementgroupswithin
own organisation or allied professional organisations) and educational settings (class
seminarsandenquirygroups).WBLacross this landscapeofpractice involvedpartnership
working,boundaryencountersandthereciprocityoftheoryandpractice,whichenabledthe
scaffoldingoflearning.Partnershipworkingthroughtripartitemeetingsbetweenacademic
andclinical communitiesofpractice (situatedwithin thecurriculum framework),provided
the opportunity for learners, academics and clinical supervisors to negotiate meaning
surrounding WBL processes and activities. These meetings were seen as productive and
supportiveforthemajorityofparticipants.
Ihadaclinicalsupervisorandanacademicsupervisoranditwasgreattohavebothofthem(at themeeting) as theywere coming fromdifferent perspectives…bashingout an issue. Itwasgreat.(P5,PastStudent).
Negotiatinglearningthroughthesetripartitepartnershipswassignificantinaligninglearner
developmentneedswithpracticeorservicerequirements,thuspromotingthedevelopment
ofcommunitytoolsandresources.
When the students are looking for an area of enquirywe usually come upwith somethingthere is a problemwith rather thangoing off anddoing something that is very abstract. Itcovers both college work and our service problem, which would benefit the patient (P15,ClinicalSupervisor).
However, boundaries between different communities of practice (academic and clinical)
wereareasofconflictandmisunderstandingonoccasions,duetothedifferentperspectives
andinterestsofeach.Oneacademicsupervisorreportedstudentsbeingunderpressureat
times to achieve a multitude of service improvements highlighting their key role in
negotiating student projects that were in the first instance related to student learning
needs.
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It’salsoaboutworkingwiththestudentsandmakingsurethatthereisn'taconflictbetweenthestudentandtheclinicalpersonaswell……saying‘whileIappreciatethisiswhatyoumightwantasaclinicalsupervisorthisiswhatthestudentalsohastoachieve’(P10,AcademicSupervisor).
The role analysis and competency development plans were experienced as significant
boundary objects through which the learners negotiated and planned their learning
activities. Throughthecompletionofthese, learnerswereabletoreflectontheircurrent
role and imagine their future role. These activities in addition to partnership working
(tripartitemeetings) supported the scaffolding ofWBL and outlined learner intentionality
withregardthekindsofwork-basedlearningactivitiestheywouldengagein.
Theroleanalysiswasaverygoodwaytostartanycoursesoyoucanseewhatisgoingtobeusefulforyourselfandwhatisgoingtobeapplicable(P7,PastStudent).Myfirststrategyindevelopingthiscompetencywastosearchtheliteraturetoascertainbestpractice in relation to evaluation of antenatal education. I didn’t knowwhere to start.Wediscussedthisindetaildecidingsearchtermsandpeerreviewedjournals.Thismeetingreallyhelpedme to focus on how to commence developing this competency (P1, Past Student –LearningLogEntry).
Findings indicated a reciprocal relationship between theory and practice. Through WBL
activities, theory was used to inform practice and practice enabled an understanding of
theory.Participantsdescribed‘eurekamoments’highlightingtheroleengagementinsocial
practice has in illuminating understandings of theory and the value this has for future
practice.
It’sonethingreadingaboutitbutwhenyoucomebackhereitmakesmoresense…..you’regoing 'oh right that's how it is supposed to be done, that’s what that meant' (P14, PastStudent)
Practitionertrajectoriesandtransformations
Practitioner trajectoriesand transformations includeddevelopingcompetence;developing
relationships; becoming reflexive and being confident. The development of personal and
professional identity has been linked to the social context of learning and meaningful
participation in practice (Wenger 1998). Past students in this study were engaged on a
trajectoryof learning thatwas alignedwith their imagined futureor negotiated futureof
roleprogression.Atprogrammecommencement,severalnurseswere‘acting’intheirroles
asclinicalnursespecialistsorclinicalnursemanagersandwerealreadyonsuchtrajectories
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intermsofachievingaqualificationtosupporttheircareerpathway.Otherswerehopingto
advancetheircareersandpromotionopportunitiesbygainingpostgraduatequalifications.
SeveralpractitionersuponcompletionoftheWBLprogrammehadsecurednewpositions.
Although the transition into new posts and/or roles since undertaking the programme
appearedtotransformlearneridentities,paststudentsidentifiedwithbeingatransformed
practitionerasaconsequenceoftheirWBLexperiences.
I am a different person to what I was. Sometimes I am amazed as to how much I havechangedand I still think that the course is the rootof that… itmademestart thinking inadifferentway,inamoreopenway(P6,PastStudent).
Learner trajectories through WBL resulted in competence development, developing
relationships and becoming reflexive, confident practitioners. Key areas of practitioner
competence development included audit and research; patient/service user advocacy,
facilitatingeducationandclinicallyfocusedskillsrelatedtotheirspecialistclinicalpractice.
The competency development process was underpinned by the student’s competency
developmentplanandrelatedtoprofessionalroleandrelevancetopractice.Theimpactof
student competency development on practicewas observed by a number of participants
acrossavarietyofareas;suchastheprovisionofserviceusereducationanddevelopment
ofadvocacyinitiatives.
Clinically their level of competency has increased and the benefit is that there is kind of aknock on effect.Wewould see that, for the service users inmental health. One student inparticulartookondifferentaspectsofaneducationalmode,bothfortheserviceuserandthefamily(P3,AcademicSupervisor).
Engagement with WBL promoted relationships between practitioners within and across
practice and academic settings, many of which were sustained and proved beneficial
beyond programme completion. The value placed on developing and sustaining mutual
relationshipswithpractitionersoutsidetheirimmediatecommunitywasevidentrelativeto
thebenefitsof sharingknowledgeacross communitiesanddeveloping services fromboth
practitionerandacademicperspectives.
Thestudentshadanopportunitytoestablishrelationshipswiththosewhowereworkinginacentreofexcellencethatafterthisprogrammeended,theywouldstillhavethesekeypeoplethattheycouldconsultatanytime(P4,AcademicSupervisor).
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TwoyearsagoIwasinvolvedinaprojectthatwasoutinrenaldialysis.Iwasinandoutoftheunitsomuchthatwesetupinformallinkswiththeconsultantandtheclinicalmanager.Ifeltthatwentreally,reallywell…..Iwasoveragainthisyear(P10,AcademicSupervisor).
Theprocessofwritingwithinthelearninglogthroughoutthecourse,completingaportfolio
ofevidenceandengagingincriticaldiscoursestimulatedpractitionerstodevelopreflective
skills over time. Being no longer happywith the status quo, questioning and challenging
knowledge and practice as a result of their WBL experiences, suggested of a trajectory
towardsreflexivepractice.
ItdidchangehowIpractice,itmakesyoulookatthingsdifferentlyandconstantlyreflectonyourownpracticeandaskyourselfhowyoucoulddothingsbetter(P20,PastStudent).It’s like Iamlookingatstuff, Iamreading, Iamquestioningmuchmore like ‘whosaidthat,wheredidyougettheevidenceforthatthen’(P14,PastStudent).
The ability to promote critical reflection through discoursewas a skill that academic and
clinical supervisors also developed over time through continued engagement with the
programme,suggestingtheytoowereonatrajectoryoflearning.
I had the role down better the second time… to questionmore, ‘come on let’s think a bitdifferently…tellmehowyoufeelaboutthis,haveyouanysuggestionsaboutwhatyouthinkwecoulddo’,ratherthanyougivingthemtheanswers(P13,ClinicalSupervisor).
Increasedconfidencewasaprevalentfindingrelatedtopractitionerengagementwithwork-
based learning.Confidence inpractice, inquestioningpracticeandquestioningcolleagues
was evident in past student reflective learning logs and interview data, demonstrating a
changed identity for practitioners in that they became ‘confident’ practitioners. This
decision to act differently as opposed to previously complyingwithmanagers’ directions
withoutquerysignifiedalinkbetweenconfidenceandcriticalreflexivity
Isupposejustquestioningmaybemylinemanagers,wellIwouldhaveconfidenceinmyselftosay‘nothat'snotok’(P8,PastStudent).
PracticeTransformations
Datawithinthiscategoryrelatedtodevelopingcommunitytoolsandresources;knowledge
sharing;improvingpatientcare;andsustainingpracticedevelopment.WBLwasunderstood
byparticipantstobemutuallybeneficialtopractitionersandpractice.Abreadthanddepth
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of practice development activities were evidenced through interviews and documentary
analysis. Engagement in WBL influenced both technical and emancipatory practice
development4during and following course completion. The amount of projects thatwere
embedded in practice and remained on-going at the time of interview signified the
sustainedinfluenceofwork-basedlearninginavarietyofcontexts.Practicetransformation
occurred through the development of community tools and resources and knowledge
sharing, which sometimes translated into direct improvements in patient care. Cultural
shifts were perceived by several participants within their organisations, associated with
emancipatorypracticedevelopment,asaresultofongoingengagementwithWBL.
The production of community tools and resources included the development of practice
guidelines; audit tools; and staff and patient education materials and programmes.
Signaturesfrommanagersandclinicalsupervisorsindicatedtheauthenticityoftheworkin
practice,asopposedtothepossibilityofitbeingpurelyacademic.Findingsinlearninglogs
andinterviewsrevealedthesenseofaccomplishmentstudentsfeltinimplementingchanges
inpracticethatultimatelybenefitedpatientsandserviceusers.
I felt a great sense of achievement when this guideline was implemented into practice as iteliminated admissions for our service users to hospital. Nurses on the ground can changepracticewiththerightknowledgeandskills.Thishasgivenmetheconfidencetocarryoutmoreresearch in the area of palliative end of life care and hopefully in the future I can make adifference(P11,PastStudent–LearningLogEntry).
That (information booklet) was really needed for some time. It has gone through all thegovernanceandconsumerpanels. It isgoingtobe inuse, indefinitely,on-goingwithmaybeonlyminoradjustmentstoit(P20,PastStudent/ClinicalSupervisor/NurseManager).
WBLstudents’ sharedknowledgeofbestpracticewith theircolleaguesas theydeveloped
competence in facilitating education. Presentations and workshops often related to new
practice guideline implementation, audit or patient care topics. This was evident from
educationmaterialsandevaluationsinpaststudentportfolios,learninglogsandparticipant
interviews. Partnershipworking through the tripartite support system promoted learning
4Emancipatory practice development concerns the transformation of the culture and context of care, forimprovement purposes (Garbett & McCormack 2004). Technical practice development relates to thedevelopmentofaspecificaspectofpracticesuchasaguidelineorpolicy(DoCH2010).
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between lecturers and practitioners, thus facilitating knowledge exchange and sharing of
bestpracticeacrossthelandscape.
I took on a project in acute stroke care so in terms of education and training I trainedmycolleaguesinthatparticularacutecarearea(P9,PastStudent).Iwasactually learningfromthestudent…..I learntnearlyasmuchbeingasupervisor. Iwasbeingasupervisor/student(P12,AcademicSupervisor).
Throughtheprocessofparticipationandreification,negotiatedWBLactivitiesenabledpast
learners to develop competence and produce meaningful tools and resources for their
practicecommunities.Inthisstudythedevelopmentandimplementationofevidencebased
practiceguidelines;thesharingofbestpracticethroughstaffeducationsessions;conducting
audits for practice improvement; and engaging in advocacy initiatives that involve the
serviceuserareapowerfuldemonstrationofthebenefitsofWBLtobothstudentsandtheir
organizations.
Sustained changes in practice were perceived by many of the participants. There were
suggestionsofculturalshiftswithinclinicalsettingsasaresultofpractitionersundertaking
WBLandtheensuingpromotionofteamlearningandsharingofbestpractice.
Ithasanimpactontheunitasawholeandthingschange,cultureshiftsfromaplacewherewejustcomedoourworkandgohome,toaplacewherewecanopenlydiscuss….itmakestheenvironmentveryopentochange(P2,DirectorofNursing).
Entries in learning logs on programme completion often outlined learner intentions to
continue their engagementwith practice development;many of whichwere validated in
participant interviewspostprogrammecompletionaspractitionersgaveexamplesofnew
initiativestheywereengagedin.Howeversustainedchangewasnotalwaysperceived.The
relationalinterdependencebetweenandsocialandpersonalfactorsastheexplanationfor
practitioners not continuingwith practice development activities following completion of
theirprogrammewasrecognised.
Once sort of the programme finishes, the innovation, the projects, they seem to fall once thepostgradqualificationisthengot.Isupposethat'salsocompoundedbytheenvironmentwecurrentlylivein…….opportunitiesarenotasforthcomingintermsofpromotion(P21,ClinicalSupervisor/NurseManager).
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Discussion:ApplyingtheConceptualModeltotheResearchFindings
The findings from this study support the conceptual model proposed in this paper as a
meansofinvestigatingandunderstandingtheinterrelatedinfluencesandoutcomesofWBL.
Thematic analysis uncovered fourmain categories of data: navigatingworkplace cultures
and contexts; learning within and across practices; practitioner trajectories and
transformations; and practice transformations. Process tracing of individual past student
cases identified the learner trajectories throughWBL thatareunique toeach learnerand
dependent on the degree of individual and social contributions across the landscape of
practice in realisingandsustainingWBLoutcomes.Learningat, forandthroughworkwas
found to be a combined endeavour of individual intentionality, agency and engagement
withwork-based learning opportunities, tools anddiscourse, in addition to the degreeof
workplaceaffordances(orconstraints),withinandacrosscommunitiesofpractice.
FactorsInfluencingIndividualandSocialContributions
Aninterdependentrelationshipexistsbetweenwhatisaffordedindividualsatworkandhow
they choose toengagewithwork-based learning, thus indicating thedualityof social and
personalcontributionsrequiredforsuccess(Billet,2011).Howevertheeffortsofindividuals,
their subjectivities and degree of motivation to engage in WBL despite challenges and
constraints are powerful influences on WBL trajectories. Motivation to pursue and
intentionality to learn from opportunities afforded to them was significant for many
studentsinthisstudy(Billet,2011).ItwasclearthatallstudentsfoundWBL‘hardwork’all
experienced time constraints and pressures associated with the dual role of learner and
practitioner(Ramage,2014).However,learnerintentionalitytocontinueontheirtrajectory
despite‘feelingoverwhelmed’atvariousjuncturesthroughtheprogrammewaspowerfully
demonstrated. Thiswasparticularly evident for one studentwho surmountedwork-place
constraints by independently accessing resources and other people to achieve significant
changes in practice. This suggests that learner agency, relational agency, individual
contributions and resilience are of paramount importance inmanaging learning journeys
throughworkandaddressingweaknessesinwork-placeaffordances(Billet&Choy2013).
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Mediatingartefacts:toolsanddiscourse
ThetoolsandprocessessituatedwithintheWBLcurriculumweresignificant inpromoting
engagement and scaffolding learning through and for work for learners in this study.
Findings suggest that boundaryobjects (the role analysis, competencydevelopmentplan,
learning logs) and boundary encounters (tripartitemeetings) had a key role inmediating
andscaffoldinglearning.Thevalueoftheroleanalysis inaligningWBLwithrolerelevance
and informing the competency development process was evident (Stanley & Simmons,
2011). Tripartite meetings enabled the negotiation of mutually beneficial learning for
students and their organisations through discourse underpinned by the role analysis and
competency development plans. Although multi-voicedness and competing interests
resultedinconflictattimes,formost,themultipleviewpointsandinterestsofcliniciansand
academics furtheredunderstanding andpromotedmutually beneficial engagement at the
boundariesofacademicandclinicalcommunitiesofpractice.Thejointplanningofstudent
projects situated in practice enabled the negotiation of meaning between theory and
practice, in addition to continued discourse surrounding the process of participation
(engagement in practice) and reification (the production of something useful) (Wenger,
1998). However the power dynamics within a community of practice were evident on
occasionswherestudentswererestrictedfromengagementwithprojectworkasaresultof
their position within the organisation. The potential role of academic supervisors in
brokering WBL experiences and projects for students struggling to manage workplace
constraints,isanarearequiringfurtherinvestigation.
Trajectoriesandtransformations
FindingssupportWenger-Trayner&Wenger-Trayners’claimthat ‘meaningfulengagement
across boundaries is transformative’ of both practice and identity (2015: 108); as both
personal and professional transformations were evident (Boomer & McCormack, 2010,
Ramage,2014).WBLparticipantsbecamemoreconfidentandcompetentintheirrolethus
indicatingdevelopmentofprofessionalidentity(Booth,2019).Itwasthetypesofactivities
andsocial interactions thatpractitionersparticipated in that influenced their learningand
transformation of self (Billet, 2004) and practice (Billet, 2011). Constant reflection on
learningandpractice(writtenandwithsupervisors)enabledthedevelopmentofreflexive,
proactive practitioners overtime who questioned and challenged practice. Learners
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identifiedasbeinga‘transformedpractitioner’asaconsequenceoftheirWBLexperiences.
The alignment of competency developmentwith the production of community tools and
resources(participationandreification)enabledpractitionerstodevelop‘knowledgeability’,
thebuildingof relationshipsacross the landscapeandknowledgeofpeopleandpractices
related to their own (Wenger-Trayner &Wenger-Trayner, 2015a). Similar to Miller and
Volantes’ (2019)findingsonworkplace impact, undertakingprojectsrelatedtoworkplace
priorities and support from colleagues were considered important for creating and
sustaining change throughWBL. In this study, practitioner outcomes of knowledgeability
and reflexivity (evident through learning log entries),were linkedwith sustained practice
developmentoutcomes,describedbyparticipantsat the timeof interview.This sustained
impactalsoappearedtobeareflectionofthepracticecommunity,astoolsandresources
weresharedandfurtherdevelopedbytheteam,ornewprojectsinitiated.WBLwasfound
tohaveapositiveinfluenceonlearningcultureswithinorganisationsandcreateconditions
forchange(Boomer&McCormack,2010;Ramage,2014).
The relationship between social and individual contributions to WBL was also found to
influence the continuationofpracticedevelopmentoutcomesbeyond course completion.
One participant did not implement the tools and resources she developed during the
programme,despiteoutliningher intentionalitytodoso inher learning log.Findingsfrom
her interview suggest thatworkplace cultures and constraintswerea stronger force than
her own agency. Whereas another participant faced with similar restrictive workplace
cultures, was more successful in implementing and sustaining a number of practice
developments beyond course completion, suggesting her agency outweighed workplace
constraints. Although individual contributions have the potential to outweigh workplace
constraints,converselyworkplaceconstraintscanlimitthepotentialforsustainedchangein
practice.
ConclusionandImplications
This paper has provided a discussion and trajectory of key ideas and concepts from
sociocultural theory, CHAT, communities/landscapes of practice theory, and their
importance for understanding and positioning research on WBL. These progressive
theoretical and conceptual frameworks have been used to examine the sociocultural
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influencesonWBL in relation to thedifferentiationof sustainableoutcomes in this study.
Theconceptualmodeloffers theresearcherawayof thinkingaboutand investigatingthe
influences and outcomes of WBL in Higher Education within their own discipline; be it
healthcare, engineering or business for example. It is not a universal explanation ofWBL
influencesandoutcomes;itisapreliminarypointwithinwhichtosituateaninvestigationof
WBLandallitscomplexities.Anumberofquestionsareraised:Howdoindividualandsocial
factors influence learner experience and outcomes ofWBL? How does individual agency
outweigh workplace constraints? How doesmulti-voiced-ness influence participation and
reification within and across communities of practice? How are cultural tools (boundary
objects)usedattheboundariesofcommunities;whathappensattheboundaries(boundary
encounters) and who negotiates learning at the boundaries (brokers)? How do students
undertaking aWBL programme, participate in and engage with multiple communities of
practice across a landscape of practice? What are the products, reified outputs of their
participation?Howdowork-basedlearnersengageintheremakingofculturaltoolsandare
thesesustained? Howdowork-based learnersdevelopcompetenceandknowledgeability
acrossa landscapeofpractice?Thesequestionsareimportant infurtheringunderstanding
ofWBLinfluencesandoutcomesindifferingcontexts.
Themodel also provides a common language for academics, supervisors and students to
broadenthediscoursesurroundingWBLpedagogyandpracticesregardlessofthemodeor
disciplinary field such programmes are situated within. A framework that recognises the
complex sociocultural influences and interfaces between communities, systems,
organizations and individuals is essential in supporting successful WBL programmes. By
integrating themodel into inductionprogrammes for students and supervisors, increased
awarenesstothesechallengesanddiscussionssurroundingpotentialsolutionsmayprevail.
Theneed topayattention toboth socioculturaland individual factors that influenceWBL
andthemanytoolsandprocessesofmediationisemphasizedwithinthemodel.Promoting
understanding and discourse around the multi-modal influences on WBL is critical if
sustainable outcomes that are beneficial to learners, their professional role and work
contextsaretoberealized.
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Pioneeringnewrolesinhealthcare:NursingAssociate
students’experiencesofwork-basedlearninginthe
UnitedKingdom
JULIEATTENBOROUGH1,STEPHENABBOTT,JUDYBROOKandRACHAEL-ANNEKNIGHT,
SchoolofHealthSciences,City,UniversityofLondon,UK.
Inordertoaddressurgentworkforceconsiderationsandchangingdemographics,in2017theNationalHealthServiceintheUnitedKingdomintroducedanewroleinhealthcare,theNursingAssociate.Educationforthenewrolewasdeliveredbywork-basedlearninginpartnershipwithlocaluniversities.Thispaperreportsonaqualitativelongitudinalstudyofastudywhichexploredtheexperiencesofwork-basedlearnersenrolledatauniversityinLondon.Datawascollectedintwostagesoverasix-monthperiod:17work-basedlearnersparticipatedininterviewsinstage1andseveninstage2.Datawasanalysedusingframeworkanalysis;theframeworkwasderivedfromasystematicliteraturereviewaboutintroducingnewrolesinhealthcare.Resultshaveresonanceforwork-basedlearningprogrammesinhealthcareandbeyondandincludedtheimportanceofadequatetimeforwork-basedlearning;supervisionbyaskilledclinicaleducator;stakeholderengagement;awell-definedscopeofpracticeandanappropriateandsupportiveeducationalprogramme.Participantsvaluedtheinputofexperiencedqualifiedstaffbutappreciatedthecapacityissuesthatmilitatedagainsttheirprogress,asstaffwerenotalwaysabletosupportthem.Participantsalsoidentifiedthenecessitytotakeresponsibilityfortheirownlearninginclinicalpractice.University-basedlearningwasvaluedmorehighlythanlearninginpractice,suggesting,ashasbeenestablishedelsewhere,thatwork-basedlearningopportunitiesinhealthcarecanbedifficulttoidentify.
Keywords:work-basedlearning,healthcareapprenticeships,nursingassociate,healthcare
workforce
Introduction
TheNationalHealthService(NHS)isoneofthebiggestemployersintheworld,andthe
largestintheUnitedKingdomwith1.5millionemployees(NuffieldTrust,2019).Workforce
shortagesarecurrentlythebiggestthreattotheNHS,withthechangingdemographicsof
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36
theUKpopulationbringingassociatedpressureonservices(Beechetal2019).Thisshortage
ismostacuteintheregisterednursingworkforcewith41,000vacancies,representingonein
everyeightposts(NursingTimes,2019).In2017,theNursingandMidwiferyCouncil(NMC)
reportedthatmorenursesandmidwiveswereleavingtheregisterthanbeingadmitted
(NMC,2017).
Onewayofaddressingthisworkforcechallengeistheexplorationofintroducingnewroles
inhealthcare.Inthepastdecade,tworeviews,Willis(2015)andImisonetal(2016)
highlightedtheneedforanewroletobridgethegapbetweenhealthcaresupportworkers
(HCSWs)andregisterednurses(RNs).Therecommendationsofthetworeportsweretaken
forwardforimplementationbyHealthEducationEngland,anarms-lengthgovernment
organization,bytheintroductionofarolethatbecameknownasaNursingAssociate.The
nursingassociaterolewasintroducedin2017withtheoverallaimofimprovingthecapacity
andcapabilityoftheNHStocareforpatients.Theroutetoqualificationwasbywork-based
learninginpartnershipwithlocaluniversities.
Thenewrolewasdesignedtobemoreflexiblethanestablishednursingroles,working
acrossthetraditionalfieldsofnursingandthroughoutthelifespaninhospital,community
andhome-basedservices.Therolealsoprovidedaroutetoqualificationasaregistered
nurse,and,inordertoovercomebarrierstoeducationformorematureentrants,was
deliveredbyanapprenticeshipmodelledbyemployersinpartnershipwithhighereducation
institutions(HEI).Themodelofdeliverywasan80:20splitbetweenwork-basedlearningin
clinicalpracticeanduniversity-basededucation.
Therolewasintroducedatpace.HealthEducationEnglandannouncedinJuly2016,thatthe
rolewouldbeintroducedintwostages.Onethousandtraineenursingassociates(TNAs)
wererecruitedinDecember2016tostartinJanuary2017,withafurther1,000startingin
April2017(Coulson2019).Whenthefirstintakecommencedtheircoursein2017therole
wasnotregulatedbytheNursingandMidwiferyCouncil(NMC).
Thispaperreportsaqualitativelongitudinalstudy,whichwaschosentotrackthe
experiencesofstudentsaspioneersonthisunregulatedcourse;followingtheirexperiences
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37
gaveustheopportunitytogaininsightintohowthecoursedevelopedandbecame
embeddedovertime,fromthestudents’perspective.
ThelongitudinalstudywasundertakeninauniversityintheUnitedKingdomoveraneight-
monthperiod.Work-basedlearnersonaprogrammeleadingtoqualificationasanursing
associatewereinterviewedontwooccasions.Thedatafrominterviewswereanalysedusing
frameworkanalysisdrawingonthesevenrecommendationsofHalseetal(2018)for
introducingnewrolesinhealthcare.Thispaperreportsontheexperiencesofstudentsina
novellearningsituationinrelationtotheframeworkprovidedbyHalseetal(2018).
Theaimsofthestudyweretoestablishtheexperienceofwork-basedlearnersstudyinga
courseleadingtoqualificationinanewroleinhealthcareandtoestablishchangesover
timeexperiencedbythestudentsastherolebecameestablishedintheNHS.
Background
Newrolesinhealthcare
TheintroductionofnewrolesintheNHSwasconsideredbyBridgesandMeyer(2007).In
thepolicycontextofroleexpansion,investmentandthemodernisationoftheNHS,Bridges
andMeyer(2007)calledforincreasedfocusontheintricaciesofnewrolesinhealthcareand
reflectionandreviewastheyareintroduced.Theyalsoconcludethatthemoreflexibleroles
are(asintheNursingAssociaterole),themoretheyarelikelytochangeonceintroduced,
andthisinturncausesdifficultiesforregulation.Atthetimeofwriting,theUnitedKingdom
alongwithothercountries,isunderlockdownduetotheCOVID-19pandemic,whichstruck
justoneyearafterthefirstnursingassociatesjoinedtheNMCregister.Emergency
regulatorychangeshavebeenappliedtoestablishedroles,suchasinmidwifery,
radiography,medicineornursingbuthavenotbeenextendedtothenewrole,despiteits
flexibility,andwork-basedfocusduringtraining(NMC2020).Thisapproachpotentially
reflectsthenoveltyoftheroleandstageofembeddednessinclinicalpracticeandraises
issuesaboutregulation.
Work-basedlearninginhealthcare
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InasystematicreviewNevalainenetal(2018,p26)reportedthreemaininfluenceson
nurses’experiencesofwork-basedlearning:thecultureoftheworkcommunity;the
structure,spacesanddutiesofthenursingworkforce;managementandinterpersonal
relationships.Interestingly,thepaperreportsthatlackofmanagementsupportisthe
greatestimpedimenttowork-basedlearningfornurses.Theauthorsdescribethedouble
bindofincreasedneedforeffectivenessinclinicalpracticecounterbalancedagainstthe
professionaldevelopmentneedsofnurses.
Additionally,Attenboroughetal(2019)reportthat,despitetherichnessoflearning
opportunitiesinhealthcareenvironments,theidentificationoftheseopportunitiescanbe
difficultforbothstudentsandtheirsupervisors.Threatsandopportunitiestowork-based
learningarediscussed,withtimeandcapacitymilitatingagainstlearninginmostclinical
environments.ThesefindingscorrespondwiththeviewofEraut(2004),aworkplace
learningresearcher,whodiscussedlearningasbeingona‘continuumofformality’(p250),
informalortacitlearningbeing‘largelyinvisible’(p249).Hediscussesthelackof
consciousnessandrecognitionofinformallearning,describingthecharacteristicsof
informallearningas‘implicit,unintended,opportunisticandunstructuredlearningandthe
absenceofateacher.’
Furthermore,Brown(2016)discussesthecontextofknowledgeacquisition;the‘codified
knowledge’thatcomesfromacademiathroughbooksandjournalsversusthe‘situated
knowledge’(p186)inclinicalpracticethatdominateswork-basedlearning.Drawingon
recontextualizationasatheoreticalconstructforlearningasstudentslearnandultimately
putthenewknowledgeintotheirownpractice,Brownsuggests(p188):
…theprocessofrecontextualizationisawholebodyresponsetolearningthatchanges
learnersasindividuals,aswellasthecontext(workplace)inwhichtheyoperateand
ultimatelytheknowledgeitself.
Focussingontheexperienceofmedicalstudents,Brownhighlightstheimportanceoflinks
betweenclinicalpracticeanduniversities;thescaffoldingofknowledge;theimportanceof
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learningconversationsbetweenstaffandstudents;theutilisationoflearninginthe
workplaceandthesharingofpracticebetweentheuniversityandclinicalareas.
Correspondingly,usingaliterature-basedconceptanalysisManleyetal(2008)definewhat
distinguishes work-based learning in healthcare and what makes for success. Through
undertakingaconceptanalysis, theauthorssuggestadefinitionofwork-based learning in
healthcare,whichincludes:
Theeverydayworkofhealthcareisthebasisforlearning,development(includingevidence
implementation)enquiryandtransformationintheworkplace(p121).
Theemphasisisontheimportanceofwork-basedlearningtosupporttheprinciplesoflife-
longlearningandthepotentialtoprovidesignificantbenefitsforhealthcareorganisations,
whileChapman(2006)reportsonwork-basedlearningasawayofimprovingpatientcare,
oneoftheaimsoftheintroductionofthenursingassociaterole.Chapmanidentifieswork-
based learning as having ‘improved the quality of care, increased health promotion,
increasedaccess to services, increasedpatient choiceand reduced riskof infection.’ (p41).
Work-based learning helped participants to feel ‘emotionally engaged’ (p43) with their
studiesbecauseofthedirectlinktoimprovedpractice.
Additionally, the position of apprentices under the relatively new implementation of the
apprenticeshiplevyisaddressedbyBooth(2019).Whilstthisaccountissituatedintheretail
sector,therearesimilarconcernsabouttheshiftingexternalandpoliticalfactorsthataffect
work-basedlearnersundertheapprenticeshipschemeintheUnitedKingdom.Booth(2019)
suggests that perhaps resilience in relation to this context should be part of work-based
learningprogrammes.
Theexperiencesofwork-basedlearningbynursingassociatetrainees
Therearefewpapersabouttheexperiencesofnursingassociatetraineesduetothe
newnessofthecourseandrole.However,Thurgate(2018)reportsonaforerunnerofthe
nursingassociate,theassistantpractitioner,inapaperabouttheexperiencesofthose
undertakingawork-basedprogramme,recruitedfromthehealthcareassistant(HCA)
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workforce.Thurgateidentifiesthatsupportingwork-basedlearnersinthehealthcare
contextrequiresdifferentskillstosupportingthosewhoaresupernumerarysuchasthose
studyingnursingdegrees,andthatstaffneedtounderstandthedifference.Overallthis
paperidentifiestheimportanceofa‘workplaceculturewhichsupports,accommodatesand
learnsfromthedevelopmentandimplementationofnewroles’(p87).
IntworelatedpapersfromanearlyexperiencestudyofnursingassociatetraineesCoghill
(2018a;Coghill2018b)reportsonthebalancerequiredtobebothanemployeeor‘worker’
andastudentor‘learner’inclinicalpractice.Thepapersrecommendedraisingtheprofileof
therolewithstaffandpatients,clarifyingwhethertheTNAsarelearnersorworkersand
assistingmanagerstoidentifyandenablelearningopportunitiesforTNAs.Theissueof
protectedtimeforlearningisconsideredworthyoffurtherdebate.
Finally,inconsideringthedifficultiesofundertakingresearchintheworkplace,Eraut(2004)
cites:thelackofvisibilityoflearning;howthatlearningisviewed,whichmaybeaspartofa
person’scapabilitiesratherthanknowledgeactuallyacquiredandputintopractice;andthe
factthatthecomplexityofknowledgegainedintheworkplaceisdifficulttoarticulate.
Althoughtheresearchdescribedinourpaperisaboutwork-basedlearningandwas
undertakenatauniversityratherthanintheworkplace,Eraut’sdescriptionofhisresearch
intheworkplace,bothobservationalandthroughinterviewsacknowledgesthechallenges
ofinvestigatingtheacquisitionofknowledgeatwork.
Theresearchreportedinthispaperissituatedinaspecificplaceandtime,animportant
partofthedevelopingstoryoftheNHSinrespondingtochange.Atatimeofworkforce
crisisanddemographicchangeanewrolewasintroducedtoenhancepatientcare.
Planning,reportsandrecommendationsaboundaboutintroducinganewroleinhealthcare
andthetheoryandpracticeofwork-basedlearning.Thecurrentresearchaimedto
investigatetheexperiencesofthoseundertakingthenursingassociatecoursethrough
work-basedlearningoveraperiodoftime,viewedthroughthelensofasystematicreview
ofexistingrecommendationsaboutintroducingnewrolesinhealthcare(Halseetal,2018).
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Therearefewstudiesaboutthenursingassociateroleperse,butHalseetal’s(2018)
systematicreviewwasundertakenatthetimeoftheintroductionofthenewwork-based
learningcoursefortraineenursingassociates.Intheirarticleaddressingthechallengesof
introducingnewrolesinhealthcare,theauthorsidentifiedsevenfactors(p35)that
contributetosuccessfulimplementation.Theseare:robustworkforceplanning;well-
definedscopeofpractice;wideconsultationandengagementwithstakeholders;strong
leadership;aneducationprogrammethatmirrorspatientneed;adequateresourcesfor
work-basedlearning;andsupervisionbyaskilledclinicaleducator.
Methods
Thisisalongitudinalqualitiveinterviewstudy,toexploretheexperienceoftraineenursing
associatesovertime.Thoughcommonlyusedinquantitativestudieslongitudinalmethods
arerelativelyunusualinqualitativeresearch(Hermanowicz2013).Themethodwaschosen
acknowledgingthenewnessoftheroleandcourseandtoenabletheresearchersto
investigatethestudents’experiencesofandresponsestobeingpioneers,partofaspecific
changetohealthcaredeliveryintheUnitedKingdom,basedonpolicy.Toassessthe
embeddednessoftherole,thedatawerecollectedintwostagesandtwomethodswere
used,groupinterviewsatstage1(April2019)andindividualinterviewsatstage2
(November2019).Groupinterviewsofferedtheopportunitytogatheraddedvaluefromthe
groupdynamicsandinteractionbetweenstudents,whilsttheindividualinterviewsenabled
indepthexplorationofthestudents’personalexperiencesandtheissuesraisedinthe
groupinterviewsingreaterdepth.
Stage1ofthestudywascompletedinApril2019.Traineenursingassociates(TNAs)
studyingatauniversityintheUnitedKingdomweresentdetailsaboutthestudybye-mail
andinvitedtotakepartinagroupinterview.Thesetookplaceinparallelwithobjective
structuredclinicalexaminations(OSCEs),testsofpracticalskillsinalaboratoryenvironment,
whichmayhaveencouragedahigherresponserate.Informedconsentwasobtainedbefore
data-gatheringbegan.Ofthe18TNAsonthecourse,allbutoneagreedtotakepart,
resultinginfiveinterviewswiththreeTNAsandoneinterviewwithtwo.Participantswere
askedthesequestions:
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• Pleasedescribeyourexperienceofwork-basedlearning.
• Pleasedescribewhatsupportsyourlearningintheworkplace.
• Pleasedescribeyouridentityasatraineenursingassociate.
Workbasedlearning(WBL)wasdefinedatthestartofeachinterviewas‘learningthattakes
placeintheclinicalsettingandnotintheuniversity’.Discussions,whichlastedabouttwenty
minutes,wereaudio-recordedandprofessionallytranscribed.
Stagetwoofthestudywasinitiatedsevenmonthslater.AllTNAswereinvitedbye-mailto
anindividualinterview,andseveninterviewswerecarriedoutthoughnotallwho
respondedwereinterviewed,duetotimecommitmentsofparticipants.Writteninformed
consentwasagainobtained.Sixinterviewswereface-to-face,andonebytelephone.They
wereaudio-recordedandprofessionallytranscribed.
Theindividualinterviewssetouttoexplorefurtherviewsexpressedinthegroupinterviews.
Thequestionaskedofintervieweeswastherefore:
• Whatdoyoudotoensurethatyouhaveagoodlearningexperienceinthe
workplace?
Thiswastheonlyquestioninthetopicguide,apartfromanumberofpromptsfor
amplification.
However,thefirstTNAinterviewedbeganbyemphasisingthathissecondplacementwas
verydifferentfromthefirst,andthatstaffhadbeenmuchmoresupportive.Healso
emphasisedthekeyroleofuniversitystaff.Thetopicguidewasthereforeexpandedto
ascertainwhethersimilarexperiencesweresharedbyothers.Theframeworkanalysisused
inthisstudyaffordsthistypeofadjustment(SrivastavaandThomson2009).Individual
interviewslastedabout15minutes.
Bothdatasetswereanalysedthematically,usingthekeyfactorsforintroducingnewroles
identifiedbyHalseetal(2018),asaframeworkfortheanalysis.Frameworkanalysiswas
chosenasaninstrumenttoassesstheimpactoftheimplementationofthenewroleon
thosemostdirectlyaffected.Theanalysisprocedurefollowedthesevenstagesoutlinedby
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Gale(2013),forframeworkanalysisofqualitativedatainmultidisciplinaryhealthresearch;
namelytranscriptionfromaudiorecording;familiarisationwiththedatausingthe
transcript;coding;identificationoftheanalyticalframework;applyingtheframeworktothe
dataandinterpretingthedata.Gale(2013)suggeststhattheframeworkmethodissuitable
forthematicanalysisoftext,especiallyfrominterviewswherelengthytranscriptionshave
beenproduced,enablingdatatobeanalysedincontext.
Quotationsfromgroupinterviewsarefollowedbyacodedenotingthegroup(G1-G5)from
whichtheyemerged,whilequotationsfromindividualinterviewsareidentifiedbycodesfor
individuals(T1-T7).
EthicalapprovalwasobtainedfromtheSchoolofHealthSciencesEthicsCommitteeatCity,
UniversityofLondon.SRECreferencenumber:Staff/17-18/07
Results
DatawereanalysedusingthefactorsestablishedbyHalseetal(2018),whichareasfollows:
• Robustworkforceplanning;
• Well-definedscopeofpractice;
• Wideconsultationandengagementwithstakeholders;
• Strongleadership;
• Aneducationprogrammethatmirrorspatientneed;
• Adequateresourcesforwork-basedlearning;
• Supervisionbyaskilledclinicaleducator
TNAsprovidedmuchmoredataaboutsomeofthesefactorsthanothers,andvirtuallynone
abouttwofactors:strongleadershipandrobustworkforceplanning.
Re-orderingtheremainingfivefactorsprovidesamorecoherentnarrativeframeworkfor
theresults,andminorre-wordingcapturesmoreexactlythepreoccupationsofthose
interviewed.Thus,ourthemes,expandedandexemplifiedinthefollowingsections,are:
• Adequatetimeforwork-basedlearning
• Supervisionbyaskilledclinicaleducator
• Engagementwithstakeholders
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• Well-definedscopeofpractice
• Anappropriateeducationprogramme
Adequatetimeforwork-basedlearning
Ineachofthestage1groupinterviews,TNAslaidconsiderableemphasisonthelackof
adequatetimeforlearningintheclinicalplacement.Groupdiscussionstypicallybeganby
emphasisingthelackoflearningtimeandreturnedtoitatleastonce.Therewasagreement
betweenmembersinallgroupsonthissubject.
Theparticipantsinthisstudywereallemployedashealthcareassistants(HCAs)andwere
thereforepartoftheestablishedclinicalteam.Theyreportedthatthislimitedtheir
opportunitiesfor‘onthejob’learning,asstaffgenerallyexpectedthatperformingtheirHCA
dutieswouldtakeprecedenceoveranyopportunitiestolearn.
Becausewearestillcountedinthenumbers,mostofthetimeyouarestilldoingtheHCAjob.
Eventhoughyouseeyourselfasastudent,you’restilldoingtheHCAjob(G2).
Mostofthetime…wearedoingwhatwe’ddobefore,sowe’renotkindofgettingmore
knowledge(G1).
Inparticular,itwashardtofindtimetopractisenewprocedures,whichcouldhaveserious
consequencesfortrainees.
Solet’sjustsaylike,nowwe’redoingsubcutaneousinjection.Formetoperformit,Ineedto
practiseit,andwithpracticecomesperfection.Sothen,ifIdon’tpractice,andnowIhaveto
comeanddoanOSCE, it’sgoingtoseemlike I’mnot learning.But ifyou’renotgettingthe
opportunitytodostuff,you’realwaysgoingtofail(G2).
However, in the individual interviews later in the year, TNAs spokemuch less about time
pressuresthanpreviously,andseveralmentionedthat itwasnoweasiertostudywhile in
theclinicalsetting.
Mymentor,shetoldmethatIdon’tneedtobegoing,doingwork,work,work,workallthe
time.Shesaidthistime,‘Takealittletime-Iwantyoutogototheoffice,sitinthereanddoa
littleresearch(T5).
Supervisionbyaskilledclinicaleducator
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TNAsreportedinthestage1interviewsthatsupervisorsweremuchlessavailablethanthey
wouldhaveliked.
Wedon’tshadowthem,wedon’tworkalongsidethem…Theyaretoobusydoingthings(G1).
I’veonlyworkedwithherontwoshifts[insixweeks](G2).
Justasthepressureofworkoftenimpededtraineesfromlearning,soitoftenimpeded
nursesfromteaching.TNAsappreciatedthatitwasaquestionofsupervisors’capacityto
teachandsupportthem,ratherthantheirunwillingnesstodoso.
You’vegotsomegoodnurses,theywanttoteachyou.Butthen,it’sjusttheworkload(G2).
Someparticipantsreportedthatseniorwardstaffrecognisedthisproblemandarranged
extrasupport.
Mymanagerhasappointedthreepeople,soit’seasierforme.Ifthispersonisnotthere,the
otherpersonwouldbethere,andtherewillalwaysbesomeone(G4).
RathermoreTNAsreportedalackofsupportwhenthesupervisorwasunavailable,
however.
Youcan’tgettoworkwithyoursupervisorallthetime,andoftenyouareworkingwith
someonewhocan’torwon’thelportalktoyou(G6).
SomeTNAshadlearntbyexperiencethattheyhadto,and/orwereexpectedto,take
responsibilityfortheirownlearning.
Imanagedtogetsomefantasticopportunitiesbyjustaskingpeople.BecauseIfoundthat
thevastmajorityofpeople,onceyouaskthemandexplainthatit’salearningexperience,
theywouldletyoudoit(G5).
Nevertheless,theneedtodosoreflected,tosomedegree,theunsupportivebehaviourof
somestaff.
Youhavetoputyourselfforward.WhichIdon’tminddoing,butsometimesthenyoujustfeel
like,doIhaveto?Theyknowthatyou’restudying,theyshouldhelpyou,theyshould
encourageyou(G6).
WhatTNAsappreciatedaboutthestaffwhodidhelpwasthewillingnesstoexplainandto
challenge.
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46
Somepeoplewillactuallycomeandcallyou,‘I’mgoingtododrugs,doyouwanttofollowme
and I’ll teachyouoneortwothings’…She’sverydemanding,but inaverygoodway,she’s
alwayschallengingyou,tolearn(G1).
Somealsomentionedthatotherstaff,includingthosefromotherdisciplines,werehelpfulin
supportingtheirlearning.
Doctorsonmyward,they’relike,‘Ifyouneedanyhelp,cometome,andthenwe’llsitdown.’
They’reveryhelpful(G4).
Inthestage2individualinterviews,TNAsexpandedonthevariouswaysinwhichstaffwere
helpful.
Everysingletimeanursewouldcomeonshift,‘Right,you’regoingtodothiswithme,we’re
goingtodothis,we’regoingtolookatcareplans,you’regoingtocomewithmeonan
assessment,youcandothenotesforthispersonundermysupervision,we’llgooveranything
you’renotfullycomfortablewith…’Igottoobservethedoctors,theOTs,thealliedmental
healthcareprofessionalswhentheyweredoingthingslikeMentalHealthActassessments.
Pharmacistscamein,secureambulancecrews...Ididsafetyhuddlesaswell(T1).
StaffalsohelpedTNASlearnpracticalskills,bydemonstration,observationandassessment.
Isay,‘Please,canIdothedressingwhileyouassessme?’...She’llgladlysayyes,andIwilldo
itforthem,toseehowI’mimproving(T7).
SeveralspokeofthevalueoffeedbacktoTNAsabouttheirknowledgeandskills.
They’requitehappyformetobeshadowingthem,andtheygivemefeedbackattheendof
theshift…[they]askmesomequestions.Forexamplesheaskedme,‘Sowhyhasthispatient
developedthiskindofpressureulcer?’Well,Icouldexplaintoher,butnotinmuchdetail.So
shesaid,‘Yourhomeworkfortonightisgoingtobealittleresearchonthistopic’(T5).
SomeTNAsspokeenthusiasticallyofparticularlearningsituations,andmethodsofexposing
themtodifferentaspectsofclinicalpractice.
Iconstantlymanagemyowncaseload.So,Ijusttakeprobablytwopatients,lookafterthem
fromadmissiontodischarge... Mysupervisortoldme it’sthebestwayto learn,andthen I
gaveitatry.Itwasfantasticwayoflearning(T4).
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Theyespeciallyappreciatedwhenlearningwasplanned,thoughtfulandscaffolded.
For instance, you’re working with a nurse and you’re going to do wound care: shewould
explaintheprocedurethroughoutfirst,callitadryrunifyoumay,andthenshewillaskyou
youropinionabout it, thenask youwhat kindof equipmentdo youneed to carryout that
wound care…and if you’re confident to do it, shewill allow you to do it. If you’re not so
confident,thenshewillaskyoutojustshadowandseewhat’sgoingon,andthenmaybethe
nexttimeyoucandoit.Whichisgood(T6).
Engagementwithstakeholders
Datafromthegroupinterviewsinstage1ofthestudysuggestedawidespreadlackof
engagementwithstakeholdersatwardlevel.Therewereplentifulreportsofstaffignorance
abouttheTNArole.
Mostofthenursesdon’tevenhaveaclueofwhatwearedoingwhenwesayweareTNAs
(G1).
Giventhatstaffwereusedtoworkingwiththoseindividualsinanon-studentcapacity,such
ignorancemadeiteasyforstafftooverlookTNAs’newstatusaslearners.
Wewent frombeinghealthcareassistants tostudents inasense.Buta lotof thestaff still
hadthemind-setof‘You’reahealthcareassistant’(G5).
Ontheotherhand,mostgroupsreportedthatoncetheyhadbeguntoweartheiruniforms
(whichwereseveralmonthslateinbecomingavailable),theyreceivedmorerecognitionof
theirstatus.
‘Sincewe’vehadtheuniformit’schanged,peoplelookatyoudifferently.’(G2).
Sevenmonthslater,instage2ofthestudy,theindividualintervieweesagreedthatthings
weremuchimprovedandthatstaffworkingsupportingthemintheirplacementswerenow
muchbetterinformedabouttheirrole,statusandlearningneeds.
Before,itwaslikepeopledidn’treallyknowaboutthecourse,sotheydidn’tknowwhatto
expectorwhattoimparttous.Butnow…yougoforthefirstdayandthenursewillaskyou,
‘Whatdoyouwanttoachievefromthisplacement?’(T6).
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Themanagersknowwhattodomore.Theyknowmoreabouttheprogrammeandtheyare
verysupportive…Afewpeoplestillstrugglewithourroleandhowwefitinonourshiftsand
allthat.Butgenerally,thingshaveimproved(T4).
Indeed,someTNAsreportedthatlatterly,Trustanduniversitystaffhadraisedwardstaff’s
awarenessoftheTNAroleandtheneedtofacilitatelearning,suggestingthatengagement
withstakeholdershadbelatedlytakenplace.
Well-definedscopeofpractice
Thosetakingpartinthestage1groupinterviewsreportedthat,aswellasageneral
ignoranceoftheTNArole,therewasalackofclarityamongstaffaboutwhichclinicaltasks
TNAsshouldorshouldnotbeallowedtodo.
Someoftheplacesdon’tknowwhatwe’reallowedtodoandwhatwe’renotallowedtodo
(G5).
AparticularproblemwasthatstaffwereasyetunfamiliarwiththePracticeLearning
AssessmentDocument(PLAD),thedetailedrecordthatrequiresstafftosignwhentheyare
sufficientlyassuredofaTNA’scompetenceinaspecificareaofhealthcare.
Somedon’twanttosignone[PLAD]becausetheysaytheydon’tknowwhatthey’resigning
(G2).
However,TNAsdidnotreportlackofclarityinthemselvesaboutthescopeoftheirpractice
asstudents,indicatingthattheproblemstheyencounteredwereduetolackof
disseminatedknowledgeabouttheroleratherthanpoordefinition.
Bythetimeofthestage2individualinterviews,someTNAsseemedtobemorecomfortable
withbeingassertiveabouttheirpractice.
IfI'mnotcomfortabletodothingsthatIamtoldtodo,Itendtonot,Ijustdon’tdoit.And
especially if it’s something that I'm not trained to do, because at the end of the day it’s,
patientsafetyisstillmyconcern(T2).
Anappropriateeducationprogramme
Asexperiencedhealthcareworkers,TNAswerewell-placedtojudgethefitbetweentheir
studiesandtheneedsofpatientsontheirward.Therewerenosuggestionsofanylackoffit.
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TNAsexpressedgreatpleasureinhowmuchtheywerelearningandspokeofhowtheywere
acquiringthereasonsandevidencebasefordoingwhatoftentheyhadbeendoingasHCAs.
I’vebeendoinghealthcareforalmost8years,soI’vegotexperience.Butbefore,Ididn’tknow
the rationale behind certain things, Iwas just doing it for doing its sake, per se. But now
studyingandthengoingbacktotheward,Iknowtherationalefordoingthings,soit’sgood
(G6).
Therewasastrongsenseinthegroupinterviews,oftenmadeexplicit,thatfarmore
learninghappenedintheuniversitythanintheclinicalsetting.
Thoseinterviewedindividuallyalsostressedhowtheiruniversitystudiescomplementedand
enhancedtheirplacementexperience.
Whatever I learnt theoretically in theuniversity, itmadeabigdifference inmypractical, in
myclinicalpracticeanditmademefeelempowered. Anditmadememoreprofessional in
dealingwithmypatients(T2).
Discussion
Theaimsofthisstudyweretoestablishtheexperienceofwork-basedlearnersstudyinga
courseleadingtoqualificationinanewroleinhealthcareandtoestablishchangesover
timeexperiencedbythestudentsastherolebecameestablishedintheNHS.Theresultsof
theinvestigationhavedemonstratedsignificantareasfordevelopment,mappedacrossthe
chosenframework.
Adequatetimeforwork-basedlearning
Oneofthebenefitsofconductingalongitudinalstudywasthepossibilityofdemonstrating
changeovertime.Participantsreportedanimprovementintheiraccesstolearning
opportunitiesbetweenstage1ofthestudyandstage2,partlyduetoqualifiedstaff
recognisingtheneedforprotectedlearningtime,possiblyduetoincreasedawarenessof
theroleandcourse.Thismightalsohavebeenduetoimprovedrecognitionoflearning
opportunitiesinpracticeonboththepartofthestudentandthepracticestaff.Participants
atstage1ofthestudycomparedtheirexperiencetostudentnurseswhoare
supernumerarytotheclinicalteam.However,thisissuewaslessdominantbystage2
perhapsindicatingfurtherembeddingoftheroleand,giventhatoneofthepurposesofthe
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newrolewastoenhancethemultidisciplinaryteambyeasingstaffshortages,therecould
bechallengestoachievingprotectedlearningtimeinpractice.
Participantsoverwhelminglyattributedlackoftimetotheirnothaving‘supernumerary
status’-inotherwordsbeingpartoftheworkforceor‘countedinthenumbers’.Incontrast
studentnurseshavesupernumerarystatusandcannotbe‘countedinthenumbers’.2
Supernumerarystatusisprotectedasarequirementofnurses’regulatorybody,theNursing
andMidwiferyCouncil(NMC),whichalsoregulatesthenursingassociatecourses.TheNMC
doesnotrequirenursingassociatestudentstobesupernumerarywhilelearninginpractice
butrequiresthestudenttohave‘protectedlearningtime’,whichisnotdefinedbythe
regulator,andinsteaddeterminedlocallybyuniversitiesandemployers.
Althoughtheparticipantsinthisstudyadvocatedfortheirstudentroletobe
supernumerary,thereisevidencethatthesupernumeraryrolecontributestothe
theory/practicegapinnursing(Allanetal2011).Supernumerarystatusmaymilitateagainst
studentsaccessingthehiddencurricula,i.e.thatknowledgethatishiddeninrelationto
socialisationintotheprofession,andintoclinicalpracticeitself,stronglylinkedtoidentity.
Allanetalfoundthatbecauseoftheirsupernumerarystatusnursingstudentshadto
negotiatetheirwayintoaclinicalsituationandbehaveinthewayqualifiedstaffexpected
themto.Participantsinourstudyexpresseddifficultyinaccessinglearninginpractice,but
thiswasinrelationtospecificskillsacquisition,ratherthantacitlearning.Furthermore,the
authorsofthisethnographicstudyfoundthatmentorsandseniornursesdidnotbelieve
thatsupernumerarystatusfacilitatedlearning,duetolackofimmersion(Allanetal2011).
Similarly,McGowan(2006)investigatedstudents’viewsofsupernumerarystatusandhowit
workedinpractice.Onefindingwasthatwhenpoorlyimplementedsupernumerarystatus
detrimentallyaffectedstudents’confidence.Ourparticipantswereallexperienced
healthcareassistantswithyearsofsocialisationintopractice;theyexpressedfrustrationin
2 Atthetimeofthestudythispertained.Atthetimeofwritinghowever(April2020)temporaryemergencymeasureshadbeenbroughtinbytheUKgovernmenttoaddresstheCovid-19crisissituationintheUnitedKingdom.Thisincludedbringingstudentnursesinyearstwoandthreeoftheirprogrammeintotheworkforceasstudentemployees,withprotectedlearningtimeratherthansupernumerarystatusinlinewithnursingassociates.Notablytheapprenticeshipsofmanynursingassociatetraineeshavebeenpausedtofurtherenhancetheworkforce.
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nothavingaccesstotrainingoreducationinexplicitskills-basedknowledge,deliveredat
workandplacedtowardsthemoreformalendofEraut’scontinuumofformalityinlearning
(Eraut2004).Thus,theyvaluedtheuniversity-basedaspectsoftheprogramme,feelingthat
thisgavethemaccesstoknowledgeinawaythatwasinaccessibleintheworkplace.
Supervisionbyaskilledclinicaleducator
Ourparticipantswereoftensupportedbyprofessionalsotherthannursestolearn,notably
doctors,whichmayreflecttheapprenticeship-styleofspecialistmedicaltrainingand
empathywiththestudents’positioninseekingoutsupportandsupervision.Participants
acknowledgedthepressureeducatorsinpracticeareunder,asdescribedbyMoffettetal
(2019)inanarticleaboutclinicaleducatorwell-being.Reynoldsetal(2020)suggestamodel
forcreatingteachablemoments(T-moments)inpracticethanencouragesreflectionand
maximiseslearningopportunities,acknowledgingtheconstraintsofclinicalpractice,andthe
importanceofthosewhofacilitatelearningbeingcapableofputtingthemselvesinthe
learners’position.Althoughtherewassomeevidenceofthisapproachtolearningand
teachingbeingimplementedinstage2ofthestudythiswasnotalwaysourparticipants’
experience.
Theroleofclinicaleducator,mentororsupervisorintheimplementationofwork-based
learninginclinicalpracticehasbeendemonstratedtobepivotaltolearningandstrongly
linkedtothedevelopmentofprofessionalidentity,thoughinasystematicreviewGibsonet
al(2019)alsofoundthatstudentexperiencewasmixedandthisconcurswithourfindings.A
poorexperiencemight,forexample,bedetrimentaltothedevelopmentofprofessional
identity,andthecharacteristicsoftheindividualsupervisororassessorinpracticealong
withtheircapacity(throughworkload)tobeavailabletothelearnerareimportantfactors.
Engagementwithstakeholders
LackofawarenessoftheroleandoftheTNAs’changedstatusaslearnerswasanissuefor
participantsinstageoneofthestudy;thismirrorsthefindingsofThurgate’sworkwith
AssistantPractitioners(Thurgate2018).Therapidityofimplementationofthecourse,and
subsequentlytheintroductionoftherole,militatedagainstunderstandingandsupportfor
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thestudentsaswork-basedlearners.Bystage2ofthestudythishadimproved,butas
pioneersofanewcourseleadingtoanewroletherewerenorolemodelsintheworkplace.
TheimpactofwearingauniformonboththeTNAandthoseworkingwiththemappearedto
beanimportantpartofidentityformation,whichisidentifiedindifferentcontextsinthe
literature.Poppe(2013)exploresthepoweroftheuniformasanidentity-markerand
importantmarkerofesteemamongparamilitaryforestersandrangersinBurkinaFaso.Her
interviewsdemonstrateimpactonthoseatthelowerendofhierarchiessimilartothaton
participantsinthisstudy.Similarly,Destaetal(2015)establishthatuniformscanleadto
increasedconfidenceandimprovedperformanceinnurses.Moreover,theidentificationof
thewearer(asastudent,alearner)isimportantandthiswasestablishedbyour
participants.Uniformsinclinicalpracticearenotwithoutcontroversythough.Derivedfrom
nuns’habitsanddesignedfornursingwork(dirtywork)theChiefNursingOfficerfor
Englandspokeoutagainsttheoutdatedimagesofnursesinuniform(NHSEngland,2019),
buttodenotethedifferencebetweenaworkerandalearnerintheworkplaceuniforms
appeartoserveausefulpurpose.Ourlongitudinalstudycapturespre-uniformandpost-
uniformresponsesandestablishesthesignificanceofuniformstotheparticipants.
Well-definedscopeofpractice
Intheexperienceofourparticipants,scopeofpractice,ortheroleofthetrainee,wasnot
wellestablished,althoughthereweresignsofimprovementbetweenstage1andstage2of
thestudy;participants’perceptionwasthattherehadbeenmoreinformationaboutthe
roleavailabletosupervisorsandmanagers.Lackofclarityinscopeofpracticecanimpacton
theeffectivenessoftherole(Priceetal2015),thoughitwasnotpossibletojudgehow
effectivetheroleofnursingassociatewasatthetimeofthestudy.Priceetal(2015)
investigatedtheeffectivenessoftheAssistantPractitionerroleinradiography,ratherthan
thework-basedlearningundertakenbytrainees.NonethelessPriceestablishedthata
minorityofmanagershadconsideredtheworkforceimplicationsofintroducingthe
AssociatePractitioner,orthesupportrequired.Moreover,scopeofpracticemaybeclearly
articulatedinpolicyandregulationbutwithoutadequateworkforcepreparationand
communicationthiswillnotbeunderstoodinclinicalpractice.Indeed,participantsnoted
positivechangesovertimealignedtoincreasedcommunicationabouttheirrole.
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Anappropriateeducationprogramme
TherewasevidenceatbothstagesofthestudythattheTNA’sappreciatedtheirprogramme
andfeltitsupportedtheirwork-basedlearninginclinicalpractice.Inparticular,the
programmeprovidedparticipantswitharationalefortheiractionsandtheevidencebase
fortheirinterventionsandthiswasstronglysupported.TNAsfeltthatmorelearning
happenedattheuniversitythaninthepracticesetting.Whilethiscouldbedueto
difficultiesinrecognisingandarticulatinglearningintheworkplace(Attenboroughetal
2019;Eraut2004),Tynjälä(2008)suggeststheimportanceofintegratingtacitknowledge
(frompractice)andexplicitknowledge(fromacademia):
Thedevelopmentofvocationalandprofessionalexpertisemustbeseenasaholisticprocess
inwhichtheorycannotbeseparatedfrompractice-orpracticecannotbeseparatedfrom
theory…..Participatinginreallifesituationsisanecessarybutnotasufficientconditionfor
thedevelopmentofhighlevelexpertise.Onlydeepintegrationoftheoretical,practicaland
self-regulativeknowledgecreatesexpertise(p145).
TheTNAsinourstudyreportedintegrationassuggestedbyTynjälä(2008),buttheir
satisfactionwiththework-basedelementofthecourse,thoughimprovedovertime,
remainedlow,atleastforsomeparticipants.Howthismightinfluencetheeffectivenessof
studentsoncequalifiediscurrentlyunknown.Itisthereforedifficulttocommentonthe
overallappropriatenessoftheprogrammeapartfromthestudentperspective.
Inastudyinvestigatinghowprofessionalidentityisinfluencedthroughexperiencesona
work-basedlearningprogrammerunthroughtheapprenticeshipsystemBooth(2019)
discussesimprovedself-confidenceandbeliefinparticipants’capabilitytocarryouttheir
rolesasbeingimportantfactors.
Fitwiththeframework
OutofHalseetal’s(2018)sevencategories,fivewerereflectedinbothstagesofthestudy.
Nationalstrategicleadershipandrobustworkforceplanningdidnotresonatewithour
participants,yetparticipants’experienceswererelatedtobothofthesecategories,for
examplerobustworkforceplanningcouldhaveaddressedtheissueofawarenessaboutthe
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roleinpracticegenerallyandprovidedmorecapacityforsupportandteachinginclinical
areas.Thelackofdataaboutthesefactorsishardlysurprising,asthesefactorsoperateat
nationallevelratherthanatwardlevel,whereasourpurposeinthisanalysisistoconsider
thesefactorsfromthepointofviewofTNAsonthefront-line.
Theydid,asreportedintheresults,appreciatethepositiveinvolvementofwardmanagers
andotherseniorwardstaffinsupportingtheirlearning,butthatitisadifferentsortof
leadershipfromthatindicatedinHalseetal’s(2018)systematicreview.Similarly,TNAsin
stage1ofthestudyhadstrongviewsaboutthelackofsupernumerarystatusand
unanimouslyreportedthatTNAsthemselveshadtotakeresponsibilityfortheirlearningin
clinicalsettings,asstaffwereunableorunwillingtodosoconsistently.Thisimpliesthat
workforceplanninghadnotaccountedfortheintroductionofthenewrole.
Thestrongleadershiprequiredtoembedtheroleinpracticewasnotnecessarilyabsent,
anditisclearthattherolewasintroducedafterreviews,stakeholderinvolvementand
policydevelopment.TherolewaslaunchedbytheMinisterforHealthandwashighprofile
inbothprofessionalandnationalmedia.However,thenationalprofileandimportanceof
therolewasnotraisedbyparticipantsandmayreflectthepaceofintroduction,
underpinnedbystretchingtargets.Theanalysisrevealedthattheexperiencesofthosemost
affectedbypolicychange,inthiscasetheTNAs,dosupporttheintroductionoftherole.
Conclusionandrecommendations
Ourparticipants’experiencesdemonstratetheimportanceofpreparationoftheworkplace
forwork-basedlearningforspecificroles,andhowthesedevelopedovertime.Aspioneers
theTNAshadcommittedthemselvestotrainingforarolewhich,atthetimetheywere
studying,didnotexistinactualclinicalpractice.Despitethis,theirobviousenthusiasmfor
learningandtheirdescriptionsofhowtheexplicitknowledgegainedthroughtheacademic
componentofthecoursesupportedtheirtacitpracticeknowledgeisapparentandendorses
theprogrammeandapproachtosomeextent.TheTNA’svaluedskillsacquisitionabovetacit
knowledgethattheyhadgainedthroughyearsofsocialisationintohealthcare.They
appreciatedtheconstraintsoneducatorswithcompetingpressuresinpracticetoteach
themduetoclinicalcommitments,butequallyfeltfrustratedthatknowledgeabouttheir
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55
rolewasnotsufficientlydevelopedtoenablequalifiedstafftosupportthemfully;this
improvedbetweenstageoneandtwoofthestudy.Furthermore,stakeholderengagement
wasnecessarytosupporttheirdevelopingidentity,thiswasachievedthroughincreased
inputwitheducatorsandprovisionofadistinctiveuniformtogiveavisualcueabouttheir
status.Thelackofrolemodelsforanewrolelinkedtoanunderstandingoftheirscopeof
practicealsodevelopedovertimeandshouldimproveastherolebecomesembeddedin
theworkforce.Overalltheimportanceofskillededucatorscommittedtolearning,bothin
clinicalpracticeandinuniversitieswasevidentinbothstagesofthestudy.
Alimitationofthestudyisthatboththegroupinterviewsinstage1andindividual
interviewsinstage2wererathershort,asTNAshadtofittheminduringdaysatthe
university,whentheirtimetablewasalreadytight.Thestage1groupinterviewswerewell
attendedbecausetheywereheldimmediatelybeforeorafterOSCEs;individualinterviews
wereheldduringaperiodallottedtoprivatestudy,andonlysevenwereachieved(several
otherTNAshadoriginallyagreedtobeinterviewed,buttheywereabsentduetoillnessor
familycommitments,anddidnotreplytofollow-upe-mails).Thoseinterviewedinstage2
believedthattheirimprovedexperiencewascommontoallTNAs,however.
Afurtherlimitationisthatofanysmall-scalestudyofanationalphenomenonsuchasthe
introductionofanewrole.Itmaybethattheclinicalsettingswhereourinformantswere
placedwerenottypicalofthoseelsewhere,eitherintheirinitialinabilitytoofferenough
support,ortheirabilitytolearnfairlyquicklyhowtodoso,orboth.Itisnotnowpossibleto
replicatethestudyelsewhere,becauseinevitablyperceptionsofandunderstandingsofthe
roleandofTNAs’learningneedswillhavechangedsinceourresearchwascarriedout.
Thisstudydoes,however,addtotheevidence-baseaboutintroducingnewrolesin
healthcare,endorsingHalseetal’s(2018)findingsfromtheliteratureexistingatthetime
therolewasintroduced.Thispaperdemonstratestheimpactofaninitiativealignedto
governmentpolicytoincreasetheclinicalworkforceonindividualsonawork-basedlearning
course,whichwasintroducedatpace.Thepaperhighlightstheimportanceofpreparation
ofthequalifiedworkforcethatsupportslearninginpractice.Bystudyingthe
implementationovertime,withincreasedunderstandingoftherole,wewereableto
demonstratethecrucialityofthispreparation.Thisisanimportantcontributiontothe
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evidence-basethatinformsandinfluencescurriculumdesignanddevelopmentinhigher
educationoncoursesdeliveredinpartnershipwithemployersthroughwork-basedlearning.
Thisalsosuggestsimportantareasforinvestigationinwork-basedlearningthatisdelivered
inpartnershipwithhighereducationinstitutions.Futureresearchcouldexplorethelackof
parityofvaluebetweenuniversity-basedlearningandthelearningfrompracticeas
perceivedbylearners.Itwouldalsobeusefultoheartheperspectiveofthosesupporting
learning,mappedagainsttheframework,andinparticulartheroleofadequate
information-givinginhelpingqualifiedstafftounderstandandcarryouttheirrolein
supportinglearners.Moreambitiously(becauseofthelongitudinalnatureofthestudies),it
wouldbeinterestingtoexploretowhatextentunderstandingtherationaleoffamiliar
duties,muchappreciatedbyTNAs,enhancesthecarethatTNAsgiveaftertraining
comparedwithbefore;andtheextenttowhichtheirownexperiencesofbeingrelatively
unsupportedatthebeginninginfluencetheirowncommitmenttoandskillatsupporting
futurelearnersthemselves.
Funding
TheresearchreportedinthispaperwassupportedbyHealthEducationEnglandaspartofa
projecttosupporttheexpansionofwork-basedlearninginclinicalpractice.
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Work-BasedLearninginNigeria’sHigherEducation:Whatnow?IKEV.IYIOKE1andIFEOMAC.IYIOKE,
History,Philosophy&SociologyofScience,MichiganStateUniversity,USA.
Academicwork-basedlearning(WBL)hasanoveracentury-longhistoryinNigeria.ThecurrentWBLprogramsaretheStudents’IndustrialWorkExperienceScheme(SIWES)andtheGraduateInternship(GI).Theyaresponsoredbythefederalgovernmentwiththeaimtoimproveemploymentoutcomes.However,thereisstillagrossmismatchbetweentheskillsofgraduatesandthedemandsofemployers.ThisstudyanalyzeswhytheWBLprogramsinNigeriahaveyettobesuccessfulandsuggestsalternatives.TheanalysisrevealsadysfunctionaljobplacementprocessasaprimarybarrierandsuggestsconsolidatingtheSIWESandGIintooneschool-to-workprogram,basedupontheGraduateEmployabilitySkillDevelopment(GESD)model,alongwithstrategiestoimprovethedevelopment,management,andqualityassuranceofplacement.ThearticleconcludesbyunderscoringtheintegrationandeffectivemanagementofWBLatalllevelsofeducation,includingcontinuingeducationasanimportantandrealisticapproachthatNigeriashouldstrivefortoattainappreciabledevelopment.Keywords:Work-basedlearning,Nigeria,vocational/technicaltraining,higheducation,internship.
Introductionandhistoricalbackground
Highereducation(HE)–a.k.a.,tertiaryeducation–hasbeenreceivingextraordinaryattention
sincethebeginningofthe21stcentury.Muchoftheglobalattentionisbecausethegrowthand
developmentofnationsarehingedonthelevelofeducationandknowledgeofitscitizens
(Boudetal,2020;Costley&Boud,2020).Withknowledgeproduction,dissemination,and
consumptionatthecoreofeconomictransformation,HEinstitutionsareenvisionedasstrategic
playersindevelopinghumanresources(Sall,Lebeau,&Kassimir,2003).Likewise,work-based
learning(WBL)hasbecomeavitalelementoftheeducationalsystemaroundtheglobewiththe
recognitionoftheimportanceforfacilitatingeconomicdevelopment(Boud&Solomon,2001).
CountrieswithHEsystemsthatintegrateWBLarebetterpoisedtomakethetransitiontoa
1Email:[email protected]
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knowledgeeconomy.
Today,whatisknownasWBLinNigeriabeganasvocationalandtechnicaltraining.Vocational
education(VocEd)orTechnicaleducation(TechEd)istheeducationalprocessthatfocuseson
individuals’preparationforentranceandprogressinoccupationsorcareers.Itcantakeplaceat
thesecondaryschoolorhighereducation(Uwaifo,2010).Strikingly,VocEd/TechEdinNigeria
datesto1885whenthecolonialHopeWaddellInstitutewasestablishedinCalabar.However,
therealplanningofthesystemwasin1946whenitwasgivenaplaceintheTen-YearPlanfor
DevelopmentandWelfare.Beforethisdate,thecolonialgovernment’sattitudewasthatthe
provisionoftechnicaleducationforNigerians(beyondverylimitedartisantrainingfor
governmentaldepartments)wasnotimportant.Upuntiltheearly1940s,technocratswere
unabletorecommendtheestablishmentofasingletraininginstitution.Theybelievedthatbig
tradeschooloratechnicalcollegewaswasteful.Theyreasonedthatsuchschoolwouldbe
expensivetobuildandequipandrequiremanyEuropeanandAfricanstaff(Osuala,1976).But
eventually,ittookrootin1947whenthefirstindigenousHEinstitutionandPolytechnic,the
YabaTechnicalInstitute(nowYabaCollegeofTechnology)wasfounded.Lateron,Nigerian
tradeschoolsandpolytechnicsstarteddevelopinganarrayofskillsetsthatwereresponsible
forsomeportionoftheworkforceuptoapoint.Forawhile,theNigerianworkforcewas
viewedasapromisinglotcomparabletoitscounterpartsinAsiaandelsewhere.Butwithtime,
employersobservedthatgraduateswerelackingpracticalskillsandresolvedthattheeducation
beingreceivedintheinstitutionswasnotresponsivetotheneedsforemployment(Uvah,
2004).Thedependenceofindustryontechnicalcompetenciesforoperationandmaintenance
ofitsresourcesrequiredacadreofworkerswhopossessedknowledgeofthenewtechnologies
thatwereprevalentatthetimeintheworkplace.
Hence,WBLwasformallyintroducedintheYabaTechnicalInstitutein1969whenitattained
autonomousstatustoupgradetheVocEd/TechEdprovidedtothestudents.Thereferencefor
WBLasintegratedintothecurriculumintheYabaCollegeofTechnologywasindustrialtraining.
Thestudentsparticipatedintheschemeattheendoftheacademicyearperiodsandwere
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sponsoredbyemployers.However,thisformofindustrialtraininginvolvingautomatic
sponsorshipbyemployerswasdiscontinuedwiththerapidexpansionoftheHEinstitutions
(Uvah,2004).Fast-forwardtocurrentWBLprogramswhicharesponsoredbythefederal
governmentasprerequisitesforemployment.TheyaretheStudents’IndustrialWork
ExperienceScheme(SIWES)andtheGraduateInternship(GI).Theplacementofstudentsor
graduatesofHEforvocationalandtechnicaltraininginworksettingsisanopportunityto
participateinactivitiesrelevanttovariousdisciplinesandtoreflectontheexperiences(Obiete,
Nwazor,&Vin-Mbah,2015).
Nigeria’sIndustrialTrainingFund(ITF)setupSIWEStodevelopemployabilityskillsofstudents
(IndustrialTrainingFund[ITF],1973).Employabilityskillsareknowledge,skills,andattitudes
studentsneedtoattainandmaintainjobs(Pitan,2016).Ontheotherhand,theGIisofferedas
partofcontrolofprofessionalpracticeinthehealthfieldsandadministeredbytwoprofessional
bodies.TheprofessionalcouncilforthefieldofmedicineistheMedicalandDentalCouncilof
Nigeria(MDCN)establishedin1963,whilethatforpharmacyisthePharmaceuticalCouncilof
Nigeria(PCN),establishedin1992(MedicalandDentalCouncilofNigeria[MDCN],n.d.;
PharmaceuticalCouncilofNigeria[PCN],n.d.)1.
StudieshavedemonstratedtheacademicrelevanceoftheWBLprogramsandhavecredited
themwithimprovingskills(Adebakin,2015;ITF&UniversityofJos,2011;Oyeniyi,2012;
Ugwueze,2011).ButquestionsremainwhyNigeria’sdevelopmentcontinuestospinonits
wheelsdespiteoveracenturyofinvestmentinthisarea.Preliminaryanalysisindicatesthat
despitethelonghistoryofintegrationofWBLinHEinstitutionsinNigeria,thegoalsarestillfar
off.Thereisstillagrossmismatchbetweentheskillsgraduatescomeoutwithandthedemands
ofthebusinessworld.Specifically,HEcurriculahavenotmatchedpacewithmodernskillsets.
Consequently,mostgraduatesofNigeriantertiaryinstitutionsareplaguedbytheinabilityto
getjobsorbecomeself-employed(Obieteetal.,2015).
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Thepurposeofthisarticleistoconductafine-grainedanalysistoilluminatethebarriersto
progressandstrategiestointegrateWBLtoachieveeconomicdevelopmentinNigeria.
Theremainingsegmentsofthepaperarefour-fold.Thefirstservesasabriefcontextualizing
appraisalofthetertiaryeducationsystem.Thesecondsectionprovidesacomparativeanalysis
ofthetwoformsofWBL(SIWESandGI).ThethirdsuggestsawaytoimplementWBLintertiary
educationrelativetotheneedsforincreasingemploymentoutcomesandeconomic
developmentinNigeria.TheconclusiondiscussesprospectsofextendingWBLtoelementary,
secondary,andcontinuingeducationinNigeria.
AppraisingtheNigeriantertiaryeducationsystem
Giventheprecariousstateofmanyeconomiesinthedevelopingworldandaconcern
thattheyarelikelyto“misstheboat”andnotbenefitfromtheknowledgeeconomy,HEin
Nigeriahasbeenscrutinizedlikeneverbefore(Salletal.,2003).Theseeffortsareindicativeof
theplaceofHEinanation’slifeandhowitisshapedbyglobalforces.Thisappraisalaimsto
shedlightonthestatusquoastheyrelatetonationalgovernanceinNigeriaandglobal
economicdynamics.
CountryContext
ItistritetorecounttheabundanceofNigeria’sresources,bothhumanandnatural.For
instance,oneineverysixAfricansisaNigerian,makingitAfrica’smostpopulous
country–theseventhmostpopulouscountryintheworld,andrecently,Africa’slargest
economy.Nigeria’spopulationmorethanquadrupledfromanestimated42.5millionpeopleat
independencein1960toanestimated140millionpeoplein2016(NigerianEmbassywebsite).
Amongthenotabledemographicsisasignificant‘youthbulge’--morethan60percentofthe
country’spopulationisundertheageof24(WES,Staff,2017).
Thecountryisalsoendowedwithmanynaturalresources,mostprominentlythe
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crudeoil,whichhasbeenthesinglelargestsourceofexportandgrowthoftheeconomysince
1970,accountingformorethan90%ofexportsand70%ofthegovernmentrevenues(Adedipe,
2004;WorldEducationServices[WES],2017).Theeconomyhasenjoyedsomegrowthbasedon
crudeoilproductionandhasachievedsomekeymilestones.Forinstance,inAprilof2014,the
country’sGrossDomesticProduct(GDP)wasrebasedafter24yearsfromaboutUS$270billion
toUS$510billion.Becauseofthis,Nigeriain2015surpassedSouthAfricaasAfrica’slargest
economy.Thisemergenceandtheprojectiontobeinthetop20oftheworld’seconomies
come2050,arebeyondmeresymbolisms(Vanguard,2016).ButwhileGDPisameasureof
economicgrowth,itdoesnotnecessarilytranslatetoeconomicdevelopment.Nigeriaisthe
largestAfricaneconomy,butitrankslowineconomicdevelopment(HumanDevelopment
ReportOffice,2014).Economicanalystshavecharacterizedthecoexistenceofresourcesand
extremepovertyinNigeriaasaresourcecurse(Oni,2013).Itdoesnottakemuchtorealizethe
reasonforthis.ThehistoryofNigeria’soilwealthisassociatedwithalonglistofsocialvices,
suchascorruptionamonggovernmentofficials,whichledtothecollapseofbasicinfrastructure
andsocialservicessincetheearly1980’sandhassincethenhinderedinvestmentinallsectors
oftheeconomy.TheWorldBankestimatedthat80%ofenergyrevenuesinthecountry
benefitedonlyaround1%ofthepopulation(Odularu,2008).Harbison’s(1971)analysesof
humanresourceproblemsinAfricannationsstillcapturethestatusquoinNigeria,46years
afterastheeducationalsystem,especiallyHE,isstillpoorlygearedtomatchdevelopment
needs.
TheeducationalsysteminNigeriacomprisestheprimary,secondary,andtertiarylevels.The
tertiarylevelismadeupofuniversityandnon-universityinstitutions.Theuniversitysystem
offersdegreesinacademic,vocational,andtechnicalareas.Thenon-universitysystemis
composedofpolytechnicsandcollegesofeducation,whichprovidetechnical/vocationaland
teachingskills,respectively.Thefederalgovernmentbodiestaskedwithmanagingthetertiary
institutionsaretheNationalBoardforTechnicalEducation(NBTE)forpolytechnics;the
NationalCommissionforCollegesofEducation(NCCE)forcolleges;andtheNationalUniversity
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Commission(NUC),fortheuniversities.
UniversityeducationinNigeriadatesto1948,whentheUniversityCollegeofIbadanwas
establishedasaresidentialandtutorialcollegeaffiliatedtotheUniversityofLondon(Okojie,
2008).However,thebraggingrightsforthefirstindigenousfederaluniversitybelongstothe
UniversityofNigeria,Nsukka,whichwasestablishedatindependence,in1960(Okojie,2008).
Post-independence,in1962,theUniversityCollegeofIbadanattainedanautonomousstatusas
adegreeawardinginstitutionandfollowingthatthenumberoffederaluniversitieshadrisento
fivewiththeadditionofUniversityofIfe,AhmaduBelloUniversityZaria,andUniversityof
Lagos.Subsequently,thefirststateuniversitiesemergedin1979ledbytheRiversState
UniversityofScienceandTechnology.
MilitaryRuleandStructuralAdjustment
“By1980,Nigeriahadestablishedawell-regardedtertiaryeducationsystemoffering
instructionataninternationalstandardinanumberofdisciplinaryareas.The
universitiesofIbadanandAhmaduBello,forexample,earnedglobalrecognitionfortheir
researchintropicalhealthandagriculture,respectively”(Saint,Hartnett,&Strassner,2004).
TheUniversityofNigeriaNsukkaexcelledinarts,education,andthebiomedicalsciences.
However,thisreputationsteadilydiminishedwiththefiscalirresponsibilityofthegovernment
andtheIMF-imposedstructuraladjustmentprogram(SAP)tocurbbudgetdeficits.
Theinstitutionsweregrosslyunderfundedandmismanagedbythesuccessivemilitary
governmentsduringthe1980sand1990s.Inresponsetosocialandpoliticalpressures,access
totertiaryeducationexpandedrapidlydespitecutsinthebudget.Between1990and1997,the
enrollmentsgrewby79%–evenasrealvalueofgovernmentallocationsfortertiaryeducation
declinedby27%(Saintetal.,2004).Attributingthedecliningqualityofeducationto
underfundingandunplannedexpansion,aWorldBankreportonthestateofeducationin
Nigeriastatedthatthelastwell-trainedgraduatesleftthesysteminthemid-1980s.
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Similarly,theSAPhadadevastatingeffectontheeducationalsystemsinmanyotherAfrican
economies.Numerousscholarlyworks,includingthatoftheWorldBank,provideevidencethat
thepatternofdecliningresourceallocationtoeducationwasadirectresultofWorldBank/IMF
austerityprograms.UNESCO’sWorldEducationReportanalysisof26Africancountriesshowed
anoveralldeclineof33percentinpublicspendingperpupil,intheperiod1980-1988.In
Nigeria,theexpenditureoneducationwasaslowas2.7percent(Geo-Jaja&Magnum,2003).
Also,theSAPhadaconsiderableimpactonthecivilservice—oncethemainemployer
ofgraduates(Salletal.,2003).Theconcomitanteffectofthesepolicieswasthedeclineinthe
qualityoftertiaryeducationandintheemployabilityofgraduates.
PostStructuralAdjustmentandDemocraticRule
Ademocraticallyelectedgovernmentreemergedin1999after15yearsofhiatus.Withitcame
thepoliticalwilltotacklethenation’stertiaryeducationdifficulties(Saintetal.,2004).The
governmentrelinquishedabsolutecontrolovertertiaryeducation(Salletal.,2003).Afteran
earlierfailedattempt,privateuniversitieseventuallybecamearealityin1999whenthefirst
threeprivateuniversitiesBabcock,Igbinedion,andMadonnauniversitieswerelicensedto
operate(Akpotu&Akpochafo,2009).
Sincethen,Nigeriahascontinuedtoseeanexponentialgrowthofthetertiaryinstitutions.As
thedemandforeducationmounted,privateproprietorswerequicktorespondwitha
characteristicbutpeculiarattitudeofprivatesectorsolutiontosocialneeds.Proprietorsof
theseinstitutionshavecontinuedtoadopttheprivateoptionresponse,turningitintooneof
themostprofitablesectorsoftheNigerianeconomy(Saintetal.,2004).Atthelastcount,the
NBTErecognizes107polytechnicsand220collegesinvariousspecificdisciplines.Thenumber
ofrecognizeduniversitieshasgrownto152,consistingof40federaluniversities,44state
universities,and68privateuniversitiesasaccrediteddegree-grantinginstitutions(WES,2017).
Thus,Nigeriahasnotbeenlackinginestablishinginstitutions;herAchilles’heelhasmostlybeen
inthemanagementandensuringcommitmenttofollowthroughwithqualityservices.
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Onefundamentalmanagementissueoftheinstitutionsisunderfunding.Saintetal.(2004)note
thatNigeria’sbudgetallocationforeducationsignificantlyfallsshortofbothregionaland
internationalnorms.In2009,whatthetopthreeAfricannationsmeasuredintheirproportion
ofgrossnationalproduct(GNP)spentoneducationwereSouthAfrica(7.9%);Kenya(6.5%);and
Malawi(5.4%).ButNigeriawasspending0.76%ofherGNPoneducation(Akpotu&Akpochafu,
2009).Whileherspendinghasfluctuatedovertheyears,thelevelsdecreasedwellbelow10%
followingtheoilprice-inducedfiscalcrisisin2015(WES,2017).Evenat10%,theexpenditure
oneducationislessthanhalfofthe26%recommendedbytheUNESCOforeconomic
development(Adeoti,2015).Duetofundingconstraints,theinstitutionslackotherresources,
includingstaff,physicalfacilities,andequipmentforqualityservicedelivery(WES,2017).
Thesecondmajorissuerelatestoqualityassurancewhichinvolvestheestablishmentof
standardsforlicensingandaccreditingprograms(Okojie,2008).Itistheresponsibilityofthe
regulatoryagencies,theNUC,NBTE,andNCCEtolicenseandaccredittheactivitiesand
programsoftheinstitutions.InOctoberof2017,theAssociationofViceChancellorsofNigerian
Universitiesdecriedthecontinuingexpansionoftheinstitutionsregardlessofacademic
standardsandrelevancetosustainabledevelopment(ThisDay,2017).TheNigerianNational
BureauofStatistics(NBS)estimatedthat33million(23.10%)ofNigerianswereunemployedin
2028.The2017WESfiguresshoweda47%unemploymentrateamonggraduatesoftertiary
institutionswiththewarningthatthesituationwouldgetworseandithasgottenworsewith
therapidnosediveincrudeoilprices.Already,Nigeria’sGDPsufferedasharpdeclinewhenit
droppedfrom6.2%inlate2014to2.8%inlate2015(Ikedi&Adewole,2016).Furtherslashing
ofthefundingforeducationwasreportedincludingscalingbackof40%ofthefundingfromoil
andgasrevenues.Nottomentiongovernment-inducedever-presentstrikeactionsbymembers
oftheAcademicStaffUnionofUniversities,derisivelyreferredbysomeasan“annualfestival.”
Theunabatedincreaseinunemployment,particularlyofgraduatesoftertiaryinstitutions,even
withtheintegrationofWBLwarrantstheanalysisthatfollows.
Work-BasedLearningProgramsinNigeria
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Asnotedearlier,currentWBLprogramsinNigeriantertiaryinstitutionsaredesignatedasSIWES
andGI.Thenotionofinternshipisaone-time,short-termjobplacementandamutually
beneficialrelationshipbetweenstudentsandemployers,inwhichstudentsacquireskillsin
exchangeforservicesforanorganization(Anderson,2017).TheSIWESisconsideredanin-
school,whileGIisanafter-schoolprogram.Hence,theuseofGIhighlightsthetimingofthe
internshipprogram.Thediscussionthatfollowsprovidessomebackgroundandacomparative
analysisoftheprograms.
TheSIWESisaskillstrainingprogram.Itwasinitiatedin1973bytheIndustrialTrainingFundto
addressthemismatchbetweenthetertiaryinstitutioncurriculumandthepracticalskills
requiredforemploymentintherealworld.TheobjectivesoftheSchemeincludebridgingthe
gapbetweentheoryandpractice;enhancingcontactsforjobplacement;andimprovingthe
involvementofemployersintheeducationalprocess(ITF,1973).Itstartedofficiallywith784
studentsacross11universitiesandpolytechnicsandparticipationwaslimitedtoengineering
andtechnologyspecialties.Sincethen,thenumberofparticipantsgalloped.Theprogramnow
formspartoftherequirementforstudentsenrolledinthefieldsofengineering,technical,
business,appliedsciencesandarts.ThepeakofparticipationintheSchemewasin2008,when
204institutionsand210,390studentsparticipated(Mafe,2010).Thenumberdippedto136
institutionsand79,852studentsparticipatingin2017(SundiataPost,2017).
Ontheotherhand,GIisaclinicaltrainingforrecentgraduatesinthehealthfields.Itisoffered
byprofessionalcouncilsaspartofthecontrolofpractice.Medicineandpharmacyareexamples
offieldswhosegraduatesparticipatetoobtainfulllicensetopractice.Theprofessionalcouncil
formedicineanddentistryistheMedicalandDentalCouncilofNigeria(MDCN).Theinternship
formedicaldoctorsiscalledhousemanship,andthemedicalinternsarehouseofficers.The
professionalcouncilforpharmacyisthePharmaceuticalCouncilofNigeria(PCN).TheMDCN
andPCNarestatutoryagenciesundertheFederalMinistryofHealth.Theyarechargedwith
developingthestandardsandmaintenanceofregistersofpersonsandpremiseseligible
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topractice(MDCN,n.d.;PCN,n.d.).Thecouncilsalsoissuerelevantpublicationsinsupportof
thesefunctions.Fundingsupportforthecouncilsarefrominternallygeneratedrevenueand
grantsfromthefederalgovernment.
OrganizationalStructure
TheorganizationalstructureforSIWESconsistsoffourhierarchicallevelsandmultiple
stakeholdersasfollows:(1)federalgovernmentandITF;(2)regulatoryagenciesoftertiary
institutions(i.e.,NUC,NBTE,NCCE)andChiefExecutivesForum;(3)ITFareaoffices,
employers/industries,andtertiaryinstitutions;and(4)students(Mafe,2010).TheITFisan
agencyoftheFederalMinistryofCommerceandIndustrywiththesubsidiarymandateforthe
centralmanagementofSIWES.TheNUC,NBTE,andNCCEaretheregulatoryagenciesofthe
tertiaryinstitutionsandbelongtotheFederalMinistryofEducation.TheChiefExecutives
ForumcomprisesoftheITF,NUC,NBTE,NCCE,andtheindustryleaders.Thetertiary
institutionsandemployers/industriesareresponsiblefortheoperationofSIWES.The
institutionsarerequiredtoestablishfullystaffedandequippedcoordinatingunits;appointfull-
timecoordinators;andoperateanaccountforSIWES.
Incontrast,thestructureofGIiscomprisedoftwohierarchicallevelsandfewerstakeholdersas
follows:(1)federalgovernment,professionalcouncils,andNUC,NBTE,andNCCE;and(2)
employers/industriesandthetertiaryinstitutions.Whilethecoordinatingunitsmediatethe
relationshipbetweentheregulatoryagenciesofinstitutions(i.e.,NUC,NBTE,andNCCE)and
theemployers/industriesintheoperationoftheSIWES;theregulatoryagenciesforpractice
(i.e.,professionalcouncils)workdirectlywiththeemployers/industriesintheoperationofGI.
TheorganizationalstructureforSIWESapparentlyismorebureaucratic.Thus,thestructurehas
witnessedlackofqualitycontrol,administrativebottlenecks,andunnecessaryoverheadcosts
(Mafe,2010).Aleanerorganizationalstructure,inthecaseofGIseemsalogicalsolutionto
theseoperationaldysfunctions.Also,therehasnotbeenastableoperationofSIWESunder
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centralmanagementbytheITF.TheITFhadfacilitatedtheestablishmentoftheSchemein
1973andmanagedituptill1979;itwasfraughtwithmanagementissuesnecessitatinga
takeoverbytheNUC,NBTE,andNCCEfromthenontill1985.Butsimilarconcernscontinued
withthistransfer.Hence,themanagementwasrevertedtoITF(Mafe,2010).Despiteallthepolicyreversals,theproblemcontinues.Likewise,theabsenceofcentralmanagementforGIledtoinstabilityintheoperation.ProspectiveInterns/HouseOfficersAssociationofNigeria(PIHAN),anassociationcomprisingallgraduatesofhumanhealthscienceshadcalledfortherestructuringoftheGItrainingprogram,andforthecreationofanorganoftheFederalMinistryofHealthsolelycommittedtoitssmoothfunctioning(Ekeh,2016).Inanapparentresponse,theFederalMinistryofHealthconsummatedaplanfortheMDCNtocentrallymanagehousemanshipasfrom2018(Ogunberu,2017,ascitedinTalbot,2019).TheplantohavetheMDCNmanagehousemanshipasaprimaryroleseemedapttoaddresstheoperationaldysfunctionsofGI.
OrganizationalFunctions
ThefunctionsoftheWBLprogramsareherebrokenintoplacement,orientation,trainingand
supervision,assessment,fundingandpaymentofallowances,andqualityassuranceand
research.Undereachofthesefunctions,responsibilitiesandchallengesofstakeholdersare
discussed.Notedalsoareconsequencesofimproperimplementationofthefunctionsand
recommendations.
Placement:EligiblepersonsforSIWESarestudentsintheirpenultimateyear.The
establishmentsforplacementincludegovernmentagenciesandprivateenterprises.Notably,
thecoordinatingunitsworkwithemployerstodevelopjobspecificationsanddescriptionsto
supporttheplacementoperations.TheSIWEScoordinatingunitsintheinstitutionsusethe
employerslistbyITFtoplacestudentsbasedonmatchbetweentheknowledgeandskill
requirementsoftheirfieldandthejobspecifications,andsendthemasterandplacementlists
totheITFthroughtheNUC,NBTE,andNCCEforvetting.Studentscanalsoinitiateplacement
withemployersintheirfieldsofstudyandinlocationstheycanfindlivingaccommodation(ITF,
2016).
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Eligiblepersonsforplacementinaninternshiparegraduatesofhumanhealthscienceswithin
twoyearsofawardofthedegree,andthoseprovisionallyregisteredtopractice.Thetraining
centersfordoctorsandpharmacistsincludeshospitals.Thehospitalsareapprovedbythe
professionalcouncilsthrougharigorousaccreditationprocessleadingtotheawardofa
certificateofregistration(MDCN,2006;PCN,2009).Intermsoftheopportunitytheyaffordthe
internstoobserveclinicalcasesandtryouttreatmentprocedures,theyareclassifiedastertiary
orsecondary.Tertiarylevelhospitalsencompassallteachinghospitalswhilesecondarylevel
hospitalsincludeFederalMedicalCenters.
Theprofessionalcouncilsprovidealistofapprovedtrainingcenterstothegraduatesor
prospectiveinternsduringtheinductionceremonywhothenchooseplacesofinteresttoapply.
Thus,itistheresponsibilityofagraduateseekinganinternshippositiontoensurethatthe
trainingcentersofinterestarerecognizedbythecouncil,andtofindoutapplicationdate,
apply,andfollowupwiththeselectionprocedures(MDCN,2006;PCN,2009).Trainingcenters
recruitinternsbyadvertisingpositions;andscreeninginvolvesreviewingapplications,
shortlistingofapplicants,andadministeringawrittenexamand/orinterview(Ajemigbitse,
Omole,Ezike,&Erhun,2014;Oshiko,Senbanjo,&Amole,2009).Theyalsomakeavailable
suitableaccommodationforinternswithinorneartheplaceofworkorprovidecommensurate
allowancewherenotavailable(PCN,2009;MDCN,2006).
Thus,livingaccommodationisguaranteedforGI,butnotforSIWES.Althoughplacementis
facilitatedforSIWESparticipantsusinglessstringentstandardforeligibilitydetermination,
however,theprocessofferslessautonomy(Mafe,2010).Okoli(2016)hasnotedthatthetiming
anddurationofplacementasmitigatingthequalityofSIWES.Hecitedcaseswherestudents
werepromisedbytheirhostemployerstheywillbehired,butthisofferdidnotmaterialize
becauseofthelongwaittimetobecomeemployable.Regardingthedurationofplacement,he
highlightedconstraintsinthebuildingofskillsduetotheshorttimeforthetraining.Intermsof
ensuringthequalityofplacement,theprocessforGIseemsmoreproactiveandappropriate
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becausetheprofessionalcouncilspre-approvethetrainingcenters.ForSIWES,theprocessby
NUC,NTBE,andNCCEinvettingtheactualplacementofstudentsisretroactive.
Thescarcityofplacesofattachmenthasbeenagreatchallengeforbothprograms.TheSIWES
coordinatingunitshavebeenunabletoofferplacesofattachmenttoalleligiblestudentsand
relyonthestudentstoseekfortheirownplacements.Thereasonsincludelackof
comprehensivelistofemployerswillingtoacceptstudentsfortraining.Thisisattributedtothe
failureofthefederalgovernmenttoenforcethemandates(Amadi,2013;Anderson,2017;
Atakpa,2017;Mafe,2010;Oladimejietal.,2017).Asaresult,moststudentsdidtheirSIWESin
placesthatwerenotgermanetotheirfieldofstudy.Recommendationshavebeenmadefor
governmenttoinvokepenaltiestoenforcethemandates(e.g.,Mafe,2010;Tambuwal,2012).
Others,suchasAgboh(2016)recommendofferingincentives,suchastaxrebatestoemployers.
Thelatterseemslikeabetteroptiontomotivateemployerstoparticipateinhuman
development.
Severalauthorsreportordealsofprospectiveinternsseekingplacementinaccreditedtraining
facilities,suchaslimitedvacanciesandbiasedselectionprocesses(China,2016;Ekeh,2016;
Makinde,2016).Asaresult,somedoctorsoptforasupernumeraryposition,whichmeansthey
wouldworkwithoutbeingpaidtofulfilltheinternshipobligationrequiredtogainpermanent
registration(China,2016).Toaddressthesechallenges,theFederalMinistryofHealthlater
mandatedtheMDCNtotakefullresponsibilityofplacingmedicaldoctorsasfrom2018
(Ogunberu,2017,ascitedinTalbot,2019).
Orientation:ThecoordinatingunitintheinstitutionsorganizestheSIWESorientationprogram
tofamiliarizestudentswiththecodeofconductandethicsatwork(Mafe,2010;Oladimejiet
al.,2017).Thesupervisorinthetrainingcentersorganizestheorientationforinterns(PCN,
2009;MDCN,2004).Theorientationforpharmacistsspanstwoweeks(PCN,2009).While
informationwasnotaccessedaboutthequalityoftheoperationoftheorientationfor
internship,thatonSIWESindicatesinadequateorientationduetothelargenumberof
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participatingstudentsandlimitedtimefortheprogram(Mafe,2010).Consequently,many
studentslackworkethicsandproperconduct(Oladimeji,2017;Tambuwal,2012).Toaddress
theseissues,somestakeholdersrecommendprovidingalternativeresourcessuchas,manuals
onSIWEStoaugmentorientation(Mafe,2010).
TrainingandSupervision:ThecurriculumforSIWESconsistsofjobdescriptionsbasedonstated
learningandcareerobjectivesindifferentfieldsofstudy.ThatofGIconsistsofdiagnosisand
managementofclinicalcases(MDCN,2006;PCN,2009).Thedeliverymethodsforbothfeature
theopportunitytoobserveandparticipateinjobrotationsinthedifferentdepartmentalor
specialistlineswhilekeepingrecordsoftrainingactivitiesandassignmentsinlogbooks.
ThedesignofthecurriculumanddeliverymethodswithSIWESisintegrated.Specifically,the
designissequentialwithGIbecauseitisaftertheawardofacademicdegreeandforoneyear
beforeobservingtheNationalYouthService(NYSC)scheme.Also,itisintegratedwithSIWES
becauseitisarequirementforacademicdegreeandbuiltintothepenultimateyearstudy.
Meanwhile,studentsinuniversitiesembarkonsixmonthsofSIWEStraining,andthoseinthe
polytechnicsandcollegesofeducationgoonfourmonthsoftraining(Akerejola,2004).Thus,
thecourseloadissixandfourcreditunitsforuniversitiesandpolytechnics/collegesof
education,respectively(Mafe,2010).TheintegrateddesignwithSIWESisevidence-basedfor
facilitatingtheacquisitionandtransferofknowledgeandskillstojobs.But,ithasbeen
observedthatthesequentialdesignwithGIisbettersuitedforfacilitatingemployment(Okoli,
2006).So,itbehoovesexpertstostrikeabalancebetweenthetwoapproachesbasedonthe
relativeoverlapinthedeliveryofacademicandvocationalcontentintertiaryeducation.
Becausethisissuebordersonthemainintentofthisdiscourse,itwillbediscussedlaterinthis
analysis.
Meanwhile,participantsinSIWESaresupposedtobejointlysupervisedbyanITFareaofficer,
employer,andinstitutioncoordinatingunitsupervisor(Atakpa,2017;Mafe,2010).TheITFarea
officestaffisexpectedtovisitthestudentsatleastoncetovetlogbookswhiletheinstitution
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coordinatingunitsupervisormonitorsstudentactivitiesduringthreeroundsofvisits(Mafe,
2010;Oladimejietal.,2017).Anemployer-basedsupervisormonitorsthedailyperformanceof
jobs,assessesthestudents’progressonaweeklybasis,andmakesappropriatecommentsin
theirlogbooks(ITF,2016).Similarly,thesupervisionofinternsinvolvesanexperiencedandfully
registeredprofessionalinthetrainingcenterwhoisresponsibleforsigningtheweeklyrecords
ofinternsinlogbooksandtheCertificateofExperience(COE)issuedattheendoftrainingto
certifythatparticipantssatisfactorilyperformedalldutiesandassignmentsundertheir
supervision.ThesupervisionofGIalsoinvolvestheStateDirectorsoftheMinistryofHealthand
professionalcouncils.TheStateDirectorsofMinistryofHealthinspectandendorsethelogbook
duringthemonitoringvisitswhilearepresentativeoftheprofessionalcouncilsinspectsthe
logbookatareasonableintervalduringthetraining(MDCN,2006;PCN,2009).
Notably,thesupervisionofGIrightlyinvolvestheprofessionalcouncilsasqualityassurance
agenciesforpractice.Conversely,thesupervisionofSIWESdoesnotinvolvethequality
assuranceagenciesoftertiaryinstitutions.Thelackofengagementofthequalityassurance
agenciesinthesupervisionofSIWESleavesroomforlapsesintheoperationsasreportsshow
thatITFoftenfailtosupervisethestudentsintraining.Consequently,studentstaketheir
logbookstotheareaofficesforendorsement(Mafe,2010;Agboh,2016).Also,theinstitution
supervisorsvisitstudentsonlyonceduetolackoftransportationandfundingwhileindustry-
basedsupervisorsdonottakesupervisionwithanylevelofseriousness(Atakpa,2017;Mafe,
2010;Oladimeji,2017).Thislackofadequatesupervisionisparticularlyproblematicbecauseit
impingesontheintegrityofthegradesstudentsgetatendoftraining.
Assessment:Theassessmentofstudents’forSIWESisbasedonthereviewandgradingofthe
logbook,end-of-trainingreport,oralpresentationoftheend-of-trainingreport,ITFForm84,
andInterimReportofSupervisorsonascaleof0-100%(Mafe,2010).TheITFForm8,logbook
andInterimReportofSupervisorsaremeanttocapturebothsupervisorandstudent
evaluationsoftheexperience,whileend-of-trainingreportandoralpresentationcaptureonly
thestudentperspectiveabouttheirexperience.Guidelinesareprovidedtostandardizethe
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reports,whichthestudentspresenttoapanelconsistingofarepresentativeoftheSIWESunit
oftheuniversityandthemembersoftheirdepartment(ITF,2016;Tambuwal,2012).Students
submitlogbook,ITFForm8,andInterimReportofSupervisorstotheirinstitutionsattheendof
thetraining,andforfinalgradeswhichareassessedbyCumulativeGradePointAverages
(CGPA)aswellasapassorfailevaluation.FailuretoobtainapassgradeintheSIWEScourse
mayleadtorepeatparticipation.
Theassessmentofinternsinvolvesthereviewandgradingoflogbooks,andtheapprovedskill
acquisitionrecordonascaleof0-100%aswellasapassorfailevaluation.Thepassingscorefor
houseofficersisanaverageof60%(MDCN,n.d.).Theassessmentalsoinvolvesapre-
registrationexamforpharmacists(PEP)post-internship.Thepassmarkis50%(PCN,2016).The
gradesfortheinternsaresubmittedtotheMinistryofHealthintheStateofthetrainingfor
vettingandtotheprofessionalcouncilaspartofthesupportingdocumentsforanapplication
forfullregistration.TheRegistraroftheprofessionalcouncilissuesinternswhomeetthe
criteriaofgoodcharacterandsoundmindaFullRegistrationcertificate.Theconsequenceof
failingtomeetthepassingscoresforinternshipisequallyarepeat.
Overall,theassessmentofparticipantsdependsmostlyonsubjectivejudgmentsof
professionalsandnon-standardizedprocedures(exceptforthePEP).Theseassessment
approachesarebasedon“holism,”aparadigmwidelyadoptedincollegeadmissionsand
implicitlyheldbyemployerswhorelyexclusivelyoninterviewstomakehiringdecisions.The
principlesarethefollowing:assessmentoffuturesuccessrequiresconsideringthewhole
person;standardizedtestscoresormeasurementratingsareverylimitedsnapshots,andexpert
judgmentistheonlywaytofullyunderstandhowattributesinteracttocreateacomplexwhole
(Highhouse&Kostek,2013).
Mafe(2010)furthernotedthenon-uniformcriteriaandsystematicassessmentapproachacross
allinstitutionsnecessarytostandardizethescoresearnedbystudents.Besides,the
assessmentsofstudentsforSIWESfocusonengagementinjobstoawardCGPAswhilethe
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assessmentofinternsisbasedonmorecomprehensivecriteria,includingengagementinjobs,
performanceonduties,andmoralconducttoawardaCertificateofExperience(COE)andfull
registrationforpractice.Becauseitisarequirementforgraduation,thereisneedforuseof
multiplecriteriaandformoredirectperformanceassessmentofSIWESparticipants.
FundingandPaymentofAllowances:ThefederalgovernmentfundsbothSIWESandGI.The
fundingforSIWESisthroughtheITFwhichinturnpaysstudentsallowancesandsupervisory
allowancesduetoinstitutions(Mafe,2010).ForGI,thegovernmentallocatesthefundingto
employersandapprovesthesalaryscaleforinterns.Asis,thefundingofGIseemssatisfactory
(Ekeh,2016).Conversely,thefundingofSIWESappearstoreallybeproblematic(Okoli,2006).
SIWEShasgrosslybeenunderfundedovertheyears.
Thisunderfundingispartlybecauseparticipatingstudentshadincreasedatamuchhigherrate.
BasedonestimatesbyMafe(2010),theamountexpendedatthepeakofparticipationin2008
representsa29.2%increasefromthedollaramountspentattheinceptionin1974whilethe
growthinstudentpopulationwas99.6%.Thisdisproportionateincreaseintheamount
expendedcomparedtoservedpopulationresultedinnon-paymentofstudentallowancesand
indisincentivesonthepartofstudentstoparticipate.Overall,thelackoffundinghasresulted
indwindlinghumanandmaterialresourcestosupportSIWESoperations,especiallythe
supervisionofparticipants.
Similarly,theemployersonlyareinvolvedinpayingallowancestoparticipantsofGI(Ekeh,
2016).Conversely,thepaymentofallowancestoparticipantsofSIWESinvolvesmultiple
stakeholders,includingtheFederalMinistryofindustries,ITF,employers,andinstitutions
(Oladimeji,etal.,2017).ThebureaucraticstructureforthepaymentofallowancesforSIWES
participantshasresultedinadministrativedelays.Thedelaysarepartlybecausemost
institutionslackfinancialautonomyandshareacommonaccountforoperation(Oladimeji,et
al.,2017).Thesedelayshaveinthepastresultedinabacklogofuptofiveyears.Authorslink
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thisdelaytothelackofmoraleandcommitmentofbothstaffandstudentstothetraining
(Oladimejietal.,2017;Atakpa,2017;Agboh,2016;Anderson,2017).Althoughonlinepayment
waslaterintroducedasasolution,butthewebsitedesignedfortheonlinepaymenthashad
inherentproblemswhichfurtherhindereditsimplementation.
QualityAssuranceandResearch:ThequalityassuranceofGIinvolvesdevelopingminimum
academicstandards,operationalguidelines,andaccreditationofprograms(MDCN,2006;PCN,
2009).Theregulatoryagenciesoftheinstitutions(i.e.,NUC,NBTE,andNCCE)arepartly
responsibleforthequalityassuranceofSIWESandGI.Theyworkwiththeinstitutional
coordinatingunitsforSIWESandwiththeprofessionalcouncilsforGIindeveloping,
monitoring,andreviewingjobspecificationstoguideinternshiptraining.WhiletheNUC,NBTE,
andNCCEseemtohavegenerallyliveduptoexpectationsinmonitoringinstitutionstoensure
compliancewiththeguidelines;notallSIWES-approvedprogramsintheinstitutionshave
compliedwiththeguidelines(Tambuwal,2012).Thus,thereisneedforbettermonitoringof
SIWESoperationsbytheNUC,NBTE,andNCCE.Specifically,moreattentionneedstobepaidto
SIWESintheaccreditationofinstitutions.Conversely,theNUC,NBTE,andNCCEhaveworked
wellwiththeprofessionalcouncilstoaccreditinternshiptrainingcentersforplacingstudents
andtomonitorcompliancewithguidelines(Oshikoetal.,2009;PCN,2009).
Meanwhile,theITFhasnotkeptupwiththeresponsibilityofresearchingandcirculating
reportsonSIWESoperationstostakeholdersusingthecomprehensivereportstheinstitution
coordinatingunitssubmitattheendofeachperformancecycle(Mafe,2010).Ideally,quality
assuranceandresearchofGIshouldbepartofthemandateforprofessionalcouncilstocontrol
practices.However,itseemstheprofessionalcouncilshavenotkeptupwiththisresponsibility
asfarmoreresearchwasaccessedonSIWES.
Tosummarize,SIWESapparentlyhasbetterplacementstandards.Therehasbeena
tremendousexpansionofeligiblestudentsandplacementisfacilitated.However,theoperation
hasbeenbesetbyseveralsetbacks.Manyauthorsalsoidentifiedthelackofqualitysupervision
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andfunding.Notably,theseproblemsarelogisticalduetothebureaucraticorganizational
structure.However,theleanerorganizationalstructureforGIappearsmoreefficientand
effectiveformotivatingandpreparingstudentsforthetransitionfromschooltotheworkplace.
Besides,itappearsthatanorganizationofanetworkofprofessionalsisusefultoimprovethe
operationoftrainingandsupervision.Also,thetimingofplacementforGIseemsaptfor
facilitatingemploymentoutcomes.However,GIhassimilarinefficientplacementoperations
(China,2016;Ekeh,2016;Makinde,2016).
WhilepreviousstudiesfocusedoneithertheSIWESorGI,thisintegratedreviewsuggests
strengthsandweaknessesaswellassimilaritiesanddifferencesoftheprograms,andtheneed
tobuildacoherentsystem.ThereisneedtoconsolidateSIWESandGIintooneschool-to-work
internshipprogram.Thisproposalincludesextendingthecentralmanagementroleof
professionalcouncilsbeyondhousemanshiptoallfieldsofstudy.Thenextsegmentpresents
thevisionfortheoperationoftheunifiedprogram.
Thewayforward
AModelofWork-BasedLearning:TheGraduateEmployabilitySkillDevelopment(GESD)model
ofWBLbeingproposedheredrawsfromPitan’s(2016)model,whichisevidence-based.By
inference,theframeworkoftheGESDmodelisoutcome-basededucation(OBE).Itiscentered
onaddressingcontemporarycurriculummismatchesandmakingeducationrelevanttothe
nationalandlocalneeds(Geo-Jaja&Magnum,2003).Accordingly,WBLiscomposedof
opportunitiesfordevelopingemployabilityskills.Thecomponentsarecareereducation,real-
worldactivities,workexperience,andreflectionandevaluation.TheSIWESandGIincorporate
workexperiencesandreflectionandevaluation.
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Figure1:Graduateemployabilityskilldevelopmentmodel
Careereducationandreal-worldactivitiesaretheunderemphasizedcomponentsofthe
programs.Theyareallformsofcollaborationwithemployerstopreparestudentsonactivities
orsituationswhichtheyarelikelytocomeacrossintherealworld.Pitan’s(2016)findings
suggestthatcareereducation(e.g.,careercounselingprograms)andreal-worldactivities(e.g.,
fieldtripstoindustries)areimportantforbuildingtheemployabilityskillsofstudents.However,
mostinstitutionslackorunderutilizeguidanceandcounselingunits.Therefore,herecommends
institutionalizedcareerserviceunitstoprovidecareereducationatanearlystageand
continued.Amadi(2013)hasrecommendedacomprehensivemodelofWBLthatincludes
careereducationandreal-worldactivities.
Hence,theGESDisacontinuummodelofWBLwhichbeginswithcareereducationandreal-
worldactivitiesinschoolandextendstotheworksettings.Asstatedearlier,SIWESandGIare
designedtofacilitatecareerpreparationthroughplacement,training,andsupervisioninwork
settings.Thus,theGESDmodelimpliesamulti-purposingofWBL,coveringcareerawareness,
exploration,andpreparation(VirginiaDepartmentofEducation,2014).Thesetupand
managementfunctionsforapplyingthemodelareasfollows.
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OrganizationalStructure
AwayforwardwithorganizationalstructureforWBListomaintaintheleanmanagement
structureofGIwhiletheprofessionalcouncilsshouldcentrallymanagetheprogram.Asnoted
already,analystshadadvocatedforacentralmanagementagencywithaprimarymandatefor
SIWES.Becausetheprimarymandateofprofessionalcouncilsisthequalityassuranceof
practice,itwillhelpmitigatethedemandsofcentralmanagement.Asstatedpreviously,the
FederalMinistryofHealthhassimilarlyconsummatedaplantohavetheMDCNcentrally
managetheGIprogramtoaddressthechallengesmedicaldoctorsexperience,beginningfrom
2018.ExtendingthemanagementstyleofGItootherfieldsofstudyisappropriateto
standardizethefunctionsofWBLandfacilitatequalityassuranceandresearch.Whilethe
healthfieldiswellestablishedandalreadyhavetheprofessionalcouncilsrepresentedatthe
nationallevelintheMinistryofHealth,somefieldsofstudy,lackrepresentationatthefederal
level.Thus,effortsshouldbemadetohaveanequalrepresentationofallfieldsatthefederal
level.Inthemeantime,fieldsthatlackrepresentationatthefederallevelcanhavethe
respectivecouncilsaffiliatedtotheMinistryofCommerceandIndustryasiscurrentlythecase
withSIWES.
OrganizationalFunctions
Jobplacementandqualityassurancefunctionsarethefocusbecauseoftheobserved
operationaldysfunctions.Theideaofjobplacementwasoriginallyformulatedforindividuals
withdisabilitiesintheUSHere,wesuggestitisanideathatcanbeadaptedforgeneralusein
Nigeria.Thegoalofplacementistointerveneinthemanagementfunctionofstaffingan
organization(Millington,Butterworth,Fesko,&McCarthy,1998).Staffingisauniquelyhuman
resourcemanagementfunctionandinvolvesworkermovementintoanorganizationthrough
selection,orientation,andtraining(Millington,Miller,Asner-Self,&Linkowski,2003).Job
placementasitrelatestoasystemperspectiveisdefinedasaninterventiontobypassthe
employeeselectionprocess.Theemployeeselectionprocessinvolvescomparingapotential
employeewithotherapplicantsforselection.Theultimatecompetencyofaplacement
professionalistheabilitytoeffectpositivechangeintheapplicant,theemployer,orthe
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processofselectionthatbindsthem(Millington,Butterworth,Fesko,&McCarthy,1998).
Thetargetsforplacementarestudentsintheirfinalyear,sotheycanparticipateinthe
internshipassoonastheycompletetheirfinalyearandbeforetheircalltonationalservice
(NYSC).Anoptimaljobplacementshouldultimatelyfacilitateemploymentandmeetthe
followingcriteria:matchwiththeeducationalqualificationsandknowledgeandskills
requirements,locatedinapreferredareaofresidence;andremovebarrierstoemploying
graduatesbeforetheyparticipateintheNYSC(Agboh,2016;Anderson,2017;Ekeh,2016).
Abottom-upmanagementprocessseemsmoreappropriatetoaddressplacementissues.There
isneedforthecoordinatingunitstoserveasthelocalchampionstoinitiatethedevelopmentof
trainingcenterswiththeemployersandmediateplacement.Thehiringofcareercounselorsis
usefultofacilitatethesefunctions.Theprocesstoensureasuccessfulplacemententails:
reachingout,establishingpartnershipsandagreementwiththeemployers;consultingwiththe
managementoftheworkorganizationtobuildrapportforjobanalysisandsupervision;
advisingappropriatearmsofinstitutionsontheareasforofferingpreparatorycourses;and,
counselingofcandidatesforplacement(Atakpa,2017;VirginiaDepartmentofEducation,
2014).TheMDCN(2006)providesaprophylacticratherthanjudgmentalfunctionofquality
assurance.Aspreviouslystated,thisqualityassurancefunctionofGIisproactive.Theoperation
inrespectofthisframeworkisoneofinvolvementofcouncilsintheinitiationandplanning
phasesoftheestablishmentofatrainingcentertoensurecompliancewithguidelinesof
minimumstandard.Thisimpliesthatinstitutioncoordinatingunitsandprofessionalcouncils
shouldcollaborateinestablishingorturningexistingprivateandpublicenterprisesindifferent
partsofthecountrytotrainingcenters.Thestandardsandguidelinesforaccreditingtraining
centersshouldensureadequacyofthephysicalfacilitiesforadmittingstudentsandmustbe
clearlydefinedbythecouncilsandwidelycirculatedtoinstitutions.Thecouncilsshouldarrange
theaccreditationvisitstoincludebefore,during,andattheendofthetrainingofthefirstsetof
students.
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Subsequentvisitscanbearrangedwithatrainingcentertoensurethemaintenanceof
standards.Eachvisitationshouldinvolvethecompletionofspecificquestionnairesinrespectof
criteriaoutliningstandards;inspectionofthefacilities;interviewswiththestaffand
participants;reportoffindings;andevaluationofthetrainingcenter.Thecouncilshould
facilitatetheresearchofeffectsofoperationthroughcreatingadatabaseforusebythe
coordinatingunitsandemployersinrecordingtheinputs,processes,outputs,andoutcomesof
programs.Harbison(1971)hasidentifiedcomprehensiveassessmenttechniquesforWBL
programstoinclude,manpowersurveys–thestudyoflabor-absorptivecapacityofdifferent
industries;laborforcesurveysandenumerations–continuousenumerationofthelaborforce;
tracerstudiesofgraduates–tracingofcareerpatternsofgraduates;andcost-benefitstudiesof
returnstoeducation–thecalculationofcost-effectivenessofinvestmentsineducation.From
alloftheabovediscussion,thereareobviousbenefitstoappropriateintegrationofWBLinto
HE.Theconclusionbelowsummarizesthemainpointsofthisdiscourseandrecommendsthe
extensionofWBLtootherlevelsofeducationforadvancingeconomicdevelopment.
Conclusion
Nigeriahasonemorechancetoupholdthetrustofheryouthsinyetanotherdecadeof
promise.In2009,theAfricanUnion(AU)launchedTheAfricanYouthDecade,2009-2018Plan
ofAction,DPoA.Itisaframeworkformulti-sectoralandmulti-dimensionalengagementofall
stakeholderstowardstheachievementofthegoalsandobjectivesoftheAfricanYouthCharter
towardsacceleratingyouthempowermentanddevelopment(AU,2011).WiththeDPoA,itis
envisionedthatby2025,Africawouldbeanintegratedfrontierintheareasofeconomic,social,
cultural,andpoliticaldevelopment.Bysharesizeofhereconomy,humanandnatural
resources,itcouldbesaidthatasgoesNigeria,sogoesthatAUproject.Nigeriaoccupiesa
quintessentialpositiontoleadthecontinenttothe2025AUvision.
TherationaleforintegratingWBLintotheHEcurriculuminNigeriawastoaddress
employabilityskills.Butwhathavedefiedlogicisthecontinuoushistoricallyhigh
unemploymentratesamongNigeriangraduates.Indeed,therehasbeenlittleevidenceofthe
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expectedpositiveimpactontheemployabilityofgraduatesaswellasoneconomic
development,whichiswhythisstateofaffairsdemandsthatextraeffortsbetakento
investigatethebarrierstoeffectiveintegration.Thisanalysisindicatesthatthereasonwhythe
Nigeria’sHEsysteminrecentdecadeshasfailedtoprovidetheneededskillstograduatesis
becausetheinstitutionshavebeengrosslyunderfundedbutyetexpandedtremendously
regardlessofacademicstandardsandrelevancetosustainabledevelopment.Theanalysis
equallyidentifiedinadequateplacementasafundamentalbarrieroftheWBLprograms.Hence,
therecommendationsfocusonstrategiestoimprovethedevelopmentandqualityassuranceof
internshiptrainingcenters.However,findingsfromtheliteratureinadvancedeconomies,such
asbySolomonet.al(2001),suggestthevalueofextendingWBLtoprimary,secondary,and
continuingeducationtoimproveemploymentoutcomes.Morerecently,RooneyandBoud
(2018)haveexaminedinformallearning,usingapracticetheoryperspectivetoshowhow
learningcanbeunderstoodasakeyfeatureofworkingandhowitisimplicatedinthenormal
ebbandflowofworkpractices.
Fortunately,withthe2014UniversalBasicEducationguidelines,theprimaryandsecondary
schoolcurriculumnowemphasizesvocationaltrainingandisintendedtoincreaseemployability
ofgraduates.Also,theFederalMinistryofEducationrecentlyhassupportedseveralreform
projectstoadvancevocationalandtechnicaleducationatalllevelsofeducation,suchasthe
“vocationalization”ofsecondaryeducation(WES,2017).Thesechangescanbeviewedasasign
ofgravitationtowardsWBL.TheessenceofextendingWBLtoprimaryandsecondaryschool
levelsistoserveasanalternativeforbuildingtheskillsofthosestrugglinglearnersandother
individualswhomaynotbecutoutforacademiccareer.Itisimportanttobemindfulof
individualsinthiscategory,andtobeinclusiveinformulatingfiscalpoliciesintrainingoncrafts
andentry-leveljobs,sothateverycitizencancontributetheirownquotatonational
development.Thiswouldmeanacquisitionofsubtlemixofknow-how,techniquesandtollsin
theeducationalprocessthatfocusesonindividuals’preparationforentranceandprogressin
occupations.Itincludessuchjobskillslikecarpentry,building,farming,welding,sewing,
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knitting,weaving,officeadministrationandfarming.
Asitstands,therewasnointegrationofWBLincontinuingeducationinNigeriafor
professionals.Putotherwise,WBLasacomponentoftertiaryeducationissimplymeantto
facilitateemploymentdefinedasaneventofbeinghired.Thismodeltendstoseetrainingand
developmentassomethingundertakenonlyearlierinliferatherthanalife-timeprocess.
However,employabilityhasbeenchanginggloballyfromastaticbinaryeventofbeinghiredfor
ajob,toamoredynamicandcomplexnotionofobtainingmeaningfuljobsthroughoutan
individual’slifetime(Adebakin,2015).Work-basedlearningincontinuingeducationisapart
timeeducationforthoseinwork.InthistypeofWBLthetraditionalapproachtothecurriculum
isabandonedsothatthecurriculumisdeterminedbytherequirementsoftheworkplaceand
learningisdesignedaroundtheneedsoftheindividualororganization.
Asacomponentofcontinuingeducation,WBLaccentuatestheessenceofviewinglearningasa
lifelongactivityandforgeneratingnationalwealthandiscentraltoaparadigmshiftfroman
“industrialsociety”toa“knowledgesociety”(Solomonetal.,2001).TheincorporationofWBL
incontinuingeducationisimportantbecauserealprogressinhumandevelopmentinvolves
fosteringresilienthumandevelopmentandreducingvulnerabilitiestoadverseeventsintothe
future(HumanDevelopmentReportOffice,2014).Thus,theessenceofextendingthemodelto
continuingeducationistofurtherfacilitatethedevelopmentandemployabilityofindividuals.
Hence,theconceptofdevelopmentisafuture-orientedtypeoftrainingfocusedonbringingthe
competenciesofindividualsuptothedesiredstandardsforperformanceincareersintothe
future(Adebakin,2015).BecausetheITFandprofessionalbodieshaveasimilarmissionto
controlpractice,bothagenciesarecentraltoworkingoutthemodalitiesforWBLasa
continuingeducationscheme.TherecouldbenobettertimeforascrupulouslyarticulatedWBL
thannow.Ultimately,theintegrationandeffectivemanagementofWBLatalllevelsof
educationisanimportantandrealisticidealthatNigeriashouldstrivefor.
Work Based Learning e-Journal, Vol. 9, No.1, (2020)
86
Notesoncontributors
IkeIyioke
IkeIyiokehasextensiveteaching,research,andadministrativeexperiencebothintheUSandelsewhere
thatspanalmosttwodecades.HismultidisciplinarybackgroundsincludeaBPhil.inPhilosophyfrom
PontificalUniversity,Rome;ateachingcertificatefromUniversityofNigeria,Nsukka(UNN);aMasterof
ScienceinInternationalRelationsfromUNN;aMasterofArtinEnvironmentalScienceWritingfrom
MichiganStateUniversity(MSU);andaPhDinHealthEthicsfromMSU.Hehasresearchedandtaught
businessethics,moralphilosophy,particularlybioethics,environmentalscienceandpublicpolicy;and
environmentaljustice/racism.
IfeomaC.Iyioke
IfeomaC.Iyiokeisadatascientistwithadoctorateineducationalmeasurementandquantitative
methodsandamaster’sdegreeinappliedstatisticsbothfromMichiganStateUniversity.Herinterests
areindesigningandimplementingresearchmethods(e.g.,conductingsurveysandinterviews),data
analyses,andreportingfindingsontheimpactofthemissionofgraduateeducationatMichiganState
Universityofcreatinginclusiveculturesandinnovativepracticestoadvancehumanityandfurther
knowledge.Herotherinterestsareineducationalachievement,attainment,equity,standards-based
testingandperformanceevaluation.Shehaspublishedpeer-reviewedpapersandbookchapterson
substantivetopicsthatincludedevelopingcriticalthinkingskills,professionaltrainingonstandard-
setting,andwork-basedlearning.
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Competency,CapabilityandProfessionalIdentity:TheCaseforAdvancedPracticeLEEC.FERGUSSON1,ANNETTEBRÖMDAL,MURRAYGOUGHandSTEPHENMEARS,
SchoolofEducation,UniversityofSouthernQueensland,Australia.
Inthelast40years,aseriesofmodelsandframeworksassociatedwithcompetency,capabilityandidentityhavebeenadvancedinthepublishedliterature.Thesemodelsandframeworkshavearisen at a time of fundamental shifts in both the type and nature of work in developedcountries,forexampleshiftsassociatedwithchangestolabourmarketsfromarelianceonjobsinagricultureandmanufacturing(intheindustrialera)toarelianceonjobsinbothtraditionalandnovelserviceindustries(inthepost-industrialandserviceeras)alongwithariseindemandforworkwhichrequiresnon-routinecognitiveabilitiesandattributes.Moreover,an increasingdemandforadvancedpractitionersand leaders ineveryfieldofworkhas led to the advent of the so-called ‘advanced practice professional’, a practitioner whocontributeshigherordercognitive,affectiveandconativeinputstoorganisationsandtheworldofworkmoregenerally.Thesefundamentalshiftsinworknowrequirepractitionerstonotonlyhave the competencies and capabilities to perform at a high level, but also require a well-developed senseofprofessional identityandanability to contribute, asadiscipline leader, ininnovativewaystoenhanceorganisationalperformanceandtheworldofworkmoregenerally.This paper explores these propositions. We advocate a model of advanced practiceprofessionalism in relation to competency, capability, and professional identity, and showthrough two real-world examples how work-based learning and research, as practiced byUniversity of Southern Queensland in its Professional Studies program, contribute to thedevelopmentofadvancedpracticeprofessionalsinAustralia.Keywords: Competency, capability, identity, advanced practice, professional studies, work-basedlearning,work-basedresearchIntroduction
Ourgeneralgoal is to introducetherelationshipofcompetencyandcapabilitytoprofessional
identityandshowhowtheirrespectivedevelopmentcanleadtoadvancedpractice.Wewillalso
indicate,usingtworeal-worldexamples,howaProfessionalStudiesdegreeprograminAustralia1Email:[email protected]
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built around a pedagogy of work-based learning (WBL) has been operationalised to create
advanced domain specialists.Notwithstanding issues surrounding diverse functional learning
definitions, which use nomenclature like ‘expanded’, ‘extended’, ‘advanced’ (e.g., Chang,
Gardner,Duffield,&Ramis,2012)and‘expert’ (Luther&Rosenbaum,2018),sucheducational
approachestoprofessionalpracticeinAustraliahavebeendeemedimportantbecause:
Thecapacitytoattainandapplynewknowledge,andusenewtechnologieswillbethefocusof
thefuture.Asbothknowledgeandtechnologiesriskrapidobsolescence,andtasksbecome
susceptibletoautomation,humanskillsrequiredbythemarketandsocietywillconstantlyshift.
Inthisenvironment,itiscrucialtohave[educational]systemsthatsupportandenablepeopleto
retrain,ratherthanlearnhowtodoonejobverywell(AustralianIndustryandSkillsCommittee
[AISC],2017,p.26).
The type and nature of work are changing. These changes, sometimes referred to as
‘megachanges’(e.g.,Kohlbacher,2017),aretheresultofso-calledmegatrendsandcollectively
represent how work and its future are viewed by governments, business leaders and
researchers (AISC,2017).Fundamentalchanges inworkhavebeen impactedbysurges in the
global mobility of workers, the ageing of indigenous workforces, increases in workforce
urbanisation,systemicinnovationsindigitaltechnologiesandtheirapplicationtoandimpacton
work (including automation, artificial intelligence and robotics, as discussed by Susskind and
Susskind, 2015), and increased participation by women and minority workers in traditional
markets (AISC,2017,pp.10-11).Asaconsequence, thecompositionofAustralia’sworkforce,
forexample,hasbeentransformedoverthelastcentury,withaccelerationoccurringinthelast
30years.
Consider the following two diagrams in Figure 1,which reflect trends inmany industrialised
countries.SharesoftheAustralianworkforceengagedinfivemaintypesofworkarepresented
(left-handdiagram).Overonehundredyearsago,40%ofworkerswereemployedintheservice
sector (i.e., tertiary industries), which included professions such as nurses, psychologists,
pharmacists, teachers, police officers, emergency services personnel, consultants, journalists,
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architectsandaccountantsamongothers.Theother60%of theworkforcewascomposedof
those working in agriculture and mining (i.e., primary industries) and manufacturing and
construction(i.e.,secondaryindustries).
However, by the early 21st century, 80%of theworkforcewas engaged in providing services
rather than goods, with just a combined 20% of the workforce employed in the other four
industry groups. Such changes in sectoral shares of the Australian workforce are similar to
thoseoftheUnitedKingdom,whichhadan82%servicesectorand1.1%agriculturalsectorin
2017(Statista,2019a),andNewZealand,whichhada73%servicesectorand6.6%agricultural
sector in2017(Statista,2019b).Hencethesteadytransitionoverthe lastcentury inWestern
countriestowhatsomehavecalleda‘careeconomy’(e.g.,Dwyer,2013).
NotethattypesofworkinAustralia,whicharesusceptibletoautomation(suchasagriculture
and manufacturing), have declined but construction, which is not, has remained stable.
Nevertheless,themostimportantsectoralsharegrowthinthelast40yearsisacrossindustries
whicharenotonly largely impervious toautomationbutarealsomoredynamically fluidand
require significantly higher levels of cognitive, affective and conative input, throughput and
output. For example, among the cornerstones of service industries are their reliance on
interpersonaltrust(Johnson&Grayson,2005)andloyalty(Manzuma-Ndaaba,Harada,Romle,
& Shamsudin, 2015), and thus not only skills and knowledge but attitudes to work become
criticallyimportantinservice-basedprofessions.
Amongtheso-called ‘non-automatableskills’ requiredbyworkers intheknowledgeeconomy
are empathy, sociability, ability to work in teams, social and cultural awareness, persuasive
ability and adaptability (AISC, 2017, p. 30). These shifts in type of work have been well
documented inAustralia and theUKover severaldecades, forexampleby Jones (1995)who
advocated 25 years ago for an extension of tertiary industries into quaternary and quinary
industries, andare typically associatedwith the social andeconomic transformation froman
industrialtoapost-industrialera,andsubsequentlytoaserviceera.
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Figure1:SharesoftheAustralianworkforcebyindustrysector,1905-2015(left);sharesofthe
Australian workforce engaged in jobs which demand routine and non-routine manual and
cognitivecapacity,1985-2015(right)(derivedfromHeath,2016).
Perhaps more significantly for this paper, and in parallel to the economic restructuring of
Australia’s workforce since the early twentieth century, are fundamental transitions in the
characterofwork,alsowelldocumentedintheliterature.Figure1(right-handdiagram)shows
howinthelast30yearsasimilarseismicshifthasoccurredintherelationofroutineandnon-
routineworktocognitiveandmanualwork,withthemostrapidriseindemandfornon-routine
work which requires cognitive input, a topic recently discussed in detail by Pennington and
Sanford(2019).Inthiscase,‘cognition’meansinnovation,creativity,problemsolving,memory,
andattentionwhileworking;thesecognitivetraitsaresometimesappliedtoworkinways“we
canneverimagine”(CommitteeforEconomicDevelopmentofAustralia[CEDA],2015,p.46).
Of interest is thatthedemandfornon-routinework,which isworkdoneforthefirst timeor
performedirregularly(althoughthetermhasadifferentmeaning inprojectmanagement,for
example, because non-routine work is non-project work, not irregular work), has increased
significantly, with the greatest increased demand being for skills related to non-routine
cognitivework. Thus, by 2015 inAustralia theneed for routinemanualwork, irrespectiveof
whetherornot itrequiredcognitiveskill,wasdecliningbutnearly50%ofallworkperformed
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wasnon-routine,andmostofthat(i.e.,37%ofallwork)requiredcognitiveinput.[Note,some
non-routine cognitive work is laborious and does not require advanced skills or knowledge,
suchaspublic relationsandmedicalor technicalpositions,but typicallyalladvancedpractice
requirescognitionandisoftennon-routine.]
Some researchers have referred to these typesofworkforce shifts frommanual to cognitive
andfromroutinetonon-routineas‘jobpolarisation’,althoughthetermhasassumedaslightly
differentmeaningwhen applied in otherwork contexts (for example in the U.S., where the
conceptmostlyrelatestothedivisionoflow-andhigh-paidjobs,Dwyer,2013).Gratton(2015,
p. 33) also explains the phenomenon of job polarisation in the context of routine and non-
routine work and what she calls the “hollowing out of work”. However, irrefutable is the
conclusion that as the type and character of work change the need for different modes of
learning,trainingandeducation,andthegeneralupskillingoftheworkforce,become(orshould
become)nationalpriorities.
Governments, educational institutions and industries around the world have responded
differently (andsometimesslowly)tothesetypesofsystemicchanges inwork.Onepervasive
innovationinAustraliadesignedtoaddressworkforceevolutionhasbeenthedevelopmentand
implementation of competency frameworks and evidence-based practice competencies (e.g.,
Carraccio, Englander, Van Melle, Ten Cate, Lockyer, Chan ... & Snell, 2016), such as those
embraced by the vocational and education training (VET) sector (e.g., Smith, 2010), which
emphasisehowtheAustralianQualificationsFramework(AQF,2013)canbeappliedandhow,
more recently, the Australian Core Skills Framework (Department of Industry, Innovation,
Science, Research and Tertiary Education, 2012) has been employed across a variety of
industries.
Examples of AQF application have included uniform standards like the National Competency
StandardsforProjectManagement(AustralianInstituteofProjectManagement,2008)andthe
NationalCompetencyStandardsforDietitiansdesignedforentry-levelpractitioners(Dieticians
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Association of Australia, 2015), although the latter related more to generalist rather than
specialist competencies (Palermo, Capra, Beck, Dart, Conway, & Ash, 2017, p. 328), a
differentiatorwithourmodeltobediscussedlaterinthispaper.Hence,theneedtoensure“all
stagesof theeducationprocess focuson instilling competencies rather than the retentionof
specificknowledge…it is important thattheskillsbeingtaughtarenot firm [i.e.,organisation]
specific, but instill broad competencies that represent a valuable public investment” (CEDA,
2015,p.15).
Asaconsequenceofthesetrends,theCommonwealthGovernmentofAustraliahasinthelast
tenyearsalsoidentifiedas“anurgentpriority”thenecessityoffilling“skillgaps[which]remain
in critical fields such as information and communications technology (ICT), high level policy
[development], research and projectmanagement” (AdvisoryGroup on Reformof Australian
Government Administration [AGRAGA], 2010, p. ix); worryingly, in 2010 the Government
reported a skills shortage of between 29% and 34% (AGRAGA, 2010) in the Australian
workforce, a persistent problem through 2019 in many industries (e.g., Australian Industry
Group,2019).
Moreover,theAustralianpublicservice,ithasbeensaidinthepastdecade,must“ensureithas
thecapabilitytoprovidehighqualitysupporttogovernment[andtherefore]mustattracthigh
performingindividualsfromwithinandoutsidethepublicsector.Itmustalsoinvestinlearning
anddevelopmentandprovidepathwaysforhighperformingemployeestogrowanddevelop…”
(AGRAGA, 2010, p. 24). Similarly, according to healthcare industry representatives, Australia
must “ensure a capable and qualifiedworkforce—through registration, accreditation, training
and development” (Mason, 2013, p. 7). The Commonwealth Government of Australia has
therefore recognised that an organisation’s worth is not its assets, capital or intellectual
property but its people, its intellectual capital. TheGovernment has noted that “the private
sector increasingly recognises human capital as a primary source of competitive advantage
[and] recognises that investing in people provides significant productivity improvements”
(AGRAGA,2010,p.24),achallengewhichcontinues(Weise&Troller,2018).
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In considering the nature of its future workforce, in 2010 the Australian Government has
acknowledgedthatprivateorganisationsexpendanaverageof4%oftheirpayrollonemployee
development (although by 2019 only half these organisations planned to increase spending,
according to Pennington and Stanford, 2019, p. 81), which represents an investment in
“retention,capabilitydevelopmentandtalentmanagement”(AGRAGA,2010,p.24).However,
almosthalfofAustralianpublicserviceagenciesin2010spentlessthan1%oftheirbudgetson
“staffdevelopment” (AGRAGA,2010,p.24),although investment intheGovernment’shealth
sectorworkforcetraininganddevelopment increasedfrom$286million in2004-2005to$1.8
billion in 2016-2017, a 525% increase in 12 years (Department of Health, 2017). “Critically”,
accordingtotheAdvisoryGrouponReformofAustralianGovernmentAdministrationtenyears
ago,evidencethussuggestedthattheAustralianpublicservice:
…wasnotsufficientlyoreffectivelyinvestinginlearninganddevelopmentopportunitiesforall
employees.Onlysevenpercentofagenciesspendmorethanthreepercentoftheirannual
budgetsonlearninganddevelopmentopportunitiesforemployees….Thequalityoflearningand
developmentisalsoaproblem.Fewerthanoneinthreeemployeesratedtheeffectivenessof
theirlearninganddevelopmentprogramsashighorveryhighintermsofhelpingthemto
improveperformance(AGRAGA,2010,p.24).
At the vanguard of Australia’s drive to upgrade its workforce is themore recent shift from
evidence-basedcompetencymodelstocapabilitydevelopmentmodels(O'Connell,Gardner,&
Coyer, 2014), and in some cases to the promotion of advanced practice professionals (e.g.,
Grace, 2018). Our purpose is to examine the relationship between breadth and depth of
competency,capabilityandprofessionalidentityandtoproposehowthischainofprofessional
developmentcanleadtoadvancedpracticeinwork-basedlearning(WBL).
In the following sections we introduce advanced practice professionalism, the Professional
Studies program at University of SouthernQueensland (USQ) and its relation to professional
practice, and two real-world examples which apply these developmental approaches to
Australian and German businesses. The two examples we draw from are from project
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managementandeducationdomains.However,mostoftheobservedeconomictrendsoutlined
in the paper and the potential contributions of advanced professionalism are not limited to
Australia,andwherepossiblewewillmakelinkstoothereducationalandworkcontexts.
Advancedpracticeprofessionals
Amodelshowingtherelationbetweencontext,workforcestrategy,workforcecompetencyand
capacity, andorganisational performancehasbeenadvancedby theAustralianPublic Service
Commission(2010),asshowninFigure2.Thismodel,whichhasalsobeenbroadlyidentifiedas
central to the strategic development of Australia (AGRAGA, 2010), explains that the human
capitalofanygivenworkforceistheproductofaworkforceplan,whichitselfisembeddedinan
external work environment and business context. Its applicability, however, is not limited to
Australia.
Humancapitaliscomposedofthecompetencyandcapacityoftheworkforcebutisembedded
in the culture, conditions, design and leadership of the collective workforce. In this sense,
workforcecapacityrefers toan“organisation’sability toperformworkor theenabling factors
that allowanorganisation toperform its functions andachieve its goals” (Cox, Jolly, Vander
Staaij, & Stolk, 2018, p. 7). In the case of the public service, it is a government’s ability to
“marshal,develop,directandcontrolitsfinancial,human,physicalandinformationresources”
(Coxetal.,2018,p.7).ThemodelpresentedinFigure2suggeststhatorganisationaloutput(i.e.,
anorganisation’soverallperformance)istheproductofthesevariousworkforceinteractions.
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Figure2:Relationshipofhumancapitalofaworkforcetoorganisationalperformance.
In this paper we argue that to enhance the human capital of an organisation and hence its
performance,notonlywillnewworkforcecompetencies,skillsandknowledgeberequiredasa
resultoftraining,professionaldevelopment,education,work-integratedlearningandresearch,
but entirely new human capabilities must be developed, particularly in the leaders of work
domains, as represented by the dotted line additions made to Figure 2 by these authors.
Workforce capabilities in government, for example, encompass “the skills, knowledge and
abilitiesthatemployeesofahighperformingpublicservicemustpossess”(AGRAGA,2010,p.
24).As proposed in the following sections of this paper, such capabilities are the product of
advancedpractice.
However, itshouldalsobenotedthattenyearsagotheAustralianpublicservice (APS),by its
ownadmission,“isblurringthecapabilitiesandskillsdevelopmentrequiredby[its]employees”
(AGRAGA, 2010, p. 27). For example, in addition to a blurringbetween capabilities and skills
(i.e., competencies) development, in the context of a government’s ability to deliver ‘large
projectsandprograms’,Shergold(2015)pointedoutthatfortheAPS,problemsassociatedwith
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poorandambiguousdecisionmaking,apaucityof support forkeydecisionmakers,a lackof
clear understanding within the workforce of a minister’s appetite for “risk on individual
programs and across their portfolio, and [the commitment to] reach agreement on how
implementation challenges [should] be identified, accepted and managed within agreed
resources”(Shergold,2015,p.vii),andaneedtoenhanceprogrammanagement,allplayapart
in the failure of governments.Moreover, it is evident on close inspection that these failures
beardirectlyupontheissuesofcompetencyandthecapabilitydevelopmentcontemplatedby
thispaperinrelationtoadvancedpractice.
Advanced Practice Professionals (APPs) are described in the international literatureas those
whohaveanopportunity to learn, study, and thrive in ‘advancedpractice’ becauseAPPsare
considered workforce contributors who extend knowledge and skills within a practice
environment,suchasaworkplaceorcommunityofpractice (e.g.,Lowe,Plummer,O’Brien,&
Boyd,2012).Leadingpractitionersdrivepracticeforwardandareoften‘thoughtleaders’within
their organisations. APPshave therefore been said to make a valuable contribution to
productivity and organisational output and indeed to society as a whole (e.g., Newhouse,
Stanik-Hutt,White,Johantgen,Bass,Zangaro...&Weiner,2011).
KeybenchmarksofanAPPincludetheirabilitytoactwithautonomy.Assuch,theyhaveasense
of their own identity and an ability to act independently and exert control over their
environment, including a sense of task mastery, internal locus of control, and self-efficacy
(APPFSC Secretariat, 2012, p. 4). APPs also gainpeer recognition as a leader, although we
supposeAPP leadership involves leadingwith ‘humility’,asrecentlyexaminedbyChiu,Owens
and Tesluk (2016), and an ability to influence the professional practice of others and their
disciplineasawhole.
SuchAPPbenchmarkssomewhatdovetailwith theearlierworkofStuartDreyfusandHubert
Dreyfus in their five-stagemodel of adult proficiency (Dreyfus, 2004). However, theDreyfus
model isbuiltexclusivelyaround,andthereforereliesheavilyon,theoriesofcompetenceand
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skill.Forexample,Dreyfusproposesthata‘novice’learnerissomeoneforwhomworkisbroken
downintoasetoftasksandtheskillsneededtocarryoutthetask;an ‘advancedbeginner’ is
someone for whom repeated, situational work experiences as a novice can lead to the
recognitionofso-calledmaxims,and thus “learning canbecarriedon inadetached,analytic
frameofmind,asthestudentfollowsinstructionsandisgivenexamples”(p.177).TheDreyfus
thirdstageis‘competence’inlearningandwork,whichDreyfususestomean:
Withmoreexperience,thenumberofpotentiallyrelevantelementsandproceduresthatthe
learnerisabletorecognizeandfollowbecomesoverwhelming.Atthispoint,becauseasenseof
whatisimportantinanyparticularsituationismissing,performancebecomesnerve-wracking
andexhausting,andthestudentmightwellwonderhowanybodyevermasterstheskill.Tocope
withthisoverload,andtoachievecompetence,peoplelearn,throughinstructionorexperience,
todeviseaplanorchooseaperspectivethatthendeterminesthoseelementsofthesituationor
domainthatmustbetreatedasimportantandthosethatcanbeignored.Asstudentslearnto
restrictthemselvestoonlyafewofthevastnumberofpossiblyrelevantfeaturesandaspects,
understandinganddecisionmakingbecomeseasier(p.178).
‘Proficiency’, the fourthstageof learninganddevelopment,occurswhenthe individual isnot
onlyfamiliarwithrules,butbasedonmoreextensiveexperiencebeginstounderstanddifferent
situationsandhow tomake informeddecisionsabout them. Finally, ‘expertise’,which canbe
likened to advanced practice professionalism, in the Dreyfus model means the proficient
individual,“immersedintheworldofhisorherskillfulactivity,seeswhatneedstobedone[and
can] decide how to do it” (p. 179), often in non-routinework situations requiring advanced
cognitivetraitstosuccessfullyachieveaconstructiveoutcome.Thus,“theabilitytomakemore
subtle and refined discriminations is what distinguishes the expert from the proficient
performer” and “allows the immediate intuitive situational response that is characteristic of
expertise. (180). The word ‘intuitive’ being the key to non-routine cognitive work for the
advancedpractitioner.
UsingtheexampleofAustraliansocialwork,thehallmarksofadvancedpractic,whichgowell
beyondcompetenceandskill,arethusdefinedas:
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Theabilitytodealeffectivelywithcomplexityinwaysconsistentwithcoresocialworkvalues.
Withinthiscontext,advancedpracticeinvolvestheabilitytoseebeyondthepresentingproblem,
tounderstandtheusesandlimitationsofstandardisedassessments,diagnosticclassifications,
historytaking,thirdpartyreportsandothersourcesofinformation.
Advancedpracticetheninvolvestheabilitytoprioritiseissues;tobeabletoworkwiththeclient
toidentifythegoalorgoalsofinterventioninwaysthataffirmtheirself-determinationwhile
balancingthiswithothercompetingconcerns….Advancedpracticeinvolvesdelivering
interventionswithahighlevelofknowledgeandskill,withselectionofinterventionapproaches
informedbyanunderstandingofboththestrengthsandlimitationsofevidence-basedpractice.
Inapproachingthesetasks,advancedpracticedisplayssensitivitytothevulnerabilityand
powerlessnessofmanyclients,toculturalandindigenousissues,aswellasanawarenessofthe
ethicaldilemmasanddimensionsofpracticesituations(Simpson,nd,p.2).
Moreover,“advancedsocialworkpracticeshowsthepractitioner’sgreatercapacityforaflexible
use of self, for reflexivity, and for a more autonomous and independent reflective practice”
(Flaskas,2011,p.4).Intheseways,APPshavegonebeyondcompetencyandevencapabilityto
a developed sense of professional identity and have done so via two possible routes: a
broadeningofcompetenceoradeepeningofcompetenceinthedirectionofgreatercapability.
[Forthepurposesofthispaper,weequallyweighthesignificanceofbroadeningordeepening
competence and experience in relation to advanced practice, but it can be argued that
deepeningknowledge,asin‘specialization’,ismorevaluablethanbroadeningit.Nevertheless,
other theorists support our position in relation to expertise and advanced practice (e.g.,
Mangione,Borden,Nadkarni,Evarts,&Hyde,2018).]
In Figure 3 we therefore show the relationship of competency, capability and professional
identitytothedevelopmentofadvancedpracticeinamodelwehaveadaptedfromanearlier
advancedpharmacypractice framework (APPFSC Secretariat (2012, p. 7), amodel somewhat
aligned to the Australian Institute of Project Management’s (2019) professional certification
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modelof:practitioners>managers>seniormanagers>directorsandexecutivemanagersfor
portfolio,programandprojectmanagement.
WeagreewiththeAPPFSCSecretariat’s (2012,p.9)earlierassessmentthatcompetency is“a
complex construct where the attributes contributing to [it] include the individual’s values,
beliefs,motives,attitudesandpersonal traits”,and thereforewedefinecompetency tomean
whatBoyatzisoriginally intendedittomeaninthe1980swhenhefirstpopularisedtheterm,
namely an underlying characteristic of a person, as opposed to later uses which either
inexorably link competency to leaders and high-performance individuals or apply it as an
umbrella term to mean “almost anything that might directly or indirectly affect job
performance” (as stated 30 years ago by Woodruffe, 1993, p. 29), such as role-specific
competencies(Ghasemy,Hussin,&Daud,2016,p.218).
Figure 3: Advanced practice professionalism and its relation to breadth and depth of
competence,capabilityandprofessionalidentity.
The characteristics associated with competency in its earliest incarnation could include a
“motive,trait,skill,aspectofone’sself-imageorsocialrole,orabodyofknowledgewhichheor
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she uses” (Woodruffe, 1993, p. 29), and have subsequently been extended to include
characteristicslikesocialcompetence(Wight&Chapparo,2008)andculturalcompetence(e.g.,
Garneau & Pepin, 2015). Thus, competencies in work mean those underlying human
characteristics(orlatentcognitiveandaffectivetraitsorabilities)whichanindividualpossesses
and applies to his/her job. In ourmodel, general competencies relate to Box A of Figure 3,
which refer to theminimalorbasicprofessionalqualifications an individual in theworkforce
wouldbeexpectedtopossesswhenworking.Suchanattribution iscommon, forexample, in
contemporarynursing(Melnyk,Gallagher-Ford,Long,Fineout-Overholt,2014).
Capability,ontheotherhand,referstoahigherorderlevelofthinkingandbehaving,andcan
be reflected inbothbroaderanddeeperexpertise.However, like competency, the capability
construct has evolved significantly over the last 30 years, and in some cases has become
ambiguous, with what Gasper (2007, p. 336) called “unclear boundaries”, but may be
associatedwithhigherordercompetency.Tothisend,Ghasemy,HussinandDaud(2016)point
outthatresearchershaveregardedcapabilities“asrelatedto leadershipqualitiesofplanning
and implementing successful transformations” whereas “competencies [are] related to
managerial abilities of delivering or performing at the highest possible level in a particular
setting”(p.218).
Thus, by this definition, capability can be associated with leadership and organisational
transformation and competencywithmanagerial abilities in specificwork contexts, although
bothmayoccuratahigh levelof cognitive, affectiveandconative functioning.The cognitive
domain includes knowledge and skills to be acquired and learnt and the affective domain
includesattitudesandbehaviourstobeacquiredandlearnt,whereasconativeskillshelpAPPs
determine future courses of action—not onlywhen interactingwith data andskills, but also
wheninteractingwithpeople.Conativefunctioningthusalsodealswithfeelingsandemotions
andhowtoharnesstheminordertobemoreproductive,andincludestheabilitytointerpret
complexwork-based situations and circumstances andhowbest to respond to them. Such a
conclusionabout cognition,affectandconative functioning,however, is contentiousbecause
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the level of deliberation and reflective thinking required in expert problem solving when
associatedwithnormalandabnormalworkcircumstancesanddecisionmakingmayormaynot
requirecriticalthinkingtobesuccessful(e.g.,Gobet,2018).
In the 1980s, Sen (1999) andNussbaum (2011) introduced the capability construct viawhat
they called the ‘Capability Approach’, which has continued to evolve in the last 30 years.
AccordingtoGasper(2007,p.336),capabilityis:
Thefullsetofattainablealternativelivesthatfaceaperson;itisacounterparttothe
conventionalmicroeconomicsnotionofanopportunitysetdefinedincommoditiesspace,butis
insteaddefinedinthespaceoffunctionings.‘Capabilities’,incontrast,conveysamoreconcrete
focusonspecificattainable‘functionings’inalife,andconnectstoordinarylanguage’sreference
topersons’skillsandpowersandthecurrentbusinessjargonof‘corecapabilities’.
TheprimaryconstituentsoftheCapabilityApproacharethusfunctioningsandcapabilities,or
what can be called the ability to be and the ability to do. As explained by Kettle,Wells and
Fergusson (2017) ‘functioning’ is an achievement whereas a ‘capability’ is one’s ability to
achievethefunctioning,andthusafunctioningrelatestothequalityoflife(forexampleinthis
context, the quality of one’s life at work) and capability relates to one’s ability to remove
obstacles so they have more ‘freedom’ to live the kind of life they have reason to value
(Robeyns,2005).Intheworkplace,thismeansdevelopingtheabilitytodo(i.e.,thecapabilityof
doing or what can be called the ‘effectively possible opportunity’) in order to achieve the
desiredoutcomeorstateofbeing(i.e.,thefunction,achievementorthe‘realised’).
Functioningscanvaryfromsuchelementarythingsasbeingadequatelynourishedandbeingin
goodhealth,tomorecomplexachievementssuchashavingavaluablejob,notsufferingfroma
lackofself-respect,andbeingavaluedmemberofalearningorsocialcommunity.Indeed,the
Capability Approach should be understood in terms of human development (Krishnakumar,
2007),andthe“endsofwell-being,justiceanddevelopmentshouldbeconceptualisedinterms
of people’s capabilities to function; that is, their effective opportunities to undertake the
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actionsandactivities that theywant toengage in,andbewhomtheywant tobe” (Robeyns,
2005, p. 95). Gasper (2007, p. 337) pointed out that because the Capability Approach is
“attentive to issues of responsibility anddiversity of aims, it contrasts favourablywith views
that focus on achievements (however understood), because it is attentive to diversity in
abilitiestotransformmeansintoachievements,itispreferabletoviewsthatfocusonequality
ofmeans”,bothimportantissueswhenconsideringdiverseandmulticulturalworkplacesanda
rapidlychanging,disruptedworkforce.Thefactthatcapability is“attentiveto”thesetypesof
issues,makes ourmodel of competency > capability > professional identity thatmuchmore
relevant as these issues are of central concern to higher education in general (e.g., Lozano,
Boni,Peris,&Hueso,2012),andtoProfessionalStudiesinparticular,aswillbediscussedbelow.
Theconceptofcapabilities isparticularlyrelevantinthecurrentwork-basedcontext,because
attheheartofwhatitmeanstobeanAPPisnotonlythecleardemarcationofachievement,
including goals, objectives and key performance indicators (KPIs) but also the means and
abilities (i.e., one’sworkplace capabilities) required to achieve them. In thisway, thehuman
capacity to function in a specific workplace or at work generally can be framed along a
continuum of abilities from basic competency, as reflected in professional qualifications, to
higherordercapabilitiesasreflectedintheCapabilityApproach.
However, we recognise that the competency > capability construct is a disputed one (for
example in the contexts of society and education, as discussed by Lozano, Boni, Peris and
Hueso,2012),althoughphilosophersofeducationlikeLozanoetal.haveshowntheassociation
ofcompetencyandcapabilityasweproposeit,andWalker(2005)hasconsideredcompetency
specifically in the context of higher education and professional capability.Wealso note that
whilenotallauthorsagreewiththeassociation(letalonethecontinuum)ofcompetencyand
capability,suchanassociationhasbeenearlierendorsedwithintheworkandlearningcontexts
(e.g.,Lester,2014;Lester&Chapman,2002).
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InourmodelshowninFigure3,therearetwopossiblecontinuumsonthepathtodeveloping
greatercapabilityinwork:1)fromBoxA>B,whichrepresentsabroadeningofcapability;and
2)fromBoxA>C,whichrepresentsadeepeningofcapability.Suchpathwaysarecomparable
to those proposed by Palermo et al. (2017, p. 327), who said in the context of advanced
dieteticsthathigherlevelsofpracticemayrelateto“generalistandfocusedspecialtypractice
areas, [that is] profession-specific areas and situations relating to specific client groups or
geographicsettings”.
Pathway 1) represents a broadening of one’s capability such that the practitioner develops
generalcapabilities(i.e.,leadership,empathy,understanding,insight,foresight,etc.relatedto
‘profession-specificareas’)andtherebybecomesanadvancedgeneralistpractitioner.Pathway
2) represents a deepening of one’s capability such that the practitioner develops specific or
focused capabilities (i.e., specialist skills and knowledge, such as forensic accounting for an
accountant,multi-strandcurriculumevaluationforaneducator,orthetheoriesandmethodsof
restorativejusticeforapoliceofficerrelatedto‘specificclientgroupsorgeographicareas’)and
therebybecomeswhatwecallanadvancedfocusedpractitioner.Innursing,thisevolutionfrom
competency to capability can be seen in the example of anurse training tobecomeanurse
anesthetist (Waugaman& Lu,2018), and thereby become an advanced focused practitioner.
Thus, advanced practice not only refers to ‘specialisation’ but also to “expansion and
advancement”(Palermoetal.,2017,p.328).Notethat,inkeepingwiththeinclusivenessofthe
Capability Approach, we do not limit application of our model of advanced practice to
managersorexecutivesbutbelieveitrelevanttoeveryindividualinaworkforcewhowishesto
advancetheirprofessionalpracticeandidentity.
Thepromotionofadvancedpractice thus representsadevelopmentalmovealong twoother
pathways,asshown inFigure3byBoxB>DandBoxC>D.APPsextendknowledge,display
bothcompetencyandcapability,arediscipline,practiceand/orworkplaceleaders,andhavea
developed sense of professional identity; they arewhatwe call‘researching practitioners’ in
theWBL context and are discipline leaders or leading professionals. APPs define advanced
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practice as “practice that is so significantly different from that achieved at initial registration
[i.e.,BoxAinFigure3]thatitwarrantsrecognitionbyprofessionalpeersandthepublicofthe
expertise of the practitioner and the education, training and experience from which that
capabilitywasderived”(APPFSCSecretariat,2012,p.4).
OfnoteforanAPPistheirsenseofprofessionalidentity(e.g.,Johnson,Cowin,Wilson,&Young,
2012; Moss, Gibson, & Dollarhide, 2014), an advanced trait apparently associated with
resilience (Wald, 2015). Professional identity can simply mean self-identification with a
profession,butweexpandthisbasicmeaningtomeannotonlythelinktoaprofessionbutalso
the embedded sense of personal and professional worth gained from work when the
practitioner:a)recognisestheyareinfluencedbyandinturninfluencetheirworkenvironment
and/orcommunityofpractice;b)becomesawareofandrecognisesthevalueandmeaningof
their profession; c) gains a positive influence from education and recognises their lifelong
learningstatus;andthusd)incorporatestheirprofessionalresponsibilitiesintoanoverallsense
ofself.
As acknowledged above, APPs demonstrate a sense of task mastery, have a well-developed
internal locus of control, and identify as a self-efficacious professional. These among other
personal traits distinguish an APP from those with mere competence or even advanced
capability. Forexample,havingawell-developed internal locusofcontrolmeansanAPPdoes
notseetheeventsoftheirprofessionalcircumstanceasrandomandoutsidetheircontrol,but
ratherassociatesboth ‘good’and ‘bad’eventsasentirely controllablebychanges inattitude,
reflection,reflexivity,effortandpreparation.Suchpersonaltraitsappliedprofessionallytowork
are obviously not the sole domain of leaders, managers or executives but reflect a well-
developedsenseofselfandofprofessionalidentityregardlessofwhopossessesit(TenHoeve,
Jansen,&Roodbol,2014).
Forthepurposesofthispaper,wedohoweverassociateleadershipwithbeinganAPP.Inother
words,aleadermaynotbeanAPP,butanAPPistypicallyaworkplaceordomainleader.Thus,
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“given the critical role of leaders in embedding…reforms within their organisations…strong
leaders devise effective strategic directions, enunciate them clearly, then build support for
themwithin their organisations” (AGRAGA, 2010, p. 20). In ourmodel, leadership is thereby
derivedfromnotonlyarangeofwell-developedcompetenciesandcapabilitiesasappliedinthe
workplace,butalsofromastrongsenseofprofessionalidentityasexpressedthroughanability
toresearchprofessionalpractice, leadacommunityofpractice,andarticulatetheparameters
andmeaning, through theory, advanced concepts and evidence, of work and workplaces as
applied toone’sprofession. SuchAPPs,wepropose,canbe found inwork-basededucational
programswhicharefoundedonactionresearchandproblemsolving,suchasthoseembodied
by the principles and spirit ofWBL.Moreover, participation in suchwork-based programs is
typicallydrivenbyaltruism,aconcernforthewell-beingofone’sprofessionandworkplace,and
adesiretoadvanceprofessionalpractice.
Ourthesis,asillustratedinFigure3,isthereforebasedonthefollowingprecepts:competency>
capability>professionalidentity,whichequatestoandcanbeoperationalisedas:professional
qualifications (Box A) lead to advanced generalist practitionership (Box B) or advanced focus
practitionership(BoxC)whicharebothpathwaystoadvancedpracticeprofessionalism(BoxD).
Thus,anAPPembodiesbothcompetenciesandcapabilitiesandhasawell-developedsenseof
professional identityand is,asaresult, inapositionto leadanorganisationorcommunityof
practice, set strategic direction, embed practice in theory and evidence, and articulate the
scope,natureandvalueofaprofessionanditsworkcontext,therebypotentiallyenhancingthe
performanceoftheirorganisationandwidercommunity.
Professionalstudiesandexamplesofadvancedpractice
It is notwithin the scopeof thispaper topresent thedetail ofwork-basedhighereducation
degrees designed to develop the capacity of governments, private organisations and APPs
throughlearning.However,spacedoesallowanoverviewoftheProfessionalStudiesprogram
atUSQbecause itsMastersandDoctoralpostgraduatedegreeprogramshavebeendesigned
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expressly to help train mid- to senior-career professionals in developing the skills and
knowledgeofwork-basedresearch,higherordercognitivethinking,andworkplacechangeand
problem solving. This program is therefore consistent with Australian government and
workplace initiatives thatacknowledge“teachingstyles,educationapproaches,andquestions
relatingtotheroleoftheeducator[which]continuetobepresentindiscussions.Systemsthat
enable knowledge exchange and two-way learningwithin education and training settings are
increasinglypreferred”(AISC,2017,p.26)inaworldofso-called“fluideducation”(p.27).
Elsewherewehavedocumentedthestructureoftheprogram(Fergusson,Allred,&Dux,2018),
explored its relation to advanced practice (Fergusson, Allred, Dux, & Muianga, 2018) and
reflective practice in work-based research (Fergusson, Van der Laan, & Baker, 2019), and
examineditsethosandtransformationaldimension(Fergusson,vanderLaan,White,&Balfour,
2019)anduseoffirstprinciplesofscience(Fergusson,Shallies&Meijer,2019).Moreover,van
derLaanandNeary(2016)haveinvestigatedtheprograminthecontextofaccessandequity
and van der Laan and Ostini (2018) have done so in relation to foresight and university
leadership. While not immediately obvious from this published literature is the program’s
originalfoundationinprinciplesofWBLasderivedfromthecurriculumofMiddlesexUniversity.
Wehave shown that the program is composedof two strands of learning: (A) awork-based
projectstrand;and(B)a researchstrand,asshown inFigure4,witheachstrandbuiltonthe
identificationofpersonalisedlearningobjectives.Learningobjectivesarecentrallyimportantin
this program because they ground the project (A) and research (B) strands in personal
functioningsforwhichextantcompetenciesmustbeadvancedintocapabilitiesinorderforthe
topicofinvestigationtobefullyactuatedinwhatisreferredtoinAustraliaasaHigherDegree
byResearch(HDR).
On these bases, a work-based project (often conducted by what Costley, Elliott and Gibbs,
2010, call ‘insider-researchers’) leads to the generation of an artefact; that is a work-based
productwhichcontributestoorganisationalimprovement(forexampleamodelorframework
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forpolicydirection)andthusleadstonotonlyapostgraduatequalificationbutotherbenefits
associatedwith theorganisationanddisciplineasawhole (i.e., the so-called ‘tripledividend’
[Fergusson,Allred,Dux&Muianga,2018]ofProfessionalStudies),asshownby(C)inFigure4.
Inparalleltothework-basedproject,arigorousresearchdesignisdevelopedtoinvestigatethe
veracityoftheproject.Asaresultofimplementingtheresearchstrand,empiricalresults,often
basedonmixedmethodologies,areusedtoconvergewiththework-basedartefactresultingin
acompletework-basedinvestigationofarelevantphenomenonorproblem.
Figure4:Thetwo-strandsofProfessionalStudies—work-basedproject(A)andresearchproject
(B)—whichleadtoatripledividend(C).
Examples of research questions driving such practice-based research include: “What is the
organisationalimpactofdisseminatingoperationalintelligenceusingnewsoftwareapplication
technology to consolidate and improve information flow in the Queensland Police Service
(QPS)”; “What critical business situations do senior managers in multi-national corporations
workon,andwhatarethecompetencybehaviourstheyusetoreachadesiredoutcomeineach
criticalbusinesssituation?”;andfinally,“Whatistheimpactofresiliencetrainingonrecruitsin
emergencyservicevolunteerorganisationsinQueensland”?Intopicslikethese,therelevance
of both professional competency and capability development as well as organisational
improvement is evident. For example, coupling mixedmethods research with a work-based
projectmeansinvestigativepracticesinworkcanbeevidencedbymultiplelines-of-inquiryand
rigorousdatagatheringtechniquesfromdiversesourcesofprimaryandsecondarysourcesof
Work Based Learning e-Journal, Vol. 9, No.1, (2020)
116
evidence (Fergusson,Harmes,Hayes,Rahmann,2019),not somethingalwaysassociatedwith
WBL.
We conclude that this transdisciplinary approach to WBL and research not only aims at
knowledge and skills developmentbut canbe appliedtoworthwhile researchprojectswhich
seektosolvework-basedproblemsanddriveinnovativeknowledgeonafoundationofaltruism
leadingtoorganisationalimprovementandsocialadvancement.
Inthepresentcontext,theproposedshiftfromcompetency>capability>professionalidentity
in the development of advanced practice through Professional Studies can be seen in the
exampleprovidedbyFergusson,Allred,DuxandMuianga(2018,p.28) inwhichonedoctoral
studentdescribedhisexpectationthatWBLwouldbe“alinearlearningprocess—astep-by-step
processofbuildingknowledgeandskills”(henceassociatedwithcompetence)buthefoundit
actually to be “nonlinear and non-sequential, as a result of the self-paced, learner-centred
pedagogy”(requiringthedevelopmentofcapability).Accordingtothisstudent:
Thedoctoraljourneyhasbeenoneofcontinuallearning;everythingwhichhasprecededithas
helpedprepare[me]forthejourney—eachlife-stagehaspresenteditsownlearnings,andeach
hassupportedsubsequentgrowthandopportunity.Ithereforelikenthejourneytothatofablack
beltinkarate:eachrankpreparestheparticipantforthenextgrade,buttheblackbeltisnotthe
endofknowledge;itisratherthebeginningofnewknowledge.Theaspirationisthustoharness
theconceptofShoshin,inwhich‘therearemanypossibilities[inthebeginner’smind],butinthe
expert’s[mind]therearefew’(p.29).
Figures5and6operationaliseourAPPmodelusing thework-basedprojectsand researchof
two Professional Studies doctoral students. In each case, the model provides evidence of
competencies leading to capabilities and subsequently to professional identity, with each
exemplifyingamoreprofessional attitudeandapproach towork.As theProfessional Studies
programonlyattractsmid-tosenior-careerprofessionals,mostwithmanyyears’experiencein
government, private practice or sole practitioner work environments like insurance, energy,
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117
projectmanagement,healthandsafety,andcoaching,studentsalreadyhaveareasonablywell-
developedsetof competenciesandcapabilitiesandsenseofprofessional identitywhen they
enter the program. Practice domains forwhomWBL is attractive in the Professional Studies
program include nursing and allied health, education, policing, correctional services, and fire
andemergencyservices,amongmanyothers.However,studentcompetencies,capabilitiesand
identity in relation to scholarship at the postgraduate level—particularly critical thinking and
logic,academicwritingandpublishing,andmixedmethodsresearch—issomewhatlimited,and
theseareamongtheareaswherewewouldexpectthegreatestadvanceinprofessionalismasa
resultofconductingthefollowingwork-basedprojects.
ThebusinessandlearningcontextfortheexampleinFigure5isproject,programandportfolio
management (P3M). In order to operate effectivelywithin this context, a basic qualification,
suchasabachelor’sdegreeinbusinessmanagement(specialisinginprojectmanagementora
professional VET certification), is required, although some managers may have a master’s
degreeorhigher-levelspecialisttechnicalexpertise.However,tooperateathigherlevelswithin
P3Mpractice, thepractitioner is required todevelopeitherbroaderormore focused setsof
capabilitiesrelatedtospecificcorporateorbusinessstrategiesandresults.ThechoiceofP3M
practitioner by a company or government agency is therefore critical in improving and
sustaining an organisation; hence, inmost P3M cases, it would be a seniormanagerwho is
involvedinexecutivedecision-making.
Tothisend,amoregeneralP3Mcapabilitywouldbetheskillsandknowledgeassociatedwith
involvement in strategic business planning, forecasting and managing programs and project
prioritisation,managingworkforceexpertisethroughprofessionaldevelopmentpathwaysand
coaching,managingorganisationalchangeandliminality,managingbenefitsrealisation,and/or
anabilitytoutiliseculturalcompetenceintheworkplace.Similarly,amorespecificorfocused
capabilitymightinvolvetheabilitytoworkwithsupplychainmanagementandlogistics,orto
understand,interpretandapplyknowledgerelatedtoareturnoninvestment(ROI)inanygiven
Work Based Learning e-Journal, Vol. 9, No.1, (2020)
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project or program. These types of capability are not generally found in entry-level or even
establishedP3Mpractitionersandrepresentabroadeningordeepeningofbasiccompetencies.
An APP, on the other hand, must have the ability to integrate and apply holistic P3M
management systems for sustained project, program, portfolio, and/or organisational
functionings as measured against expected strategic and business performance indicators.
These key performance indicators are typically devised at personal, program, project and
business-specificlevels,andarealmostalwayslinkedtoorganisationalmaturity(Bourne,2016).
Thus,an importantcomponentofourAPPmodelwhenapplied toP3M isawell-formedand
agreed incentive program. Such a program should not be understood simply as a bonus
scheme,rather it reliesonacceptanceofaprofessionaldevelopmentpathwaythat is framed
andsponsoredbytheorganization(i.e.,whatwearecallingan‘APP’inthispaper).
Figure5:Exampleofadvancedproject,programandportfoliomanagementpractice.
The five case studies associated with this P3M doctoral study involve both the private and
public sectors. Although based in Australia (i.e., including case studies in Queensland, New
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119
SouthWales,andtheAustralianCapitalTerritory),thestudyincludesgovernmentdepartments
and agencies in Malaysia and Sri Lanka. The participating organisations have been chosen
because they embody how improvement needs to be contextualised rather than sought
through the simple applicationof standardised, inflexible P3Mmodels in that one sector.Of
notealsoarethethree levelsofmanagement (i.e.,portfolio,programandproject)whichare
involved in an integrated P3M improvement initiative. For example, general and regional
managers(i.e.,portfoliomanagers)areinvolvedinthisresearch.
Thestudyalsoattemptstohighlightthatnoonetierofmanagementproducescorporateand
culturalchange,andtherebyaimstoreinforcehowtheProfessionalStudiesprogramusesWBL
andresearchinanumberofsettingstocontributetotheaccelerationofadvancedpracticein
boththeresearchingpractitionerandinP3Mpractitionersoperatinginthesethreecountries.
Importantly,itprovidesaflexibleformulafororganisationalchangeandawell-framedformula
forpersonalimprovementaswellasthetransformationofteamleadership.
Correspondingly, in Figure 6 advanced practice work-based research being conducted with
supervisors,leadinghands,businessownersandtheirapprenticesinGermany’sMittelstand(a
typeofsmall-tomedium-sizedenterprise)Handwerk(orcraft)industriesseekstoexplorethe
efficacy of communication between supervisors and apprentices through a combination of
visualandverbaltechniques,andtotherebyenhanceorganisationalculture.Atitsmostbasic,
thepractitionerisrequiredtohavequalificationsandworkexperience,andhenceadegreeof
socio-cultural competency in frontline management training and change management
processes.
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Figure 6: Example of advancedWBL and communications practice in Germany’sMittelstand
Handwerkindustries.
To develop amore comprehensive capability in communications, the practitionerwill in this
caseconductworkshopstofacilitateengagementofstakeholdergroups,butinparallel isalso
required to establish and apply focused capabilities associated with the development of
advancedwork-baseddocumentationrelevanttoeachHandwerkbusiness,whichmayormay
not include textual, linguistic explanations. These two pathways of learning represent the
broadeninganddeepeningofcompetencewhichwillbe required tosuccessfully conduct the
work-basedresearchinGermany.
However, to fullyadvancehisprofessionalism,theresearchingpractitioner in thisprojectwill
also be required to develop the ability to build organisational culture (i.e., through the
application of socio-cultural competence), drive innovation, and foster the creation and
managementofnewknowledge.Inthiscase,theadvancedfunctioningasaresultofthework-
based project and research will not only include an enhanced professional identity for the
practitioner but also (possibly) a contribution to the organisational performance of the
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MittelstandHandwerkbusinesses themselves. This typeofWBLproject leads towhat in this
paperwehavecalledadvancedpracticeprofessionalism.
Conclusion
Wehaveexplored the relationshipbetween competency, capability andprofessional identity
and explained how the Professional Studies program at USQ apparently contributes to the
development of advanced practice in Australia, specifically how it relates to non-routine
cognitivework.Wehaveshownthatcapabilityisaconceptuallyhigherorderpractitionerability
than competence, and thus parallels the need for non-routine cognitive job capability.
According to Woods (2013), capable advanced practitioners not only know ‘what’ but also
‘how’ to learn, and such capabilities allow practitioner-led learning reflection and reflexivity,
drivenbyholisticconsiderationsandaself-motivateddesiretoimprove(Lozano,etal.,2012).
Such earlier views in awork-based context now suggest advanced practitioners are “leaders
who can influence, inspire and innovate to solve practice problems, to change practice and
showevidenceoftheirimpact[onworkenvironments]”(Palermoetal.,2017,p.332).
Ascasesinpoint,fornursinginAustralia,“itisclearthatadvancedpracticenursesareworking
to the extent of their scope of practice, demonstrating the skills and capabilities required to
meetthecomplexhealthcareneedsofthecommunitiesinwhichtheypractice”(Parker&Hill,
2017,p.197)and foreducators suchadvancedpractice “sees teachers’ researchandenquiry
skills andpredispositions as helping to renew [their] professional identity andpractice…[with
the conclusionbeing] that a cultureneeds tobe encouragedwhere engagement in andwith
research becomes an everyday part of teachers’ professional identity and practice” (Lindsay,
Kerawalla,&Floyd,2018,p.2321).
Furthermore, according to published data from both government and industry sources,
ProfessionalStudiesprograms,suchastheoneofferedatUSQ,aremeetingan‘urgent’national
priority of filling skill gaps within the space of policy development, research and project
management (e.g., AISC, 2017). Those mid- to senior-career professionals from around the
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world who undertake the Professional Studies Master’s and Doctoral HDR programs are
engagedininnovativeworkandauthenticresearchandtherebyacademicallycontributetonew
knowledge production while addressing problems in the organisations, industries and
governments with which they work. This, we noted above, is called the triple dividend of
ProfessionalStudies;hence,feedbackfromcandidatesindicates“thedoctoraljourneyhasbeen
oneof continual learning;everythingwhichhaspreceded ithashelpedprepare [me] for the
journey—eachlife-stagehaspresenteditsownlearnings,andeachhassupportedsubsequent
growthandopportunity”(citedinFergusson,Allred,Dux&Muianga,2018,p.27).
It is for these and other reasons outlined in this paper that we propose the shift from
competency standards to capability development is a precursor to enhanced professional
identity and higher order thinking, and ultimately to the status of an advanced practice
professionalonthebasisofwhichtheresearchingpractitionercanleadandguideconstructive
changeatwork.ThisshiftismadepossiblebyhighereducationprogramswhichfocusonWBL
and research, and thereby fulfill the goals of, in this case but probably also applicable
elsewhere, the Australian Government and broader worlds of work in Australia which have
identified the need for individuals who can navigate and successfully perform non-routine,
higherorder,cognitivework.
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TheroleofindustryinimplementingWork-based
LearningPedagogy
REVATINAMJOSHI1
MaharashtraKnowledgeCorporationLtd,Pune,India.
Work-based Learning (WBL) models being implemented across the globe highlight theimportanceoftheroleofindustryinmakingthework-environmentconducivetolearning.Thispaperdiscussesvariousparametersthatcontributetobuildafavorableecosystemforsuccessfulimplementation of WBL pedagogy. The findings are based on practices followed by criticalobservation of an integrated Work-based Learning model based on M.K.Gandhi’s Nai Talimprinciple of ‘Learning through Working’ (M.K.Gandhi 1968) implemented in the state ofMaharashtra,India.(MKCL2001)
In this system, the open universities in collaborationwith industries offerwork-based degreecourses to suit the nature and needs of the businesses (Sawant 2017) and admit the youthespecially from the economically weaker sections of the society at affordable fees. Thebusinesses/industriesofferpaidinternshipstothestudentsforperformingattheworkplace.
Theinternsbuildthetheorybasedontheworkperformed.TheseniorsintheindustryassisttheinternsinsynthesizingknowledgethroughdailyreflectionsessionsbyaccessingeLearningstudymaterials. The interns record their reflections through blogs and undertake evidence-basedcomprehensiveassessmentsessionsontheeLearningplatformontheworkcontentandrelatedcoursemodules.
The interns thusobtain two typesof credits viz.workcreditsgivenby the industryappraisersandknowledgecreditsearnedontheeLearningplatform leadingtotheawardofadegreeattheendofthreeyears.
It is in this context and in view of the crucial role of the industries offering real life work-environments,thekeyaspectsoftheWBLecosystemdesirableattheworkplacearediscussedandanalyzed.
Keywords:Work-basedLearning,Roleofindustry,Pedagogy,WBLEcosystem
1Email:[email protected]
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Introduction
Work-basedLearning(WBL)modelunderstudyattemptsconvergenceofworkingandlearning.
(Vinoba,955)IndustryisinvolvedintheacademicproceedingsofundergraduateWBLstudents,
withoutcompromisingonthebusinessobjectives,goalsandprocesseswithintheindustry
settings.
Fromthestudent’sperspectivetheWBLmodelunderstudyisasfollows:Figure1
Figure1:WBLmodel
(RevatiN2017)
WBLstudentsgainhands-onpracticalskillsinalocalcontextthroughexposuretoreallifework
experienceprovidedbyindustry.Theirconnectionwithglobalcontextandbestpracticesis
establishedthroughsituation-basedeLearningmodulesbeforeandafterofficehours.eLearning
contentcoverstheoreticalconceptsandeAssessmentslinkedtothecurriculumstipulatedby
theUniversity.Finally,thederivationoftheoryoutofpracticeatthework-labi.e.industry
workplaceisenabledthroughreflectionsessionsconductedbymentors(seniorprofessionals/
industryexperts)fromtheindustry.
• eLearning• ReflectionsessionswithMentor
• eLearning• IndustryWorkLab• Reallifeworkexperience
Practicalinlocalcontext
Situationbased
Learning-GlobalContext
TheoryConcepts
DerivingTheoryoutofPracticeatWorkLab
(Workplace)
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VariouscomponentscontributetotheWBLpedagogy.(Figure2)
Figure2:WBLAcademicprocessataglance
TheWBLecosystemincludingreal-lifeworkplace,peers,appraisers,mentorsandeLearning
environmentcontributestooffer‘LearningthroughWorking’experienceforWBLstudent.
Itisinthiscontext,theroleofindustryincreatingWBLecosystemwithintheworkplaceandits
keyparametersisdiscussed.
Methodology
ResearchliteratureprovidesexamplesofWBLpedagogies.JosephRaelininhisbook–Work-
basedLearning(Raelin,2008)conceptualizesamodelofWBLthatcombinesexplicitandtacit
formsofknowledgewiththeoryandpracticemodesoflearning.Thesignificanceofthe
students’ownreflectionsisemphasizedinthemodel,anditisconsideredimportantto
articulatethetacitknowledgethatmanyworkplacepracticesarebasedon.MichaelEraut
(Eraut,2004)providesananalyticalframeworkthatfocusesonfactorsthataffectlearning
intheworkplace.Heidentifiedboth-learningfactors(confidence,supportandchallenge)and
contextfactors(allocationofwork,relationshipsatworkandexpectationsofperformance).
FromconceptualizationofboththesemodelsandtheWBLmodelunderstudy,itcanbe
derivedthattheroleofindustryofferingreal-lifeworkplaceforimplementingWBLiscrucial
anditcomprisesofroleofactorsinvolved,theprocessesandpoliciesadaptedbyindustry.
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Further,inordertoensureconfident,committedandperformingWBLstudents(SFIA:Levelsof
responsibility2003-2020)withasoundexposuretoformaltheoreticalknowledge,itis
necessarytoimplementenrichingacademicprocesseswithintheworkplace.
Focusofthispaper,therefore,istodocumenttheroleofindustryintermsofkeyparameters
essentialforsettingtheWBLenvironmentwithintheworkplace.
ProcessthatledtodocumentationofkeyparametersofWBLecosystemwithintheworkplace
andfurtheranalysiswasasfollows:
1. Mockinterviews:MockinterviewsofThirdYearstudentswereconducted.
a. Ratinganalysis:Analysisofratingswasdoneanditwasfoundthatthe
performanceofthestudentsvariedsignificantly.
b. WorkLab-wiseanalysisofratings:Thisledtofurtherstudyofdataanditwas
observedthatthestudentswhoperformedwellinthemockinterviewsand
thosewhodidnot,belongedtodifferentwork-labs.
2. IdentifyingWBLimplementationpracticesatawork-labwherestudentsperformed
betterinmockinterviews:Itwasdecidedtoidentify,observeandifnecessaryconduct
surveystodocumentthepracticesfollowedbycompanywithintheworkplaceasapart
ofWBLimplementation.Thisexercisewasplannedfortheorganizationwherestudents
performedwellinthemockinterviews.
3. KeyparametersofWBLEcosystem:Duringobservations,fewkeyparametersforminga
WBLenvironmentwithintheworkplacewereidentified.Thisyieldedinteresting
findings.Keyactors,processesandfunctionsortoolsoftheWBLenvironmentwithin
theworkplacearedocumentedbasedonthefindings.
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4. StudentSurvey:Further,asurveyofstudentswasconductedtounderstandifsimilar
practiceswerefollowedbyothercompanies,wherethestudentsdidnotperformwellin
themockinterviews.
5. ComparativeAnalysis:ComparativeanalysiswasdonetocheckifWBLenvironmentis
toberecommendedforreplication.
Mockinterviews
MockinterviewswerescheduledforthirdyearstudentspursuingWBLdegreeprogram.The
interviewswereconductedbyseniorprofessionals(seniorgeneralmanagersandgeneral
managers).
Primaryobjectivesofthisexercisewastogiveaclose-to-realkindofexperienceofinterviewto
thestudents.Researchesstatetheimportanceofconductingmockinterviewsandjob-search
seminarsforundergraduatestudents.(Reddan,2008)Studentsdevelopareasonablyhighlevel
ofconfidenceinpreparationfor“real-world”scenarios.
ThisisparticularlyfoundtobeessentialforWBLunderstudy,becauseWBLstudentscomplete
theirtenureofassociationwiththeindustry/organizationofferingwork-labastheyreceivethe
degree.Whiletheindustry/organizationhasachoicetoretainthestudentswhowouldhave
attainedthreeyearsofwork-experience,itisnotmandatoryforthemtocontinueanystudent.
Itisinthiscontextandinordertoensurethereadinessofstudentsforreal-lifeinterview
experience,mockinterviewswereconducted.
FindingsandOutcome
Analysisofratingsreceivedinthemock-interviewswasdone.
Ratingparameterswere:
• EnglishConversationAbilities
• EthicalValues
• ExposuretoSkills(NewSkills)
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• Interactionswiththementor
• SelfConfidence
• Theoreticalknowledge
IP:IndustryPartner(i.e.Work-Lab)
Figure3:Work-Labwiseaverageratingsofstudents
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IP:IndustryPartner(i.e.Work-Lab)
Figure4:Work-LabwiseAverageInterviewScoresforeachparameter
Qualitativefeedback
Qualitativefeedbackwasalsoreceivedfromtheinterviewpanelmembers.Fewstudentslacked
confidencewhileappearingfortheinterviewandwerenotabletoestablisheventheeye-
contactwiththeinterviewer.Fewofthemwereunabletoexplaintheworktheyaredoing.
Clarityaboutthejobroletheyarelookingforwasfoundtobemissinginsomecases.However,
someofthestudentswereextremelyclearabouttheircurrentjobrole,theirstrengthsand
theiraspirations.Theydidwellintheinterview.Theywereevenawareofthewaytheywere
learning.Theycouldmentionthattheircourseisbasedon‘WBLpedagogy’.However,though
werenotabletoexpressitinfurthertechnicalterms.
Fewinterviewswereconductedoverphoneandmixedobservationswerereceivedfromthe
interviewersonthesimilarlinesofface-to-faceinterviews.
Thisfeedbackandtheanalysisofratingsofmock-interviewledtoinvestigateifthestudents
whodidwellandwhodidnot,belongtodifferentwork-labs.SincetheeLearninginputwas
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sameforall,itwashypothesizedthatdifferenceinperformancecouldberelatedtoworkplace
environment.
ItledtofurtherinquiryofWBLecosystemattheworkplacesofthestudentswhoperformed
wellinthemockinterviews.
ThefindingsofthisinquirymayleadtoaprobablehypothesisthatincaseofavailabilityofWBL
ecosystemattheworkplacewithcertainkeyparameters,theperformanceofthestudentsas
expectedbytheindustryforrecruitmentisassuredafterthreeyears.
Whilesuchahypothesisneedstobecloselyinspectedandvalidatedbyastructuredresearch,
thecurrentanalysiscreatesaworthwhilebaseforestablishingsuchacorrelation.
KeypracticesimplementedatWork-Lab
Work-reporting
Aformatforreportingevery-dayworkissharedwiththeWBLstudents.Itisobservedthat
studentsperformthetaskssatisfactorilyhoweverarenotabletoformcompleteandprecise
sentencesforreportingthetaskinEnglishlanguage.Hence,initialformatofwork-reportisin
formof‘fillintheblanks’.Thisisonthebasisofthescaffoldingtechniquesoastohelpstudents
reportfactsaboutthetasks,theirindividualrolesincompletingthetasksetc.Graduallythe
studentsaregivensheetwithopenendedquestionsandareaskedtofilluptheworkreport
underbroadheadingssuchas:Tasksallotted,Roleperformed,Skillsattained,Timetaken,Steps
followed,Challengesfacedetc.(TheWritingProcess:AScaffoldingApproach,2015)
Theobjectiveofusingthisformatwithleadingquestionsatabroadlevelistoassessifthe
studentsareabletoexplainthetaskscompletedinaprofessionalandtheoreticallanguage.
Qualitativeanalysisofthework-reportsonfollowingparameterswasdone.
1. Specificityinexplainingthetask
2. Clarityaboutthemethod
3. Clarityaboutexpectedoutput
4. Clarityaboutpurpose
5. Clarityaboutchallenges
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6. Specificityinexplainingthesolution
7. Istheskillmentionedbythestudentrelatedtotheworkortask
8. MeaningfulExpression
Everydayreflection
Seniormembersofwork-labconductreflectionsessionswiththestudentseveryday.The
attendancetothesessionsismandatoryforallstudents.
Reflectingonwork-reports–Peerexercise
Apeerexerciseintheformofquestions&answersisconductedduringeverydayreflection
session.(Rivers,2017)
Theobjectiveoftheexerciseistocheckif:
- Studentscanaskmeaningfulquestions
- Studentscananswerquestionsreasonablywell
- Studentscanunderstandtheworkdonebyothers
Theworkreportssubmittedbythepeersarecirculated.Everystudentisgivenaccesstotwo
work-reports.Minimumtwoquestionsaretobeaskedbyeachstudentaftergoingthroughthe
reportindetail.Fact-basedandobviousquestionssuchas–‘howmuchtimedidittaketo
completethetask’or‘whatwasyourrole’arediscouragedanddiscarded.Studentsare
expectedtoaskquestionssoastolearnnewthings.
Initiallythestudentsarerequiredtobeprompted.However,afterfollowingthepracticefor
morethan1month,meaningfulquestionsareaskedbypeersForex.-Inwhatwayyourworkis
linkedtothebusinessofthecompany?Whichstepinthisprocesscouldhavebeenavoided?
Enrichmentactivities
SpecialactivitiesinordertoofferajoyfulenvironmenttoWBLstudentsareconducted.These
include:
• Readingsessions
• SpokenEnglishsessions
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• Involvingstudentsinorganizationalevents
• Fitnessactivities
• Sportscompetitions
• Presentationcompetitions
• Givingresponsibilitytoconductfewactivitiesforemployeesoftheorganization
WBLEnvironmentwithintheworkplace:Actors,ProcessesandFunctions
Afteranalyzingfindingsofallthekeypracticesimplementedwithinawork-labwherestudents
performedbetterinmockinterviews,itisobservedthatWBLecosystemisaninterplayof
actors,processesandfunctions&toolswithintheworkplace.
Processes
FunctionsandTools
Actors
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Outcomesandimpactofimplementingaforementionedprocesses
Actorsperformvariousfunctionsandusetoolstoexecuteprocessesleadingtosuccessful
implementationofWBL.
Mentionedbelow(Table1)theinter-linksalongwithfewexamplesoffunctionsperformed
and/ortoolsusedandtheirimpact.
Table1:Theinter-linksalongwithfewexamplesoffunctionsperformedand/ortoolsusedand
theirimpact.
Actors:
Keypersononnelinimplementationof
WBL
• HRDepartment/HRManager• Appraiser• Mentor
Processes:
LearningthroughWorking
• Taskallocation• Performancemonitoringwithcorrectivefeedbak• Reflecting• eLearning
FunctionsandTools
• SpecialHRpolicies• Workreport• Performancemonitoringcriteria• Reflectionsessions• eLearningframework• Enrichmentactivities
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Actor: HRDepartment/HRManager
ProcessExample(1): SpecialcadreforWBLStudents/Interns
Function/Tool Outcome/Impact
• SpecialHRpolicies
(Ex.PF,Holidays,Specialtimings
foreLearning)
• Students(undergraduate,betweentheagegroup
18–20),getablendedenvironmentoflearningand
working.Manymaysufferfromhomesickness
becauseofmigration.Suchreliefpolicieshelpin
buildingtheircommitmenttowardslearningand
working
• ImportanceofWBLimplementationatorganization
levelgetshighlighted
• Uniforms • PolicieslikeUniformsbenefitstudentscomingfrom
differentbackgrounds,mostlyfromunderprivileged
sectionsofthesociety.Suchpoliciesalsogive
organization-widerecognitiontoWBLprogram
• Specialeventssuchassports,
Culturalevents,Picnicsetc.
includingEnrichmentActivities)
• Specialeventshelpstudentsshowcasetheirtalents.
Thisisnecessarybecausethestudentsdonotgeta
traditionalcollegeenvironment.
ProcessExample(2): Taskallocation
• Rotationwithinteams • Studentsgetanexposuretovariousdepartments/
functionsoftheorganization
• Studentsgetdiversifiedworkexperienceduringthe
threeyearsofinternship
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Actor: Appraiser
ProcessExample(3): PerformanceMonitoringwithcorrectivefeedback
Function/Tool Outcome/Impact
• WorkReports • Everydayinteractions
• Personalmentoringandguidance
• Friendlyandcaringrelationship
• Specialprojectassignments
• Posingchallenges
• Involvementinthestudent’slearning
• Encouragingreflections
Actor: Mentor
ProcessExample(4): Reflection
Function/Tool Outcome/Impact
• ReflectionSessions • Helpingstudentsderivetheoryoutofpracticeatthe
workplace
Conclusions
Thereisascopefordeterminingapositiveeffectontheperformanceandoveralldevelopment
ofthestudents,providedtheyaregivenaWBLecosystemwithintheworkplacethatensures
‘LearningthroughWorking’.Appropriateuseofwork-basedlearningmanagementsystemcan
helpinreplicatingthekeypracticesforimplementingWBLeffectively.Thekeychallengehereis
toensuremotivationandcommitmentofactorsinvolved.Continuoustraining,retraining,
orientationofappraisersandtheirinputsinordertofurtherstreamlinetheWBLprocessesin
theorganizationiscrucialforthesuccessfulimplementationofWBL.
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Notesoncontributors:
(1) Dr.RevatiNamjoshi
Dr.RevatileadsEducationalTransformationProgramofMKCL-agovernmentpromoted,public
limitedcompanyestablishedasafasttrackenablerforbringingintransformationsinthefieldof
education,governanceandempowerment.Herresearchinterestsincludework-basedlearning
pedagogies,technologyenabledlearning,teachereducation.
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Figure1:WBLmodel.................................................................................................................133
Figure2:WBLAcademicprocessataglance............................................................................134
Figure3:Work-Labwiseaverageratingsofstudents...............................................................137
Figure4:Work-LabwiseAverageInterviewScoresforeachparameter..................................138