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Updated November 2009

Law & Policy: Author Style Sheet

PRIMARY STYLE GUIDES

Chicago Manual of Style, 15th ed. (Chicago)

Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary, 11th ed. (Merriam-Webster)

The University of Chicago Manual of Legal Citation

Legal citations in cases named in text and Cases or Statutes Cited generally follow theBluebook (without periods).

Please refer to Law & Policy back issues as a guide. The current style was implementedstarting from 32.1.

SUPPLEMENTED AS NECESSARY BY

Editorial Office

Wiley-Blackwell Copy Editor

LENGTH

Manuscript Length: Approximately 12,000 words, including abstract, notes, and references list

SPELLING AND HYPHENATION

Recommended spelling

Merriam–Webster

Word Usage: Chicago, See 5.202

Hyphenation Guide for Compounds, Combining Forms, and Prefixes: Chicago, See 7.90

A number of frequently used terms appear at the end of this document.

PUNCTUATION

Quotation marks

U.S. style: “Double” quotation marks, with closing punctuation inside marks and ‘single’ marksfor quotes within quotes.

Order of parentheses in text

U.S. style: ([ ])

REFERENCES

IN TEXT

General (including books, chapters, periodicals, government publications, etc.):

Citations should appear in parenthesis in the text following the material to which they referand use the following form:

(last name of author year, page).

Normally the citation will appear at the end of the sentence, before the period/full stop, orimmediately after a quotation. However, the year, and page if relevant, may immediatelyfollow the author’s name in the text.

Law & Policy: Author Style Sheet

Updated November

16

36.2

US style: ([ ])

US style: “Double” quotation marks, with closing punctuation inside marks and ‘single’ marks

When the publication date of a printed work cannot be ascertained, the abbreviation n.d. takes the place of the year in the reference list entry and text citations. Though it follows a period in the reference list, n.d. remains lowercased to avoid conflation with the author’s name; in text citations, it is preceded by a comma. A guessed-at date may be substituted (in brackets).

Nano, Jasmine L. [1750?] Title of Work . . .

———. n.d. Title of Another Work . . .

(Nano [1750?])

(Nano, n.d.)

Law & Policy: Author Style Sheet 2

Page numbers are only required in the case of a direct quotation, not for paraphrases orsummaries of the original.

All citations in the text must be listed in the reference list.

Several counties in California are “currently on the verge of bankruptcy” (Geissinger1990, 15).

Schwartz and Orleans (1967) found that such appeals were more effective than fearmessages.

Multiple citations should be separated by a semicolon. Multiple works by the same author areseparated by a comma. Introductory signals may be included in the citation to clarify theparticular reference (“e.g.,” “see,” “see generally,” “cf.,” etc.).

(Wooster 1990, 417; see generally Mills 1987; cf. Scriven 1975, 1977, 1978).

When a work has two or three authors, use “and” (not &) before the final name with apreceding comma. When a work has more than three authors, abbreviate the citation to thefirst author followed by “et al.” Institutional authors should be cited in full on first appearanceand subsequently by an appropriate abbreviation. In a multivolume book, the volume (vol.)number is provided in Arabic numbers, followed by the page number.

(Engel and Munger 2003; Jesilow, Geis, and O’Brien 1986; Welsh et al. 1990, 345).

(SEC 1989; see also U.S. Congress 1933b).

(Smith and Jones 1990, vol. 2, 64).

Citations to an immediately preceding, single work may use “ibid.”

The CFTC rejected the cascade theory as an explanation of the Crash (CFTC 1988c,32, 94). They constructed a proxy index based upon fifty stocks (ibid., 15).

Cases and Legislation

Use the full names or titles of cases and legislation the first time they appear. Subsequentdiscussion of the same case or statute should use a shortened form.

(a) Cases: When citing cases in the text, use the following form: (case-name year at page).Where reference is made to specific language, indicate the page number by inserting theword “at” after the year and list the page number. For example,

first appearance: (Cruzan v Director, Missouri Dept. of Health 1990 at 279).

subsequently: (Cruzan 1990 at 283).

If the case name is in the text, the citation should appear as follows:

Dinsmore-Poff v Alvord (1999) illustrates the application of …

(b) Legislation: Use the title and year. For reference to specific sections, insert a colon afterthe year and the “§” symbol followed by the section number. Examples:

In the Americans with Disabilities Act (1990) …

first appearance: In the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) (1990) it was …

subsequently: … it has become apparent (ADA 1990, § 12102) that …

REFERENCES LISTS

All items on the references lists are placed under headings that are capitalized and centeredas REFERENCES or CASES CITED or LAWS CITED and sometimes INTERNATIONALINSTRUMENTS (if there are a lot of them).

























REFERENCES LISTS


























REFERENCES LISTS


Welsh et al. 1990, 345; Jesilow, Geis, and O’Brien 1986).

US Congress 1933b).

, 279).

, 283).


All references cited in the text must be listed in the references lists and vice versa. Authorsare responsible for checking spelling and publication details. The Law & Policy editorial staffdo not systematically check references for accuracy.

Bibliographical information is required for the Reference list and should not be included in theendnotes.

List references in alphabetical order by authors’ last names. If references are by the sameauthor, list them in ascending date order (e.g., 1990, 1996, 2000). Unless the author usedfirst-name initials in the source publication, supply the full name. In cases of multipleauthorship, the name of the first author is inverted. List all authors of a work, regardless of thenumber; do not use “et al.” Use the full name of each as it appears on the title page or on thefirst page of the article. When a work has two or more authors, use “and” (not &) before thefinal name with a preceding comma. This is true for two or more editors, as well.

References to multiple publications (by a single author or group of authors) appearing in thesame year should be distinguished by adding letters (a, b, c, etc.) to the year. Suchpublications are then listed in alphabetical order by title.

Case names, acts, international treaties, and other legal materials should be listed with fullnames in the CASES CITED and LAWS CITED sections. The appropriate abbreviations forcase reporters and statutory collections can be found in The University of Chicago Manual ofLegal Citation. Examples are below.

When an author’s name uses initials, there should be a space between them: M. J. Koster,not M.J. Koster.

Use USPS abbreviations for U.S. states.

Book and periodical titles: Use title case even where original is lower case (save forprepositions, conjunctions, or articles such as “the”). Exception: staff will not alter foreignlanguage titles where it may not be possible to tell which words should start with a cap.

Examples of References

All items are hanging indent and formatted in accordance with Chicago.

1. Books

Use the following form: Last Name, First Name. Year. Full Title of Book Including any Subtitle,5th ed. City of Publication: Publisher.

Hans, Valerie P. 2000. Business on Trial: The Civil Jury and CorporateResponsibility. New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press.

Kwoka, John E., Jr., and Lawrence J. White (eds.). 1989. The Antitrust Revolution.Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman.

American Psychological Association (APA). 1992. Ethical Principles of Psychologistsand Code of Conduct. Washington DC: APA.

Kairys, David (ed.). 1990. The Politics of Law: A Progressive Critique, rev. ed. NewYork: Pantheon Books.

Note: Full names (first name and last name) are preferred for authors and editors.

Note: Major cities such as New York, London, and Chicago do not require state or countryidentifiers. Use just Cambridge when referring to the city in England. Use Cambridge, MA,when referring to publishers in Massachusetts (e.g., Harvard Univ. Press, MIT Press).

Note: University is abbreviated Univ. in References.

2. Chapters in edited volumes

US states.


Use the following form: Last Name, First Name. Year. “Full Chapter Title.” In Full Title ofBook, edited by name of editor using first name and last name [page range optional]. City ofPublication: Publisher.

Kagan, Robert A., and William P. Nelson. 2001. “The Politics of Tobacco Regulationin the United States.” In Regulating Tobacco, edited by Robert L. Rabin andStephen D. Sugarman. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.

Gricar, Barbara G. 1983. “A Preliminary Theory of Compliance With OSHARegulations.” In Research in Corporate Social Performance and Policy, vol.5, edited by Lee E. Preston. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.

Kunreuther, Howard. 2006. “Has the Time Come for Comprehensive Natural DisasterInsurance?” In On Risk and Disaster. Lessons From Hurricane Katrina,edited by Ronald J. Daniels, Donald F. Kettl and Howard Kunreuther, 175-201. Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press.

3. Periodicals

Use the following form: Last Name, First Name. Year. “Article Title,” Full Journal Title volumenumber (issue number or month only if each issue separately paginated): first and last pagenumbers.

Harding, Sarah. 2003. “Cultural Property and the Limitations of Preservation,” Law &Policy 25: 17-36.

Greenhouse, Linda. 1993. “Justice Plan to Delve Anew Into Race and Voting Rights,”New York Times 11 July: A-1.

Galbraith, John Kenneth. 1987. “The 1929 Parallel,” Atlantic Monthly 259 (January):62-66.

UCLA Law Review. 1973. “Judicial Intervention in Corrections: The CaliforniaExperience--An Empirical Study,” UCLA Law Review 20: 452-580.

Bureau of National Affairs (BNA). 1992. “United States Said Reviewing Options forStabilization, Reduction of Emissions,” International Environmental Reporter:Current Reports 16 (24 March): 199.

Angus, Albert. 1997. “Saskatchewan Justice on Trial: The Pamela George Case,”Saskatchewan Indian 27 (1): 5. http://www.sicc.sk.ca/saskindian (accessedMay 21, 2008).

Note: If article title ends in a question mark, do not follow it with a comma.

4. Government and international documents

Australian Accounting Research Foundation, Auditing Assurance Standards Board.2001. Assurance Engagements. AUS 108. Melbourne: Australian AccountingResearch Foundation. http://www.aarf.asn.au/publications.htm (accessedJune 25, 2009).

Canada. Office of the Auditor General. 1990. Report of the Auditor General ofCanada to the House of Commons. Hull, Quebec: Supply and ServicesCanada.

Great Britain. Department for Education. 1994. Code of Practice on the Indentificationand Assessment of Special Educational Needs: A Framework for the Future.London: HMSO.

Great Britain. Parliament. House of Commons. 1966. Parliamentary Debate, 5h ser.,vol. 734. London: HMSO.

Hong Kong. Social Welfare Department. 2001. An Overview of Residential CareServices for the Elderly (Chinese). Hong Kong: Social Welfare Dept.

July 11

March 24


New Zealand. Cabinet Policy Committee. 2003. Building Act Review Overview. 26May. Wellington: Office of Minister of Commerce.http://www.med.govt.nz/buslt/bus_pol/building/review/decisions/cabinet/overview/index.html (accessed May 26, 2003).

UN Environment Programme. Ozone Secretariat. 1991. Handbook for the MontrealProtocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer. UNEP/Ozl.Pro.3/7.

U.S. Congress. Senate. Committee on Government Operations. Subcommittee onReports, Accounting, and Management. 1977. The AccountingEstablishment: A Staff Study. 95th Cong, 1st Sess, S Doc 34.

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS). Administration for Childrenand Families. National Adoption Information Clearinghouse. 2002. OpenAdoption. Washington DC: DHHS.http://www.calib.com/naic/pubs/s_open.cfm (accessed January 2, 2003).

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). 1989. Product Liability: Verdicts and CaseResolution in Five States. Washington DC: GAO.

U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. Division of Market Regulation. 1988. TheOctober 1987 Market Break. February. Washington DC: GAO.

World Bank Group. 2002. PovertyNet: Data on Income. Washington, D.C.: WorldBank Group. http://worldbank.org/poverty/data/trends/regional/htm (accessedFebruary 5, 2006).

5. Online materials

When citing to publications found on the Internet, cite to the hard copy if available, followingthe appropriate rule for style, and provide the website URL. If no author is indicated, list thesite owner as author. If no date is indicated, insert “n.d.” See examples in Periodicals andGovernment Publications above. If citing a website, use the site name as the author and title.

New Zealand. Cabinet Policy Committee. 2003. Building Act Review Overview. 26May. Wellington: Office of Minister of Commerce.http://www.med.govt.nz/buslt/bus_pol/building/review/decisions/cabinet/overview/index.html (accessed May 26, 2003).

Citigroup. 2006. Citigroup Financial Education Program: Knowledge Is Your GreatestAsset. http://www.citigroup.com/citigroup/financialeducation/resources.htm(accessed May 10, 2006).

Note: Accessed date format: Month day, year.

Note: Accessed date is required if known.

Note: “Available at” is not necessary.

6. Miscellaneous materials

(a) Unpublished dissertation

Lazarus-Black, Mindie. 1990. “Legitimate Acts and Illegal Encounters: TheDevelopment of Family Ideology and Structure in Antigua and Barbuda, WestIndies.” PhD diss., Univ. of Chicago.

(b) Papers presented

Hoberg, George. 1991. “Bargaining vs. Legalism.” Paper presented at the annualmeeting of the American Political Science Association, August 29-September1, Washington DC.

(c) Working papers

Shovin, John B., Scott B. Smart, and Joel Waldfogel. 1991. Real Interest Rates andthe Savings and Loan Crisis: The Moral Hazard Premium. NBER Working

US Congress. Senate. Committee on Government Operations. Subcommittee on

US Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS). Administration for Children

US General Accounting Office (GAO). 1989. Product Liability: Verdicts and Case

US Securities and Exchange Commission. Division of Market Regulation. 1988. The


Paper Series, No 3754. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of EconomicResearch.

(d) Unpublished manuscripts

Makkai, Toni, and Valerie Braithwaite (n.d.) “The Dialectics of Corporate Deterrence.”Unpublished paper.

(e) Forthcoming works: replace the date with “forthcoming”

(f) Personal correspondence or interviews. Include in endnotes:

For correspondence, include the date and name(s) of the correspondents.

For interviews, include the name of the interviewee, the date, name of the interviewer,and location.

(g) Newspapers: see 3. PERIODICALS above

(h) Radio report:

ABC Radio National. 2004a. "Shepparton's Koori Court," The Law Report, 3February. http://www.abc.net.au/rn/talks/8.30/lawrpt/stories/s1035995.htm(accessed January 3, 2007).

(i) Papers in a series

Briault, Clive. 1999. “The Rationale for a Single Financial Services Regulator,”Occasional Paper Series, No 2. London: FSA.

(j) Translations

Sausgruber, Rupert, and Hannes Winner. 2004. “Steueramnestie abgesagt: Eine klugeEntscheidung? Empirische Evidenz aus OECD-Ländern” [Tax Amnesty Cancelled: AWise Decision? Empirical Evidence from the OECD Countries], ÖsterreichischeSteuerzeitung 10: 207–11.

7. Legal materials

Provide the reader with the information needed to locate a document and particularized itemswithin the document the author discusses, in a consistent manner. Below are a few generalguidelines and generic formulae for various kinds of references.

(a) Cases

Provide enough information so that the reader can local the original text of an opinion, fullparallel citations are ideal but listing of one official reporter is sufficient. Cases are notitalicized in the CASES CITED list.

Note the absence of periods.

DeShaney v Winnebago County Department of Social Services, 489 US 189 (1989).

Labatt Breweries v A.G. Canada, [1980] 1 SCR 914, 110 DLR (3d) 594, (1979) 52CCC (2d) 433.

Planned Parenthood of Southeastern Pennsylvania v Casey, 112 S Ct 2791, 120 LEd 2d 674 (1992).

People v McCarty, 93 Ill App 3d 898, 418 NE2d 26, rev’d, 86 Ill 2d 247, 427 NE2d147 (1981).

Toussaint v Blue Cross & Blue Shield, 408 Mich 579, 292 NW2d 880 (Mich 1980).

(b) Laws, Statutes, and Treaties

Advance Directives for Health Care Act, NJ Stat Ann §§ 26:2H-53-2H-78 (West 1987and Supp 1992).

Anti-Drug Abuse Act, Pub L No 100-690, 102 Stat 4181 (1988).

Canadian Environmental Protection Act of 1985, (4th Supp) RSC, c C-16.


Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, 21 USC §§ 301-393 (1988).

International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) (1966), GA Res 22-Annex, UN GAOR, 21st Sess (Supp No 16 at 52), UN Doc A/6316; 999UNTS 171; 6 ILM 368 (1966).

Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, 16 September 1987,26 ILM 1541 (1987).

Universal Declaration of Human Rights, GA Res 217A, UN GAOR, 3d Sess (Part I,Resolutions), UN Doc A/810 (1948).

Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, 22 March 1985, TIAS No11097.

(c) Administrative Rules

Executive Order No 12291, 3 CFR 127 (1982).

47 Fed Reg 39147 (1982).

51 Fed Reg 17476 (1986) (codified at 21 CFR § 1308.12).

CONTENT-SPECIFIC STYLE POINTS, EDITOR PREFERENCES

♦ Numbers on lists should be followed by a period.

♦ Numbered and bulleted lists should be formatted with a hanging indent.

♦ Embedded enumerated numbers are enclosed in parentheses (e.g., (1), (2)). If theenumeration follows a colon, separate the enumerated pieces with a semicolon. If theenumeration runs into text, separate the enumerated pieces with commas.

♦ Numbers one through ninety-nine and common fractions should be written in full(e.g., one, thirty-three, two-thirds). Others use numerals. Numerals always precedethe word “percent” in text.

♦ Use § (with a space following the section symbol) in parentheses and notes, but spellout “section” in text.

♦ Italics: Apart from normal use for emphasis, italics are used for case names in text(not references) and titles of publications. Common Latin phrases (e.g., de facto,bona fide) are not italicized. More obscure Latin phrases (e.g., doli incapax) areitalicized, as are foreign language terms.

♦ The word “Court” (note capital letter) standing alone is only used when referencingthe U.S. Supreme Court. In foreign courts, only the highest court is capitalized whennot referred to by its full title.

♦ Unless the official title of an act, bill, article, committee, conference, etc., is used, thewords should be lower case (e.g., the Federal Unemployment Tax Act, but the act).

♦ Unless the full name of an official is used, the reference to an individual’s title is lowercase (e.g., President Clinton, but the president of the United States; the secretary ofstate, but Secretary of State Clinton).

♦ The abbreviations i.e. and e.g. are only used parenthetically. In the text use “that is”or “for example.” The abbreviated and spelled-out versions are followed by a comma.

♦ Use endnotes, not footnotes. Endnotes are in a separate section labeled with acentered heading “NOTES” following the text and before the References. Endnotesshould not be used to provide citations, but should be reserved for explaining oramplifying matters discussed in the main body of the text. They should also be usedfor references to material not generally accessible such as field interviews andcorrespondence with the author. Authors are discouraged from using figures orlengthy tabulations in notes.

US Supreme Court. In foreign courts, only the highest court is capitalized when


♦ Biographical details: A brief paragraph of biographical details (approx 50 words)should follow the endnotes for each author. The author name should be in smallcapital letters, roman, and be followed by the rest of the paragraph in italics. Degreesshould not be listed after the name as in ”FRED BLOGGS, PhD, JD, BA, is anAssociate Professor in.” Such information should be included in the text of theparagraph. Degrees do not take periods.

COMMON ABBREVIATIONS THAT DO NOT NEED TO BE SPELLED OUT

U.S.

EU

UK

UN

USSR

Note: All of the above are abbreviated as adjectives, but they are spelled out as nouns.

TABLES AND FIGURES

Every figure should have a caption below it. For example:

Figure 1. Example of a Figure Caption.

Tables:

Every table should have a title above it. For example:

Table 1. This Is an Example of a Table Title

Column heading 1 2 3 4

First row 10.5 9.4 1.1 0.4

Second row 12.1 5.6 3.3 2.1

WORD LIST, SPELLING PREFERENCES, COMMON ACRONYMS, ETC.

a

agro-industry

b

biofuel

C

cooperate

coordinate

US

In running text, spell out United States as a noun; reserve US for the adjective form only (in which position the abbreviation is generally preferred). For example, US dollars, US involvement in China, China’s involvement in the United States.


♦ Biographical details: A brief paragraph of biographical details (approx 50 words)should follow the endnotes for each author. The author name should be in smallcapital letters, roman, and be followed by the rest of the paragraph in italics. Degreesshould not be listed after the name as in ”FRED BLOGGS, PhD, JD, BA, is anAssociate Professor in.” Such information should be included in the text of theparagraph. Degrees do not take periods.

COMMON ABBREVIATIONS THAT DO NOT NEED TO BE SPELLED OUT

U.S.

EU

UK

UN

USSR

Note: All of the above are abbreviated as adjectives, but they are spelled out as nouns.

TABLES AND FIGURES

Every figure should have a caption below it. For example:

Figure 1. Example of a Figure Caption.

Tables:

Every table should have a title above it. For example:

Table 1. This Is an Example of a Table Title

Column heading 1 2 3 4

First row 10.5 9.4 1.1 0.4

Second row 12.1 5.6 3.3 2.1

WORD LIST, SPELLING PREFERENCES, COMMON ACRONYMS, ETC.

a

agro-industry

b

biofuel

C

cooperate

coordinate

The following Hyphenation Table is adapted from the 16th edition of the Chicago Manual of Style.

Compounds and Hyphenation 7.85

375

according to parts of speech. The third section lists examples for words commonly used as elements in compounds. The fourth section lists com-mon prefi xes, most of which join to another word to form one unhyphen-ated word; note especially the hyphenated exceptions, not all of which agree with Webster’s . (Compounds formed with suffi xes—e.g., nation-hood , penniless —are almost always closed.)

Category/specifi c term Examples Summary of rule

1. compounds according to category

age terms a three- year- olda fi ve- year- old childa fi fty- fi ve- year- old womana group of eight- to ten- year- oldsbutseven years oldeighteen years of age

Hyphenated in both noun and adjective forms (except as in the last two examples); note the space after the fi rst hyphen in the fourth example (see 7.84 ). The examples apply equally to ages expressed as numerals.

chemical terms sodium chloridesodium chloride solution

Open in both noun and adjective forms.

colors emerald- green tiereddish- brown fl agstoneblue- green algaesnow- white dressblack- and- white print but his tie is emerald greenthe stone is reddish brownthe water is blue greenthe clouds are snow whitethe truth isn’t black and white

Hyphenated before but not after a noun. This departure from Chicago’s former usage serves both simplicity and logic.

compass points and directions

northeastsouthwesteast- northeasta north–south streetthe street runs north–south

Closed in noun, adjective, and adverb forms unless three direc-tions are combined, in which case a hyphen is used after the fi rst. When from . . . to is implied, an en dash is used (see 6.78 ).

ethnic terms. See proper nouns and adjectives relating to geography or nation-ality in section 2.

foreign phrases an a priori argumenta Sturm und Drang dramain vitro fertilizationa tête- à- tête approach

Open unless hyphens appear in the original language.

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proofs for review only


7.85 spelling, distinctive treatment of words, and compounds

376


1. compounds according to category (continued)

fractions, compounds formed with

a half houra half- hour sessiona quarter milea quarter- mile runan eighth note

Noun form open; adjective form hyphenated. See also numbers in this section and half in sec-tion 3.

fractions, simple one- halftwo- thirdsthree- quartersone twenty- fi fthone and three- quartersa two- thirds majoritythree- quarters donea one twenty- fi fth share

Hyphenated in noun, adjec-tive, and adverb forms, except when second element is already hyphenated. See also number + noun and 9.14 .

number + abbreviation

the 33 m distancea 2 kg weighta 3 ft. high wall

Always open. See also number + noun.

number + noun a hundred- meter racea 250- page booka fi fty- year projecta three- inch- high statuetteit’s three inches higha one- and- a- half- inch hemone and a half inchesa fi ve- foot- ten quarterbackfi ve feet ten [inches tall]fi ve- to ten- minute intervals

Hyphenated before a noun, otherwise open. Note the space after the fi rst number in the last example. See also number + abbreviation. See also 9.13 .

number + percentage 50 percenta 10 percent raise

Both noun and adjective forms always open.

number, ordinal, + noun

on the third fl oorthird- fl oor apartment103rd- fl oor viewfi fth- place contestanttwenty- fi rst- row seats

Adjective form hyphenated be-fore a noun, otherwise open. See also century in section 3.

number, ordinal, + super lative

a second- best decisionthird- largest townfourth- to- last contestanthe arrived fourth to last

Hyphenated before a noun, otherwise open.

numbers, spelled out twenty- eightthree hundrednineteen forty- fi vefi ve hundred fi fty

Twenty- one through ninety- nine hyphenated; others open. See also fractions, simple.

relationships. See foster, grand, in- law, and step in section 3.

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377


1. compounds according to category (continued)

time at three thirtythe three- thirty traina four o’clock trainthe 5:00 p.m. news

Usually open; forms such as “three thirty,” “four twenty,” etc., are hyphenated before the noun.

2. compounds according to parts of speech

adjective + noun small- state senatorsa high- quality alkylatea middle- class neighborhoodthe neighborhood is middle class

Hyphenated before but not after a noun.

adjective + participle tight- lipped personhigh- jumping grasshoppersopen- ended questionthe question was open ended

Hyphenated before but not after a noun.

adverb ending in ly + participle or adjective

a highly paid ragpickera fully open societyhe was mildly amusing

Open whether before or after a noun.

adverb not ending in ly + participle or adjective

a much- needed additionit was much neededa very well- read childlittle- understood rulesa too- easy answerthe best- known authorthe highest- ranking offi certhe worst- paid joba lesser- paid colleaguethe most effi cient methoda less prolifi c artista more thorough examthe most skilled workers (most in

number)butthe most- skilled workers (most

in skill)a very much needed addition

Hyphenated before but not after a noun; compounds with more, most, less, least, and very usually open unless ambiguity threat-ens. When the adverb rather than the compound as a whole is modifi ed by another adverb, the entire expression is open.

combining forms electrocardiogramsocioeconomicpolitico- scientifi c studiesthe practico- inert

Usually closed if permanent, hyphenated if temporary. See 7.78 .

gerund + noun running shoescooking classrunning- shoe store

Noun form open; adjective form hyphenated. See also noun + gerund.

noun + adjective computer- literate accountantsHIV- positive menthe stadium is fan friendlyshe is HIV positive

Hyphenated before a noun; usu-ally open after a noun.

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378


2. compounds according to parts of speech (continued)

noun + gerund decision makinga decision- making bodymountain climbingtime- clock- punching employeesa Nobel Prize–winning chemist

(see 6.80 )bookkeepingcaregivingcopyediting

Noun form usually open; adjec-tive form hyphenated before a noun. Some permanent com-pounds closed (see 7.78 ).

noun + noun, single function (fi rst noun modifi es second noun)

student nurserestaurant ownerdirectory pathtenure tracktenure- track positionhome- rule governanceshipbuildergunrunnercopyeditor

Noun form open; adjective form hyphenated before a noun. Some permanent compounds closed (see 7.78 ).

noun + noun, two functions (both nouns equal)

nurse- practitionerphilosopher- kingcity- statecity- state governance

Both noun and adjective forms always hyphenated.

noun + numeral or enumerator

type Aa type A executivetype 2 diabetessize 12 slacksa page 1 headline


noun + participle a Wagner- burdened repertoirefl ower- fi lled gardena clothes- buying grandmothera day of clothes buying

Hyphenated before a noun, otherwise open.

participle + noun chopped- liver pâtécutting- edge methodstheir approach was cutting edge

Adjective form hyphenated before but not after a noun.

participle + up, out, and similar adverbs

dressed- up childrenburned- out buildingsironed- on decalwe were dressed upthat decal is ironed on

Adjective form hyphenated before but not after a noun. Verb form always open.

phrases, adjectival an over- the- counter druga matter- of- fact replyan up- to- date solutionsold over the counterher tone was matter of facthis equipment was up to date

Hyphenated before a noun; usu-ally open after a noun.

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379


2. compounds according to parts of speech (continued)

phrases, noun stick- in- the- mudjack- of- all- tradesa fl ash in the pan

Hyphenated or open as listed in Webster’s. If not in the diction-ary, open.

proper nouns and adjectives relating to geography or nation-ality

African AmericansAfrican American presidenta Chinese AmericanFrench CanadiansSouth Asian Americansthe Scotch Irishthe North Central regionMiddle Eastern countriesbutSino- Tibetan languagesthe Franco- Prussian Warthe US- Canada borderAnglo- American cooperationAnglo- Americans

Open in both noun and adjective forms, unless the fi rst term is a prefi x or unless between is implied. See also 8.38 .

3. compounds formed with specific terms

ache toothachestomachache

Always closed.

all all outall alongall overan all- out eff ortan all- American playerthe book is all- encompassingbutwe were all in [tired]

Adverbial phrases open; adjecti-val phrases usually hyphenated both before and after a noun.

book reference bookcoupon bookcheckbookcookbook

Closed or open as listed in Webster’s. If not in the diction-ary, open.

borne waterbornefood- bornee- mail- bornemosquito- borne

Closed if listed as such in Webster’s. If not in Webster’s, hyphenated; compounds retain the hyphen both before and after a noun.

century the twenty- fi rst centuryfourteenth- century monasterytwenty- fi rst- century historya mid- eighteenth- century poetlate nineteenth- century politiciansher style was nineteenth century

Noun forms always open; ad-jectival compounds hyphenated before but not after a noun. See also old (below), mid (in section 4), and 7.83 .

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380


3. compounds formed with specific terms (continued)

cross a cross sectiona cross- referencecross- referencedcross- grainedcross- countrycrossbowcrossover

Many compounds formed with cross are in Webster’s (as those listed here). If not in Webster’s, noun, adjective, adverb, and verb forms should be open.

e e- maile- bookeBay

Hyphenated except with proper nouns. See also 8.163 .

elect president- electvice president electmayor- electcounty assessor elect

Hyphenated unless the name of the offi ce consists of an open compound.

ever ever- ready helpever- recurring problemeverlastinghe was ever eager

Usually hyphenated before but not after a noun; some perma-nent compounds closed.

ex ex- partnerex- marineex–corporate executive

Hyphenated, but use en dash if ex- precedes an open compound.

foster foster motherfoster parentsa foster- family background

Noun forms open; adjective forms hyphenated.

free toll- free numberaccident- free driverthe number is toll- freethe driver is accident- free

Compounds formed with free as second element are hyphenated both before and after a noun.

full full- length mirrorthe mirror is full lengththree bags fulla suitcase full

Hyphenated before a noun, otherwise open. Use ful only in such permanent compounds as cupful, handful.

general attorney generalpostmaster generallieutenants general

Always open; in plural forms, general remains singular.

grand, great- grand grandfathergranddaughtergreat- grandmothergreat- great- grandson

Grand compounds closed; great compounds hyphenated.

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381



half half- asleephalf- fi nisheda half sistera half houra half- hour sessionhalfwayhalfh earted

Adjective forms hyphenated before and after the noun; noun forms open. Some permanent compounds closed, whether nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. Check Webster’s. See also frac-tions in section 1.

house schoolhousecourthousesafe houserest house

Closed or open as listed in Webster’s. If not in the diction-ary, open.

in- law sister- in- lawparents- in- law

All compounds hyphenated; only the fi rst element takes a plural form.

like catlikechildlikeChristlikebell- likea penitentiary- like institution


mid. See section 4.

near in the near terma near accidenta near- term proposala near- dead language

Noun forms open; adjective forms hyphenated.

odd a hundred- odd manuscripts350- odd books

Always hyphenated.

old a three- year- olda 105- year- old womana decade- old uniona centuries- old debatea child who is three years oldthe debate is centuries old

Noun forms hyphenated. Adjec-tive forms hyphenated before a noun, open after. See also age terms in section 1.

on onlineonstageongoingon- screenon- site

Sometimes closed, sometimes hyphenated. Check Webster’s and hyphenate if term is not listed. See also 7.79 .

percent 5 percenta 10 percent increase


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382



pseudo. See section 4.

quasi a quasi corporationa quasi- public corporationquasi- judicialquasiperiodicquasicrystal

Noun form usually open; adjec-tive form usually hyphenated. A handful of permanent com-pounds are listed in Webster’s.

self self- restraintself- realizationself- sustainingself- consciousthe behavior is self- destructiveselfl essunselfconscious

Both noun and adjective forms hyphenated, except where self is followed by a suffi x or preceded by un. Note that unselfconscious, Chicago’s preference, is contrary to Webster’s.

step stepbrotherstepparentstep- granddaughterstep- great- granddaughter

Always closed except with grand and great.

style dined family- style1920s- style dancingdanced 1920s- styleChicago- style hyphenationaccording to Chicago styleheadline- style capitalizationuse headline style

Adjective and adverb forms hyphenated; noun form usually open.

vice vice- consulvice- chancellorvice presidentvice presidential dutiesvice admiralviceroy

Sometimes hyphenated, some-times open, occasionally closed. Check Webster’s and hyphenate if term is not listed.

web a websitea web pageweb- related matters

Noun form open or closed, as shown; if term is not in any dic-tionary, opt for open. Adjective form hyphenated. See also 7.76 .

wide worldwidecitywideChicago- widethe canvass was university- wide


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383

4. words formed with prefixes

Compounds formed with prefi xes are normally closed, whether they are nouns, verbs, adjec-tives, or adverbs. A hyphen should appear, however, (1) before a capitalized word or a nu-meral, such a sub- Saharan, pre- 1950; (2) before a compound term, such as non- self- sustaining, pre–Vietnam War (before an open compound, an en dash is used; see 6.80 ); (3) to separate two i’s, two a’s, and other combinations of letters or syllables that might cause misreading, such as anti- intellectual, extra- alkaline, pro- life; (4) to separate the repeated terms in a double prefi x, such as sub- subentry; (5) when a prefi x or combining form stands alone, such as over- and underused, macro- and microeconomics. The spellings shown below conform largely to Merriam- Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary. Compounds formed with combining forms not listed here, such as auto, tri, and para, follow the same pattern.

ante antebellum, antenatal, antediluvian

anti antihypertensive, antihero, but anti- infl ammatory, anti- Hitlerian

bi binomial, bivalent, bisexual

bio bioecology, biophysical, biosociology

co coequal, coauthor, coeditor, coordinate, cooperation, coworker, but co- op, co- opt

counter counterclockwise, counterrevolution

cyber cyberspace, cyberstore

extra extramural, extrafi ne, but extra- administrative

fold fourfold, hundredfold, but twenty- fi ve- fold, 150- fold

hyper hypertension, hyperactive, hypertext

infra infrasonic, infrastructure

inter interorganizational, interfaith

intra intrazonal, intramural, but intra- arterial

macro macroeconomics, macromolecular

mega megavitamin, megamall, but mega- annoyance

meta metalanguage, metaethical, but meta- analysis (not the same as metanalysis)

micro microeconomics, micromethodical

mid midthirties, a midcareer event, midcentury, but mid- July, the mid- 1990s, the mid- twentieth century, mid- twentieth- century history

mini minivan, minimarket

multi multiauthor, multiconductor, but multi- institutional

neo neonate, neoorthodox, Neoplatonism, neo- Nazi (neo lowercase or capital and hyphenated as in dictionary; lowercase and hyphenate if not in dictionary)

non nonviolent, nonevent, nonnegotiable, but non- beer- drinking

over overmagnifi ed, overshoes, overconscientious

post postdoctoral, postmodernism, posttraumatic, but post- Vietnam, post–World War II (see 6.80 )

pre premodern, preregistration, prewar, preempt, but pre- Columbian, Pre- Raphaelite (pre lowercase or capital as in dictionary; lowercase if term is not in dictionary)

pro proindustrial, promarket, but pro- life, pro- Canadian

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384

4. words formed with prefixes (continued)

proto protolanguage, protogalaxy, protomartyr

pseudo pseudotechnocrat, pseudomodern, but pseudo- Tudor

re reedit, reunify, reproposition, but recover, recreation (as distinct from recover, recreation)

semi semiopaque, semiconductor, but semi- invalid

sub subbasement, subzero, subcutaneous

super superannuated, supervirtuoso, superpowerful

supra supranational, suprarenal, supraorbital, but supra- American

trans transsocietal, transmembrane, transcontinental, transatlantic, but trans- American

ultra ultrasophisticated, ultraorganized, ultraevangelical

un unfunded, unneutered, but un- English, un- unionized

under underemployed, underrate, undercount

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