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Learning Disabilities and Related MildDisabilities: Teaching Strategiesand New Directions, Twelfth EditionJanet W. Lerner and Beverley H. Johns

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PART IOverview

CHAPTER 1Learning Disabilities and RelatedMild Disabilities: Characteristics

and Current Directions

“A teacher effectseternity; one can never tellwhere a teacher’sinfluence stops.”—HENRY ADAMS

Corbis/PhotoLibrary


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CH A P TE R O U TL I NEIntroductionWhat Are Mild Disabilities?

Mental Retardation/Intellectual and DevelopmentalDisabilities

Emotional/Behavioral DisordersLearning DisabilitiesOther Disabilities

The Category of Learning Disabilities:A Field in Transition

Prevalence of Learning DisabilitiesDefinitions of Learning DisabilitiesCommon Elements in the Definitions of Learning

DisabilitiesGifted and Talented Children With Learning

DisabilitiesCharacteristics of Learning DisabilitiesCharacteristics at Different Stages of LifeSome Eminent People With Learning DisabilitiesThe Cross-Cultural Nature of Learning Disabilities

STUDENT STORIES 1.1: Childhood MemoriesHistory of the Field of Learning Disabilities

Impact of the Law on Special EducationThe Categories of Special Education in the LawThe Series of Special Education Laws

The Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA)Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and the

Americans With Disabilities Act Amendments(ADAA) (2008)

Role of Case Law

New Issues and DirectionsMore Inclusion Placements

INCLUDING STUDENTS IN GENERALEDUCATION 1.1: Some Overall StrategiesResponse-to-Intervention (RTI)Statewide StandardsAssistive and Instructional Technology

STUDENT STORIES 1.2: Computers as an Areaof StrengthUniversal Design for Learning

STUDENT STORIES 1.3: Using a Computer

I HAVE A KID WHO. . .

Chapter SummaryTeachSource Video Case ActivityQuestions for Discussion and ReflectionKey Terms

Part 1 of this book consists of Chapter 1, “Learning Disabilities andRelated Mild Disabilities: Characteristics and Current Directions.”In this chapter, we consider (1) the designation of mild disabilities,

(2) the category of learning disabilities and the history of learning disabilities,(3) the impact of the law on special education, and (4) major current issuesin the field of special education.

INTRODUCTIONThis book focuses both on students with learning disabilities (a categoryin special education) and on students with mild disabilities (a designa-tion that includes students from several different categories of special

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education). Learning disabilities and related mild disabilities are conditionsthat impede learning for many children, adolescents, and adults, affectingtheir schooling and their adult lives. Some states have categorical certifica-tion and programs for specific categories of special education, such as forlearning disabilities, or emotional/behavioral disorders. Some states havenoncategorical (or cross-categorical) certification and programs for studentswith mild disabilities (or mild/moderate disabilities).

WHAT ARE MILD DISABILITIES?In classes for mild disabilities, students with several different categories ofdisabilities are grouped together. For example, in a program for mild dis-abilities, students with learning disabilities, with mental retardation, withemotional/behavior disorders, and with other disabilities are taught to-gether. The rationale for grouping students as having mild disabilities isthat many of the instructional methods are similar for these various catego-ries. Moreover, many students with mild disabilities often receive instruc-tion in general education classes, with support and collaboration of specialeducation teachers. Students who are identified under Section 504 of theRehabilitation Act also receive instruction in the general education class(Boyle & Scanlon, 2010; Hallahan, 2007; Raymond, 2004).

Figure 1.1 illustrates the composition of mild disabilities, or the catego-ries of students in the group designated as mild disabilities.

To complicate the concept of “mild disabilities” even more, keep in mindthat there are levels of disability within each category of exceptionality. Forexample, for a child who is identified with learning disabilities, the child’slevel of disability can be mild, moderate, or severe. The same can be saidabout students within the categories of mental retardation and of emo-tional/behavior disorders. Even students with low-incidence disabilities,such as autism, are often identified as mild, moderate, or severe.

Although the degree of disability may be described as mild, moderate, orsevere, it is important to recognize, that “mild” does not mean “notserious.” Being “just a little different” can indeed be very serious. A milddisability is very serious for the student, having a significant effect on

FIGURE 1.1

Composition of MildDisabilities

MentalRetardation/

Intellectual andDevelopmental

Disabilities

Emotional/BehavioralDisorders

OtherDisabilities

LearningDisabilities

Composition ofMild Disabilities

What Are Mild Disabilities? 3


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learning and self-esteem when the student cannot do what everyone elsefinds easy (Boyle and Scanlon, 2010; Raymond, 2004).

The concepts and strategies presented in this text are broad in scope andare applicable for students with mild disabilities. Table 1.1 describes someof the characteristics of students with mild disabilities.

In the following section, we briefly review the major categories of spe-cial education that are usually included in “mild disabilities.” Specifically,we review the categories of Mental Retardation, Social/Emotional Distur-bance, Learning Disabilities, and Other Disabilities.

Mental Retardation/Intellectualand Developmental DisabilitiesThe term mental retardation is the category used in the special educationlaw (IDEA–2004). However, many special educators and parents have longfelt that the term, mental retardation, is stigmatizing and demeaning. In re-sponse to this concern, in February 2007, the American Association forMental Retardation (AAMR), the foremost organization supporting theneeds of people with mental retardation, changed the name of the organi-zation to the American Association on Intellectual and DevelopmentalDisabilities (AAIDD) (http://www.aaidd.org). Many agencies and organi-zations now refer to intellectual and developmental disabilities rather thanto mental retardation.

The term mental retardation is still used in the Individuals with Disabil-ities Education Improvement Act of 2004 (IDEA–2004), and it reflects twoessential components: (1) limitations in intelligence and (2) limitations in

TABLE 1.1

Common Learningand BehavioralCharacteristics ofStudents With MildDisabilities

Characteristic Description

Disorders of attention Does not focus when a lesson is presented; short attention span,easily distracted, poor concentration; may display hyperactivity

Poor motor abilities Difficulty with gross motor abilities and fine motor coordination(exhibits general awkwardness and clumsiness)

Psychological processingdifferences

Problems in processing auditory or visual information (difficulty ininterpreting visual or auditory stimuli)

Poor cognitive strategiesfor learning

Does not know how to go about the task of learning andstudying; lacks organizational skills; passive learning style (do notdirect their own learning)

Oral language difficulties Underlying language disorders (problems in languagedevelopment, listening, speaking, and vocabulary)

Reading difficulties Problems in learning to decode words, basic word-recognitionskills, or reading comprehension

Writing difficulties Performs poorly in tasks requiring written expression, spelling,and handwriting

Mathematics difficulties Difficulty with quantitative thinking, arithmetic, time, space, andcalculation facts

Poor social skills Does not know how to act and talk in social situations; difficultywith establishing satisfying social relationships and friendships

4 CHAPTER 1 Learning Disabilities and Related Mild Disabilities


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adaptive behavior. Mental retardation, according to IDEA–2004, refers tosignificantly subaverage general intellectual functioning existing concur-rently with deficits in adaptive behavior and manifested during the devel-opmental period.

Before 1983, the emphasis in defining mental retardation was basedsolely on intellectual functioning or IQ scores. The addition of adaptiveskills to the definition was proposed in 1983 by Grossman (1983) and theAmerican Association of Mental Retardation (AAMR) (2002).

In 2002, the American Association of Mental Retardation’s definition ofmental retardation was revised, to the following:

Mental retardation is characterized by significant limitations both in intellec-tual functioning and in adaptive behavior as expressed in conceptual, social,and practical adaptive skills. The disability originates before age 18.

The revised definition recognizes that mental retardation is a set of con-ditions that blends together intelligence and adaptive behavior. Adaptivebehavior refers to practical skills, such as self-care skills, independentskills, or social skills. The levels of mental retardation are structured by thelevel of supports that the student needs. Thus, mental retardation is a par-ticular state of functioning that begins in childhood and is characterized bylimitations in both intelligence and adaptive skills (Kirk, Gallagher, Anasta-siow, & Coleman, 2009; Williamson, McLeskey, Hoppery, & Rentz, 2006).

Students with mild mental retardation can learn academic skills, but theirlearning rate is slow, and they will need sufficient supports along the way.

Levels of Mental Retardation/Intellectual and Developmental Disabil-ities When levels of mental retardation were based on IQ scores, theywere defined with the terms mild, moderate, severe, or profound. Childrenwith mild or moderate retardation are likely to be in programs for studentswith mild disabilities or in general education classes. In 2002, the AmericanAssociation of Mental Retardation (2002) recommended identifying fourlevels of retardation based on the level of support that students need,which are described in Table 1.2.

Prevalence of Mental Retardation Most students with mental retardation(87%) have mild mental retardation and are likely to be in programs formild disabilities. About 41% of all students with mental retardation are in

TABLE 1.2

Levels of SupportNeeded by StudentsWith MentalRetardation/Intellectual andDevelopmentalDisabilities

1. Intermittent support Support provided as needed, and not at all times. This level issimilar to mild mental retardation.

2. Limited support Support provided on a regular basis for a short period of time. Thislevel is similar to moderate mental retardation.

3. Extensive support Support provided on an ongoing and regular basis. This level issimilar to severe mental retardation.

4. Pervasive support Support consists of constant high-intensity help acrossenvironments and involves more staff members. This level is similarto profound mental retardation.



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general education classes, and 24% are in resource rooms for part of the day(U.S. Department of Education, 2008). About 8% of all students with disabil-ities are in the category of mental retardation (see Table 1.4 on p. 23).Categories of Children with Disabilities (under “Impact of the Law in Spe-cial Education” in this chapter). Useful websites for mental retardation in-clude http://thearc.org (The Association for Retarded Citizens, ARC) andhttp://www.aaidd.org (American Association on Intellectual and Develop-mental Disabilities, AAIDD). Children with mental retardation/intellectualand developmental disabilities are found in every economic, racial, cultural,and language group.

Emotional/Behavioral DisordersThe term used in the federal law is emotional disturbance (Individuals WithDisabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEA–2004). Emotional Disturbanceis defined in the federal IDEA–2004 regulations, shown in Table 1.3.

Many experts note that there are problems with the federal definition;and instead, they suggest using the term emotional/behavioral disorders(EBD) (Kauffman & Landrum, 2009; Forness & Knitzer, 1992; Stichter, Con-roy, & Kauffman, 2008). Forness & Knitzer (1992) indicate that the termemotional/behavioral disorders has several advantages over the federalterm of emotional disturbance. It (a) reflects terminology that reflects cur-rent professional preference, (b) includes both disorders of emotion andbehavior, (c) focuses on behaviors that occur within the school, and (d) ex-cludes minor or temporary problems.

Many states and school programs use the term emotional/behavioraldisorders (EBD). Emotional/behavioral disorders interfere with learning,and students with this type of disability present a significant challenge toteachers and others. Often students with emotional/behavioral disordersare included in programs for mild disabilities.

Characteristics of Emotional/Behavioral Disorders The characteristicsof emotional disorders and behavioral disorders differ. Emotional disor-ders involve feelings about oneself. For example, the student may feel sochronically sad or depressed or have such a low self-concept that these feel-ings interfere with the individual’s outlook on life and ability to learn.

TABLE 1.3

EmotionalDisturbance asDefined in FederalLaw (IDEA–2004Regulations)

A condition exhibiting one or more of the following characteristics over a long period of timeand to a marked degree that adversely affects educational performance—

A. An inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors;B. An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and

teachers;C. Inappropriate types of behaviors or feelings under normal circumstances;D. A general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression, or:E. A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or school

problems.



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Behavioral disorders involve more overt problems, such as aggressive orantisocial behavior. Often behavioral and emotional challenges are interde-pendent or overlap with each other and are interrelated. A student whofeels poorly about himself or herself may engage in specific behaviors thatlead to being socially isolated. A student who is depressed may engage inwithdrawal behavior, which leads to poor peer relationships. Moreover, emo-tional and behavioral challenges occur in diverse populations, and they arefound in every economic, racial, cultural, and language group.

Students with emotional/behavioral disorders are discussed in detail inChapter 6, “Social, Emotional, and Behavioral Challenges.” Chapter 6 alsodescribes teaching strategies and the needed supports for students withemotional and behavioral challenges.

Prevalence of Emotional Disturbance About 8% of all students with dis-abilities are identified under the category of emotional disturbance (see Ta-ble 1.4 on p. 23). Categories of Children with Disabilities (under “Impact ofthe Law in Special Education” in this chapter). About 29% of these studentsare in general education classes, and about 24% are in resource rooms forpart of the day (U.S. Department of Education, 2008). Many students withemotional/behavioral disorders in general education classes and resourcerooms are considered students with mild disabilities.

Learning DisabilitiesStudents with learning disabilities are typically included in the designationof “mild disabilities.” However, a more detailed discussion of learning disabil-ities is given in the next section. A concise description of learning disabilities isa neurological condition that interferes with a person’s ability to store, pro-cess, or produce information. It can affect the person’s ability to read, write,speak, spell, compute math, reason, and can also affect one’s attention, mem-ory, coordination, social skills, and emotional maturity (Learning DisabilitiesAssociation of America, 2009). There are several other widely used definitionsof learning disabilities, which are presented in the next section, on thecategory of learning disabilities.

About 46% of all students with disabilities are identified under the cate-gory of learning disabilities (see Table 1.4 on p. 23) Categories of Childrenwith Disabilities (under Impact of the Law, later in this chapter). About 29%of these students are in general education classes, and about 24% are inresource rooms for part of the day (U.S. Department of Education, 2008).Students with learning disabilities are often included in groups of mild dis-abilities and receive instruction in general education classes and resourcerooms. Children with learning disabilities are found in every economic,racial, cultural, and language group.

Other DisabilitiesChildren with other disabilities are often included in the designation milddisabilities, depending in large measure on the individual state’s



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certification requirements for special education teachers, as well as specificprograms that are in the schools. For example, in Illinois, the initial certifi-cation for special education teachers certifies teachers to teach seven differ-ent categories of disabilities: learning disabilities, mental retardation, social/behavioral disturbance, orthopedic impairments, traumatic brain injury, au-tism, and other health impairments. Thus, types of other disabilities thatmay be included in mild disabilities depend on individual state certificationregulations and school programs.

Exceptionalities often grouped in mild disabilities include attention defi-cit hyperactivity disorders (ADHD) and Asperger’s syndrome (AS). Both ofthese conditions are discussed in Chapter 7, “Attention Deficit HyperactivityDisorder and Autism Spectrum Disorders.” Children with other disabilitiesare found in every economic, racial, cultural, and language group.

THE CATEGORY OF LEARNING DISABILITIES: A FIELD IN TRANSITIONA learning disability is a neurological condition that interferes with a per-son’s ability to store, process, or produce information, affecting the person’sability to read, write, speak, spell, or compute mathematics. It can also inter-fere with attention, memory, coordination, and social skills. If provided withthe right support and interventions, students with learning disabilities cansucceed in school and have a successful, and often distinguished, career laterin life. Parents and teachers can help the student achieve success by bothfostering the student’s strengths and knowing the student’s weaknesses.

The enigma of the youngster who encounters extraordinary difficulty inlearning, of course, is not new. Throughout the years, children from allwalks of life, in all cultures, nations, and language groups have experi-enced serious difficulties in learning. The condition of learning disabilitieshas been recognized for over 45 years, and its recognition offered a wel-come explanation for misunderstood children who were encountering seri-ous problems in school and in learning.

Prevalence of Learning DisabilitiesIn recent years, there has been a decrease in the number of students identi-fied with learning disabilities in the public schools. The number of studentsidentified with learning disabilities had been increasing, but the year 2000marked a turning point when the number of students identified as havinglearning disabilities began to decrease. The number of students identifiedwith learning disabilities has declined each year since 2000, falling by 9%between 2000 and 2007. In the year 2000, 2,847,388 students were identi-fied in the United States, while in 2007, the number of students identifiedwith learning disabilities fell to 2,563,665. This decrease in learning disabil-ities occurred, even though the numbers of students eligible for special ed-ucation continued to grow—increasing 16% over the past 7 years (seeFigure 1.2). Probably, some students are being identified in other areas



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of disabilities, such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorders (ADHD) ormild autism.

Several possible reasons for this decrease in the prevalence of studentsidentified with learning disabilities are suggested by Cortiella (2009) in theState of Learning Disabilities. They include:

Shifts of students to other disability categories, such as attention deficithyperactivity disorder (ADHD), which is included in the category, OtherHealth Impairments, or Autism.Expansion and attention to early childhood education.Improvements in reading instruction provided in general education.Shifts in identification approaches, including the use of Response-to-Intervention (RTI).

Definitions of Learning DisabilitiesThe Federal Definition The most widely used definition of learning dis-abilities first appeared in 1975 in Public Law 94–142, the Education for AllHandicapped Children Act. It also has been incorporated in the series of re-visions of this law, including the federal Individuals with Disabilities Educa-tion Improvement Act of 2004 (IDEA–2004): The definition of learning

FIGURE 1.2

Number of Studentswith LearningDisabilities

NU

MBE

R O

F ST

UD

ENTS

YEAR OF REPORT

2,400,000

2,500,000

2,600,000

2,700,000

2,800,000

2,900,000

2004

2003

2005

2002

2001

2000

1999

1998

1997

1996

1995

2006

2007

2,300,000

Source: http://www.IDEAdata.org, 2007 Child Count; Cortiella, 2009.

The Category of Learning Disabilities: A Field in Transition 9


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disabilities in the federal law forms the basis of many state definitions, andit is used by many schools. The definition of learning disabilities in the fed-eral law IDEA–2004 is:

The term “specific learning disability” means a disorder in one or more of thebasic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language,spoken or written, which disorder may manifest itself in imperfect ability tolisten, think, speak, read, write, spell, or to do mathematical calculations.Such term includes such conditions as perceptual disabilities, brain injury,minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia. Such termdoes not include a learning problem that is primarily the result of visual,hearing, or motor disabilities; of mental retardation; of emotional disturbance;or of environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage (U.S. Department ofEducation. 2004. The Individuals with Disabilities Education ImprovementAct of 2004 (IDEA-2004).Washington, DC).

To summarize, the federal definition of learning disabilities includes thefollowing major concepts (some of which have become controversial):

1. The individual has a disorder in one or more of the basic psychologicalprocesses. (These processes refer to mental abilities, such as memory, au-ditory perception, visual perception, oral language, and thinking.)

2. The individual has difficulty in learning, specifically, in speaking, listen-ing, writing, reading (word-recognition skills and comprehension), andmathematics (calculation and reasoning).

3. The problem is not primarily due to other causes, such as visual or hear-ing impairments; motor disabilities; mental retardation; emotional distur-bance; or economic, environmental, or cultural disadvantage.

In addition, there is an operational definition in the federal law,which first appeared in a separate set of regulations for children with learn-ing disabilities (U.S. Department of Education, 1977). These regulationsstate that a student has a specific learning disability if: (1) the student doesnot achieve at the proper age and ability levels in one or more specificareas when provided with appropriate learning experiences, and (2) thestudent has a severe discrepancy between achievement and intellectual abil-ity in one or more of these seven areas: (a) oral expression, (b) listeningcomprehension, (c) written expression, (d) basic reading skills, (e) readingcomprehension, (f) mathematics calculation, and (g) mathematicsreasoning.

To determine eligibility for services for a student with learning disabil-ities, the school may consider whether a severe discrepancy exists betweenthe student’s apparent ability for learning and his or her low level ofachievement. As noted later in this chapter and in Chapter 2, “Assessmentand the IEP Process,” the school may also consider the student’s response-to-intervention to determine eligibility.

Other Significant Definitions of Learning Disabilities Two other signifi-cant definitions of learning disabilities are offered by (1) the National JointCommittee on Learning Disabilities and (2) the Interagency Committee on



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Learning Disabilities. Additional definitions of learning disabilities havebeen developed by other organizations and in other countries.

National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities (NJCLD) TheNJCLD is an organization of representatives from 14 professional organiza-tions and disciplines involved with learning disabilities. The NJCLD defini-tion includes the following highlights (National Joint Committee ofLearning Disabilities (NJCLD), 1990; State of Learning Disabilities, 2009:

Heterogeneous (or diverse) group of disordersSignificant difficulties in the acquisition and use of listening, speaking,reading, writing, reasoning, or mathematical skillsDisorders are intrinsic (or inherent) to the individual, presumed to bedue to central nervous system dysfunctionOccurs across the life spanOften problems in self-regulatory behaviors, social perception, and socialinteractionMay occur concomitantly with other disabilities, (e.g., sensory im-pairment, mental retardation, serious emotional disturbance) or with ex-trinsic influences (such as cultural differences, or insufficient orinappropriate instruction). They are not the result of those conditions orinfluences.

The Interagency Committee on Learning Disabilities (ICLD) TheICLD is a government committee that was commissioned by the U.S. Con-gress to develop a definition of learning disabilities. ICLD includes repre-sentatives of 12 agencies within the Department of Health and HumanServices and the Department of Education. The ICLD definition includes so-cial skills deficits as a characteristic of learning disabilities (InteragencyCommittee on Learning Disabilities, 1988).

Common Elements in the Definitionsof Learning DisabilitiesThe various definitions of learning disabilities have several elements incommon: (1) neurological factors, (2) cognitive processing factors, (3) diffi-culty in academic and learning tasks, (4) discrepancy between potential andachievement, and (5) exclusion of other causes. The nature of each of theseelements and the problematic issues that surround them are briefly de-scribed in the following section.

Neurological Factors Although not always stated directly, implied inmany of the definitions is the view that learning disabilities are related toneurological factors. All learning originates within the brain and, conse-quently, a disorder in learning can be caused by a dysfunction in the centralnervous system, which is an organic system comprising the brain and thespinal cord. In many cases, the neurological condition is difficult to detectby medical examination or external medical tests. Central nervous system



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dysfunction is therefore usually determined through observation of behav-ior. Neuroscience and medical research report growing evidence of theneurological basis for learning disabilities through functional Magnetic Res-onance Imaging (fMRI) studies (Shaywitz, 2003; Sousa, 2001). (See Chapter10, “Medical Aspects of Learning Disabilities and Related Mild Disabilities.”)

Cognitive Processing Factors Cognitive processing factors refer to an un-even development of the various components of mental functioning. Mentalability is not a single capacity; rather, it is composed of many underlyingmental abilities. For the individual with learning disabilities, these compo-nent abilities do not develop in an even fashion. That is, whereas some ofthe components are maturing in an anticipated sequence or rate, others arelagging in their development, thereby appearing as symptoms of the learningproblem. Students with learning disabilities manifest strengths and weak-nesses in different mental processes. A key phrase in the federal definitionthat refers to this component of the definition is a disorder in one or moreof these basic psychological processes.

Difficulty in Academic and Learning Tasks Individuals with learning dis-abilities encounter different types of problems in learning. One child’schallenge may be in the acquisition of speech and oral language; another’smay be in reading, arithmetic, handwriting, motor skills, or writing. As notedearlier, the operational portion of the federal definition identifies seven spe-cific academic areas of learning in which learning disabilities can be detected.

Discrepancy Between a Student’s Potential for Learning and AcademicAchievement The most controversial component in the definitions oflearning disabilities is the identification of a gap between what the studentis potentially capable of learning and what the student has in fact learned orachieved. The operational portion of the federal definition states that thechild with learning disabilities has a severe discrepancy between achieve-ment and intellectual ability in one or more of seven areas.

To determine if a discrepancy exists between potential and achievement,one must (1) determine the student’s potential for learning, (2) the student’scurrent achievement level, and (3) the degree of discrepancy between thestudent’s potential for learning and the actual achievement level. This evalua-tion process entails a number of issues, such as the use of IQ tests to deter-mine a student’s potential for learning and the degree of severe discrepancyneeded to ascertain a learning disability. Some states quantify the learningdisability discrepancy using one of several forms of “discrepancy formulas”to determine if a child is eligible for learning disabilities services. (Visit theStudent Website for more information on these eligibility formulas.)

Exclusion of Other Causes This component of the definition reflects thenotion that learning disabilities are not primarily the result of other condi-tions, such as mental retardation; emotional disturbance; visual or hearingimpairments; or cultural, social, or economic environments.



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In practice, however, the exclusion component of the definition of learn-ing disabilities becomes difficult to implement because children often ex-hibit cooccurring (or comorbid) problems. Teachers who work withchildren with other disabilities often observe that many students appear tohave two problems—their primary disability plus their learning disabilities.There is growing acceptance that other conditions often cooccur with learn-ing disabilities (Silver, 2006).

Gifted and Talented Children With Learning DisabilitiesSome children with learning disabilities also may be gifted and talented(Vukovic & Siegel, 2006; Lovett & Lewandowski, 2005; Fletcher, Coulter,Reschly, & Vaughn, 2004). Characteristics of giftedness include spontaneity,inquisitiveness, imagination, boundless enthusiasm, and emotionality; andthese same traits are often observed in children with learning disabilities.Often, children with learning disabilities, like gifted children, seem to re-quire a great deal of activity. They may find the general education class-room environment uninviting, or they may have trouble attending to theclassroom instruction. If their learning needs are not being met, they mayrespond by becoming fidgety, inattentive, and even disruptive. It is espe-cially important that difficulty with school for these children does not leadto the withholding of learning opportunities, which can develop into frus-tration, failure, or depression.

Gifted and talented individuals with learning disabilities can becomehigh-achieving adults. Successful adults with learning disabilities may find

1.2Some children withlearning disabilitiescan also be gifted ortalented.

BobDaem

mrichPhotography,Inc.



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the world of work to be quite different from the world of school. Studiesshow that many highly successful people have learning disabilities. In fact,one study shows that 30% to 40% of 300 individuals who had achieved ahigh level of financial success had learning difficulties in school (West,2003). A major business magazine, Fortune (Morris, 2003), did a coverstory on chief executive officers (CEOs) of major corporations who havelearning disabilities. There appears to be a strong, positive side to learningdisabilities that requires further research (West, 2003).

Characteristics of Learning DisabilitiesMany different characteristics are associated with learning disabilities. How-ever, each individual is unique and will display only some of these charac-teristics. No one individual displays all of the characteristics and traits.Some students have disabilities in mathematics, whereas others excel inmathematics. Attention problems are symptomatic for many students withlearning disabilities, but not for all. Further, certain characteristics aremore likely to be exhibited at certain age levels, for example, young chil-dren are more likely to be hyperactive than adolescents. In addition, defi-cits are manifested in different ways at different age levels. For example,an underlying language disorder may appear as a delayed speech problemin the preschooler, as a reading disorder in the elementary pupil, and as awriting disorder in the secondary student. Moreover, these characteristicsare also found among students with mild disabilities. The implications ofeach of these learning and behavioral characteristics are complex, and theyare discussed in detail throughout this book.

Gender Differences Clinics and schools identify four times more boysthan girls who have learning disabilities. However, gender researchshows that actually, there may be as many girls with learning disabilities asboys, but they are not being identified. Boys and girls with learning disabil-ities have different characteristics. Boys tend to exhibit more physicalaggression and loss of control; however, they also exhibit visual-motorabilities, spelling ability, and written language mechanical aptitude. Girlswith learning disabilities tend to have more cognitive, language, and socialproblems and to have severe academic achievement deficits in readingand math. Girls tend to be more verbal and display less physical aggres-sion. Girls with learning disabilities who are not identified are an under-served group that is at significant risk for long-term academic, social, andemotional difficulties (Corteilla, 2009; Siegel & Smythe, 2006; Shaywitz,2003).

Explanations of why more boys than girls are identified with learningdisabilities include biological causes (males may be more vulnerable tolearning disabilities), cultural factors (more males may be identified be-cause boys tend to exhibit more disruptive behaviors that are troublesometo adults), and expectation pressures (the expectations for success in schoolmay be greater for boys than for girls).



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Characteristics at Different Stages of LifeWhen the initial small group of concerned parents and professionals firstsought to obtain help for their children and to promote the field of learningdisabilities in the 1960s, their efforts focused on the pressing needs of theelementary-level child. Today, we recognize that learning disabilities be-come evident at many stages of life and that the problem appears in a dif-ferent form at each stage.

Figure 1.3 illustrates the number of children identified with specificlearning disabilities at each age, from ages 6 to 21 (U.S. Department of Edu-cation, 2008). The number of students gradually increases from age 6 to 9, amajority of students are in the 9 to 14 age range, and the number decreasessharply from age 16 to 21. This pattern suggests that substantial numbers ofchildren with learning disabilities are identified in the age range of 9 through14. Most children are not identified until age 9, and the decrease during thelate teen years may relate to the large school dropout rate of adolescentswith learning disabilities.

Each age group (preschoolers, elementary children, adolescents, andadults) needs different kinds of skills. Therefore, certain characteristics oflearning disabilities assume greater prominence at certain age levels.

FIGURE 1.3

Age Distribution ofStudents withLearning Disabilities

NU

MBE

R O

F ST

UD

ENTS

(In t

hous

ands

)

AGES

0

100

50

200

150

250

300

350

10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 229876

Source: From To assure the free appropriate public education of all children with disabilities.Twenty-eighth annual report to Congress in the Implementation of the Individuals withDisabilities Education Act, by the U.S. Department of Education, 2008. Washington, DC: Westat.



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The Preschool Level Because growth rates are so unpredictable at youngages, educators are generally reluctant to identify preschoolers under a cate-gorical label such as learning disabilities. Very young children (under age 6)who appear to have learning disabilities are often identified with a noncatego-rical label such as developmental delay. Legislation for preschool childrenwith disabilities includes two different laws. (1) Ages birth to age 3 for infantsand toddlers, and (2) ages 3 to age 6 for preschoolers. Preschool children arefurther discussed in Chapter 8, “Young Children With Disabilities.” Experienceand research show that intervention programs for infants and toddlers (agesbirth to 3) and preschool children (ages 3 to 6) are very effective and that in-tervention efforts have a high payoff (Lerner, Lowenthal, & Egan, 2003).

Among the characteristics displayed by preschool children with develop-mental delays are poor motor development, language delays, speech disor-ders, and slow cognitive and concept development. Common examples ofproblems at the preschool level are the 3-year-old child who cannot catch aball, hop, jump, or play with manipulative toys (poor motor development);the 4-year-old child who does not use language to communicate, has a lim-ited vocabulary, and cannot be understood (language and speech disorders);and the 5-year-old child who cannot count to 10, name colors, or work puz-zles (poor cognitive development). In addition, preschoolers often exhibitbehaviors of hyperactivity and poor attention. The problems and treatmentof the preschool child are so unique that a special chapter of this text is de-voted to the topic (see Chapter 8, “Young Children with Disabilities”). Datafor 3- to 5-year-old children are not counted by category of disability (e.g.,learning disabilities), but 5% of all children receiving special education ser-vices are in the 3 to 5 age group (U.S. Department of Education, 2008).

The Elementary Level For many children, learning disabilities first be-come apparent when they enter school and fail to acquire academic skills.The failure often occurs in reading, but it also happens in mathematics,writing, or other school subjects. Among the behaviors frequently seen inthe early elementary years are inability to attend and concentrate; poor motorskills, as evidenced in the awkward handling of a pencil and in poor writing;and difficulty in learning to read.

In the later elementary years, grades 4 though 8, as the curriculum be-comes more difficult, problems may emerge in other areas, such as socialstudies or science because more higher-level thinking skills are required.Emotional problems also become more of an impediment after severalyears of repeated failure, and students become more conscious of theirpoor achievement. For some students, social problems and the inability tomake and keep friends increase in importance at this age level. About 40%of all children with learning disabilities are in the 6 to 11 age group (U.S.Department of Education, 2008).

The Secondary Level A radical change in schooling occurs at the second-ary level, and adolescents find that learning disabilities begin to take agreater toll. The tougher demands of the middle school and high school



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curricula and teachers, the turmoil of adolescence, and the continued aca-demic failure combine to intensify the learning disability. Adolescents arealso concerned about life after completing school. They may need counsel-ing and guidance for college, career, and vocational decisions. To worsenthe situation, a few adolescents find themselves drawn into acts of juveniledelinquency or are tempted to drop out of school (Quinn, Rutherford, &Leone, 2001; Learning Disabilities Association of America, 1995).

Because adolescents tend to be overly sensitive, some emotional, social,and self-concept problems often accompany a learning disability at this age.Most secondary schools have programs for adolescents with learning disabil-ities. Although this age group is considered throughout this text, some of itsunique features and some special programs for adolescents are discussed inChapter 9, “Adolescents and Adults With Learning Disabilities and RelatedMild Disabilities.” About 60% of all students with learning disabilities are inthe 12 to 17 age group (U.S. Department of Education, 2008).

The Adult Years By the time they finish schooling, some adults overcometheir learning disabilities, are able to reduce them, or have learned how tocompensate or circumvent their problems. For many adults, however, thelearning problems continue, and vestiges of their disorder continue to ham-per them in adulthood. Both reading difficulties and nonverbal social dis-abilities may limit their career development and may also hinder theirability to make and keep friends. Many adults voluntarily seek help in laterlife to cope with their learning disabilities.

Some Eminent People With Learning DisabilitiesThe life stories of some individuals who eventually became eminent, suc-cessful contributors to society reflect their travails with serious learningdisabilities. Student Stories 1.1, “Childhood Memories,” describes the child-hood stories of such people with learning disabilities. These persons of emi-nence, fortunately, were somehow able to find appropriate ways of learning,and they successfully overcame their initial failures.

The Cross-Cultural Nature of Learning DisabilitiesThe condition of learning disabilities is a universal problem that occurs inall cultures and nations in the world. The problem is not confined to theUnited States or to English-speaking countries. Accumulating researchshows that in all cultures and societies there are children who seem tohave normal intelligence but who also have severe difficulty in learninglanguage, acquiring reading or writing skills, or doing mathematics. The In-ternational Academy for Research in Learning Disabilities (IARLD), an orga-nization dedicated to fostering international research on learningdisabilities, publishes a journal called Thalamus and has a website athttp://www.iarld.net.

Clinical reports of the personal travails of children from all corners of theworld are remarkably similar. In the following excerpt, for example, a



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STUDENT STORIES 1.1Childhood MemoriesCharles Schwab, the founder of the successfuland innovative stock brokerage firm, struggledwith severe reading problems throughout his life.Schwab explains that he coped by developing hisother abilities, such as the capacity to envision,to anticipate where things are going, and toconceive a solution to a business problem.Schwab believes his reading problem forced himto develop these skills at a higher level than isattained by people for whom reading comeseasily (Kantrowitz & Underwood, 1999; West,1997). A website for Charles Schwab is at http://www.schwablearning.org.

Nelson Rockefeller, who served as vicepresident of the United States and governor of thestate of NewYork, suffered from severe dyslexia, atype of learning disability that involves extremedifficulty in learning to read. His poor readingability kept him from achieving good grades inschool, and his learning disability forced him tomemorize his speeches during his political career.In describing his feelings about growing up with alearning disability, Rockefeller (1976) recalled,

I was dyslexic … and I still have a hard timereading today. I remember vividly the pain andmortification I felt as a boy of eight when I wasassigned to read a short passage of scripture ata community vesper service and did a thor-oughly miserable job of it. I know what a dys-lexic child goes through … the frustration of notbeing able to do what other children do easily,the humiliation of being thought not too brightwhen such is not the case at all. But, after cop-ing with this problem for more than 60 years, Ihave a message of hope and encouragementfor children with learning disabilities and theirparents. (pp. 12–14)

As a child, Thomas Edison, the ingeniousAmerican inventor, was called abnormal, addled,

and mentally defective. Writing in his diary that hewas never able to get along at school, he recalledthat he was always at the foot of his class. Hisfather thought of him as stupid, and Edisondescribed himself as a dunce. Auguste Rodin,the great French sculptor, was called the worstpupil in his school. His teachers diagnosed Rodinas uneducable and advised his parents to put himout to work, although they doubted that he couldever make a living. Woodrow Wilson, thescholarly 28th president of the United States,did not learn his letters until he was 9 years oldand did not learn to read until age 11.Relatives expressed sorrow for his parentsbecause Woodrow was so dull and backward(Thompson, 1971).

Albert Einstein, the mathematical genius, didnot speak until age 3. His search for wordswas described as laborious and, until he was 7,he formulated each sentence, no matter howcommonplace, silently with his lips beforespeaking the words aloud. Schoolwork did notgo well for young Albert. He showed little facilitywith arithmetic and great difficulty with foreignlanguages. One teacher predicted that “nothinggood” would come of him. Einstein’s languagedisabilities persisted throughout his adult life.When he read, he heard words. Writing wasdifficult for him, and he communicated badlythrough writing. In describing his thinkingprocess, he explained that he rarely thought inwords; it was only after a thought came that hetried to express it in words at a later time(Isaacson, 2007; Patten, 1973).

Reflective Question How did these early years ofacademic struggle affect the lives of these individuals?



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Chinese adult remembers his first baffling failure in a Chinese school; thestory parallels the bewildering episodes that children with learning disabil-ities face in U.S. schools (Lerner & Chen, 1992).

My first recollection of learning problems occurred at age 7, when I enteredthe first grade in school in Taiwan. My teacher wrote characters on the black-board and the pupils were to copy this board work into their notebooks.I clearly remember that I was simply unable to perform this task. Observinghow easily my classmates accomplished the assignment, I was perplexed andtroubled by my inability to copy the characters and words from the board(p. 148).

Research reports about learning disabilities come from many parts of theworld: South Korea, (Kim, Rhee, Burns, & Lerner, 2009); the Netherlands(Van der Lief & Morfidi, 2006; Stevens & Werkhoven, 2001), Great Britain(Wedell, 2001), Scandinavia (Lundberg & Höien, 2001), New Zealand(Chapman, 1992), Germany (Opp, 2001), Italy (Fabbro & Masutto, 1994),Mexico (Fletcher & DeLopez, 1995), Portugal (da Fonseca, 1996), Canada(Wong & Hutchinson, 2001), Australia (Elkins, 2001), Russia (Korkunov,Nigayev, Reynolds, & Lerner, 1998), South America (Bravo-Valdivieso &Müller, 2001), and Israel (Shalev, Manor, Auerbach, & Grodd-Tour, 1998).The problem appears in children learning an alphabet-based system of writ-ten language, such as English, and with children learning a logographic(pictorial) system of written language, such as Chinese (Hsu, 1988) or Japa-nese (Tsuge, 2001).

History of the Field of Learning DisabilitiesThis section offers a brief history of the field of learning disabilities. A moredetailed history appears on the student section of the Premium Website,under Additional Information for Chapter 1.

The term learning disabilities was first introduced in 1963, when asmall group of concerned parents and educators met in Chicago to con-sider linking the isolated parent groups active in a few communities into asingle organization. Each of these parent groups identified the children ofconcern under a different name, including children with perceptual handi-caps, brain-injured children, and neurologically impaired children. Tounite these groups, they needed to agree on a single term to identify thechildren of concern. When the term learning disabilities was suggested atthis meeting by Sam Kirk (Kirk, 1963), it met with immediate approval.The organization today known as the Learning Disabilities Association ofAmerica (LDAA), http://www.ldaamerica.org, was born at this historicmeeting.

During the four plus decades since learning disabilities were first recog-nized, the field has wrestled with many controversial issues, and our notionof learning disabilities is different from what it once was (Hallahan, 2007).Although the term learning disabilities had immediate appeal and accep-tance, the task of developing a definition of learning disabilities that is ac-ceptable to all has proved to be a formidable challenge. Indeed, defining



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this population is considered so overwhelming that some have likenedlearning disabilities to Justice Potter Stewart’s comment on pornography:impossible to define, “but I know it when I see it.” The most influential def-inition of learning disabilities is in the federal law IDEA–2004.

Learning disabilities was first identified as a category of special educa-tion in federal law in 1975 (PL 94-142). These were heady days for parents,who finally had a sensible explanation of their child’s problems and foreducators who were passionately committed to instructing students withlearning disabilities and providing the kind of intensive, relentless, iterativeindividualized instruction they needed (Hallahan, 2007).

Prior to the establishment of the field of learning disabilities (1800–1930), there was a period of broad scientific research on the functions anddisorders of the brain. Many of the early brain researchers were physicianswho were involved in investigating the brain damage of adult patients whohad suffered a stroke, an accident, or a disease. These scientists gatheredinformation by studying the behavior of patients who had lost some brainfunction, such as the ability to speak or to read. Through autopsies ofmany of these patients, the scientists were able to link the loss of functionsto specific damaged areas of the brain.

This brain research became the foundation of the field of learning dis-abilities (1930–1960), when the scientific studies of the brain were appliedto the clinical study of children and were then translated into ways of teach-ing. Psychologists and educators developed instruments for assessment andfor methods of teaching students with learning disabilities. During the tran-sition phase, terminology changed many times, with various terms beingused to describe the problem—brain-injured children, minimal brain dys-function, and, finally, learning disabilities.

The term brain-injured child was first used by Alfred Strauss and LauraLehtinen (1947), pioneers who identified brain-injured children as a newcategory of exceptional children. Strauss and Lehtinen hypothesized that abrain injury could occur during one of three periods in the child’s life: be-fore birth (prenatal stage), during the birth process, or at some point afterbirth (postnatal stage). These scholars believed that as a result of such or-ganic impairment, the normal learning process was impeded. Many of thesechildren previously had been classified as mentally retarded, emotionallydisturbed, autistic, aphasic, or behaviorally maladjusted. A large number ofchildren exhibited such severe behavioral characteristics that they were ex-cluded from the public schools.

One characteristic of the brain-injured child is a perceptual disorder,which is a disturbance in the ability to perceive objects, relations, or qualities—a difficulty in the interpretation of sensory stimulation. For example, oneteacher noted that when she wore a particular dress with polka dots, thechildren with perceptual disorders seemed compelled to touch it to verifywhat they thought they perceived. Figure 1.4 illustrates the ambiguity inperception that the normal observer senses, and which can help a normalobserver understand the unstable world of the child with a perceptual dis-order. In this figure, we are asked to determine whether the picture is the



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face of an old woman or a young woman. Do you see a young woman oran old woman in this picture?

In Figure 1.5 one is asked to look at the drawing and then to sketch itfrom memory. (Even copying this figure while viewing it may prove to bedifficult.) These illustrations produce a perceptual confusion, much likethat experienced by a child with perceptual disorders.

Strauss’s work with brain-injured children laid the foundation for thefield of learning disabilities by perceiving similar characteristics in a diversegroup of children who had been misdiagnosed by specialists, misunder-stood by parents, and often discarded by society.

FIGURE 1.4

Do You See a YoungWoman or an OldWoman in thisPicture?

Source: Illustration by W. E. Hill in Puck, 1915.

FIGURE 1.5

Examine thisDrawing; Try to Copyor Sketch it fromMemory



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The term minimal brain dysfunction (MBD) is defined as a mild orminimal neurological abnormality that causes learning disabilities, and theterm MBD was recommended as a way to identify these children by theU.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (Clements, 1966). MBDwas used to describe children with near-average intelligence and with cer-tain learning and behavioral disorders associated with deviations or dysfunc-tions of the central nervous system. Many medical professionals employedthe term MBD when diagnosing children.

Learning disabilities successfully serves as a recognized way to refer toindividuals with problems that are the concern of this text.

Learning disabilities became an established discipline in schools through-out the United States. The field grew rapidly as programs for learning disabil-ities were developed, teachers were trained, and children began to receiveservices.

One of the first public school programs for learning disabilities was estab-lished in Syracuse, New York (Cruickshank, Bentzen, Ratzebbugh, & Tann-hauser, 1961). By the 1960s and 1970s, public school programs for learningdisabilities were rapidly established throughout the nation. Several strongforces promoted this development, including parental pressures, an increaseof professional information, the availability of teacher training programs, andstate laws requiring services for students with learning disabilities. All of thistook place before the passage of the first comprehensive special educationlaw in 1975, the Education for All Handicapped Children Act (PL 94–142).

Most of the early programs were for students at the elementary level. Inthese early programs, children with learning disabilities were placed in sep-arate classes, a setting that followed the traditional instructional programsin special education at that time. Later in this period, resource room pro-grams were introduced, and the secondary schools also began to serve ado-lescents with learning disabilities. Many new tests and teaching materialswere developed during this period to serve the growing number of stu-dents identified under the category of learning disabilities.

IMPACT OF THE LAW ON SPECIAL EDUCATIONIn this section, we discuss:

The categories of special education in the lawA series of special education lawsThe Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA)No Child Left Behind (NCLB)Reauthorization of ESEASection 504 of the Rehabilitation Act and the Americans With Disabilities ActThe role of case law

The Categories of Special Education in the LawThe U.S. Department of Education recognizes thirteen categories of disabilities(Individual With Disabilities Education Improvement Act, 2004). Table 1.4 lists



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these thirteen categories of disability (column 1); the percentage of each cate-gory in the general school population (column 2); and the portion of each cat-egory of disability as a percentage of all children with disabilities (column 3).Table 1.4 is also organized to identify high-incidence categories (categoriesof disabilities that have many children) and low-incidence categories (cate-gories of disabilities with fewer children).

Figure 1.6 displays the composition of all students with disabilities as apie chart.

As shown in Table 1.4, Learning Disabilities is the largest category, ac-counting for 46% of all disabilities, Mental Retardation accounts for 8.4%,and Emotional Disturbance accounts for 7.9% of all disabilities. The cate-gory “Other Health Impaired” (OHI), which includes attention deficit hy-peractivity disorder (ADHD) accounts for 8.5% of all disabilities.

The designation “Other Disabilities” refers to Low-incidence categoriesand accounts for approximately 1% of children receiving special educationservices. Other Disabilities consists of several categories of exceptionality,and often these students are included in the group of Mild Disabilities. Fora student to be eligible for special education services, the student musthave an identified category of disability that adversely impacts educationalperformance.

The Series of Special Education LawsThere have been a series of special education laws as shown in Table 1.5.Under this series of laws, all children and youth ages 3 through 21 with

TABLE 1.4

Categories ofChildren WithDisabilities,Ages 6–17

Type of Disability Percent of Population Percent of All Disabilities

High-Incidence CategoriesLearning disabilities 5.36 46.2Language impairment 2.29 19.7Mental retardation 0.98 8.4Emotional disturbance 0.92 7.9Other health impairment 0.99 8.5Low-Incidence CategoriesAutism 0.32 2.8Hearing impairment 0.14 1.2Orthopedic impairment 0.12 1.0Visual impairment 0.05 0.1Traumatic brain injury 0.04 0.3Developmental delay 0.15 1.3Multiple disabilities 0.23 2.0Deaf-blindness 0 0All Disabilities 11.60 100.0

Source: From To assure the free appropriate public education of all children with disabilities. Twenty-eighth Annual Report to Congress on the Implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act,by the U.S. Department of Education, 2008. Washington, DC: Westat.

Impact of the Law on Special Education 23


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disabilities have the right to a free and appropriate public education. Fur-ther, each state must have a special education plan that is in compliancewith the federal law. Each law in the series of special education laws is arevision of the earlier laws.

The series of special education laws are considered civil rights legislationthat guarantees education to individuals with disabilities. The law alters for-mer educational practices that had led to exclusion, neglect, or substandardtreatment of students with disabilities.

The first special education law providing services for students with dis-abilities was called, Education for All Handicapped Children Act (PublicLaw 94–142), which was passed by Congress in 1975. This landmark legis-lation identified for the first time each category of exceptional children inspecial education, along with the actual prevalence rates for each categoryof disability.

The most recent law in the series is the Individuals With DisabilitiesEducation Improvement Act of 2004 (IDEA–2004). The critical featuresof IDEA–2004 have implications for identifying, assessing, and serving

FIGURE 1.6

Composition ofStudents With AllDisabilities

OtherDisabilities

9%

Emotional Disturbance

8%

Speech/Language Impairment

20%

Mental Retardation

8%

LearningDisabilities

46%

Other HealthImpairment

9%

Source: From To assure the free public education of all children with disabilities. Twenty-eighth Annual Report to Congress on the Implementation of the Individuals with DisabilitiesAct by the U.S. Department of Education, 2008. Washington, DC: Westat.

TABLE 1.5

Series of SpecialEducation Laws

Year Number Name of Law

1975 P.L. 94-142 The Education of All Handicapped Children Act1986 P.L. 99-457 The Education for All Handicapped Children Act Amendments1990 P.L. 101-476 The Individuals With Disabilities Education Act of 19901997 P.L. 105-117 The Individuals With Disabilities Education Act of 19972004 P.L. 108-456 The Individuals With Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004



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students with learning disabilities and related mild disabilities, are dis-cussed in relevant sections of this book. Among them are the individual-ized education program (IEP) and procedural safeguards (see Chapter 2,“Assessment and the IEP Process”); the least restrictive environment,the continuum of alternative placements, and parental involvement (seeChapter 4, “Educational Settings and the Role of the Family”); and attentiondeficit hyperactivity disorder (see Chapter 7, “Attention Deficit Hyperactiv-ity Disorder and Autism Spectrum Disorders”).

IDEA–2004 sharpened the law in the following ways (see the websitehttp://www.cec.sped.org for a summary of IDEA–2004):

Strengthening the role of parentsExtending the full rights and protections to preschool children withdisabilitiesEnsuring access to the general education curriculumGiving more attention to racial, ethnic, and linguistic diversity to preventinappropriate identification and mislabelingEncouraging parents and educators to work out their differences throughnonadversarial means, such as mediation or a dispute resolution process

IDEA–2004 recognizes that individuals with disabilities need both specialeducation and related services.

The Elementary and Secondary Education ACT (ESEA)The Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) dates back to 1965.This Act has gone through a number of changes, as well as name changesover the years.

No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) The version of the Elementary and Sec-ondary Education Act called, The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) waspassed in 2001, under the President Bush administration. Its stated purposewas to ensure that all children have a fair, equal, and significant opportu-nity to obtain a high-quality education and to reach a minimum proficiencyon challenging state academic achievement standards. The centerpiece ofNCLB is the requirement that public schools bring students to proficiencyin reading and math. The NCLB law includes sanctions for schools that failto make acceptable progress. Some of the highlights of the NCLB Act are(Wright, Wright, & Heath, 2004):

NCLB requires every state to adopt challenging academic standards andcurriculum guidelines. Every state also needs to develop coherent “profi-ciency” levels to be attained by all children. Every state needs to developan accountability system in which the consequences fall on responsibleadults. Success should be rewarded. Failing schools should be closed, re-structured, or taken over. All students should have the right to leavepoor schools for better schools.NCLB measures each school’s progress with reading and math profi-ciency tests of all students. The school is to report on students by

Impact of the Law on Special Education 25


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subgroups (i.e., ethnicity, disabilities, English-language learners, and low-income). To meet the NCLB standard, all subgroups must make sufficientacademic progress to ensure that all students are proficient by 2014. If theschool does not adequately educate any subgroup, the school will fail tomeet this standard.NCLB requires schools to teach all children to proficiency in reading,math, and science by 2014. The key requirements for accomplishing thisgoal include annual proficiency tests in grades 3 to 8; highly qualifiedteachers in every classroom; research-based instruction; increased parentalrights; public school choice; and state, district, and school report cards.NCLB requires schools and school districts to meet the educational needsof all children, including poor children, children with disabilities,English-language learners, minority and migratory children, and otherneglected groups of children, and to publicly report their progress in ed-ucating children every year.NCLB requires that children have access to effective, scientifically basedinstruction and challenging academic content. Children are to receive anenriched, accelerated educational program that includes additional ser-vices that increase instructional time.NCLB covers all states, school districts, and schools that accept federalTitle I grants. Title I grants provide funding for remedial education pro-grams for poor and disadvantaged children in public schools and insome private programs. States shall give priority to school districts thatserve the lowest-achieving schools and that demonstrate the greatestneed and strongest commitment to improve.NCLB requires that each state develop and implement a statewide ac-countability system that will ensure that all schools and districts makeadequate yearly progress (AYP) as defined by NCLB.

For students with learning disabilities and related mild disabilities, thetests required by the NCLB law are often a formidable challenge. Some-times the achievements being tested are in the areas of their disability, andstudents often do poorly on these tests because the NCLB procedures donot take into account their unique individual differences (Johns, 2003).

Reauthorization of ESEA The ESEA Act is currently being reauthorizedunder the Obama administration. Secretary of Education, Arne Duncan, isdeveloping a reauthorized ESEA law, (Duncan, 2009). The new ESEA lawwill set clear standards that will prepare young people for college andcareers.

Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and theAmericans With Disabilities Act Amendments (ADAA) (2008)Additional laws that affect individuals with disabilities in the schools andpostsecondary students are Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of1973 and the Americans With Disabilities Act (ADA). Section 504 of theRehabilitation Act requires that accommodations be made for individuals



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with disabilities in institutions that receive federal funds. The AmericansWith Disabilities Act Amendments (ADAA) of 2008 protects people withdisabilities from discrimination in the workplace. Both laws are discussedfurther in Chapter 4, “Educational Settings and the Role of the Family,”and Chapter 9, “Adolescents and Adults with Learning Disabilities and Re-lated Mild Disabilities.”

The 2008 ADAA expands the 1990 Americans With Disabilities Act(ADA) with its new link with Section 504. It entitles Section 504 to applyto K to 12 students and expands the number and range of students eligibleunder Section 504 (Zirkel, 2009).

Role of Case LawCase law consists of the actual court cases that have been decided by fed-eral or state courts. The court cases are important because the decisions inthese cases become a body of case law for future cases. Several importantcourt cases are described in this book: a court case about least restrictiveenvironment (LRE) in Chapter 2, “Assessment and the IEP Process,” a courtcase about teaching methods in Chapter 3, “Clinical Teaching,” and a courtcase about accommodations in Chapter 4, “Educational Settings and theRole of the Family.”

NEW ISSUES AND DIRECTIONSA number of current issues and directions are occurring in special educa-tion and general education that affect students with learning disabilitiesand related mild disabilities. In the following section, we briefly review afew of these issues and directions.

More Inclusion PlacementsToday, many students with learning disabilities and related mild disabilitiesreceive instruction in general education classes or inclusive classrooms.There are many benefits of inclusion. General education classrooms can pro-vide students with disabilities greater access to their general education peers,raise expectations for student performance, help general education studentsbe more accepting of diverse students, and improve coordination betweenregular and special educators (Cawley, Hayden, Cade, & Baker-Krocynski,2002; Elbaum, 2002). The philosophy and practice of inclusion are discussedin detail in Chapter 4, “Educational Settings and the Role of the Family.”

Most students with learning disabilities and related mild disabilitiesare served in general education classes. In addition, students may havea disability but they have a 504 Plan and receive instruction in the generaleducation classroom. Success in an inclusive classroom requires the collab-orative effort of the classroom teacher and the special education teacher(Schwarz, 2006). The strategies in the feature Including Students in Gen-eral Education 1.1, “Some overall Strategies,” are targeted for students

New Issues and Directions 27


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with learning disabilities and related mild disabilities. However, these basicstrategies will benefit all students in the general education classroom.

Response-to-Intervention (RTI)Response-to-intervention (RTI) is a new procedure for teaching all stu-dents in general education classes. Under the law (IDEA–2004) and theRegulations for IDEA–2004 (2007) schools are permitted to use RTI or acomprehensive evaluation. RTI is briefly mentioned is this section, but it isdiscussed in greater detail in Chapter 2, “Assessment and the IEP Process.”

Briefly, RTI is a prevention model to limit or prevent academic failure byproviding “evidenced-based teaching procedures” for all students in generaleducation. The RTI procedure provides for increasing intensity levels ofsupport for those students who do not respond adequately to the instruc-tion (Renaissance Learning, 2009; O’Conner, 2007; Division for LearningDisabilities, 2007; Vaughn, 2006; Learning Disabilities Association, 2006,http://www.ldaamerica.org/news/responsiveness.asp).

The Regulations for IDEA–2006 state that when determining whether achild has a specific learning disability, schools can use the RTI procedures.

INCLUDING STUDENTS IN GENERAL EDUCATION 1.1

Some Overall StrategiesBegin each lesson with a review of whathas been learned. Students often forgetwhat has been accomplished thus far, es-pecially with an intervening weekend or va-cation. A review is helpful to assist studentsin remembering what has been learned.

Tell students the goal of the lesson. It isimportant for students to understand thepurpose for a particular lesson.

Place studentswith special needs near theteacher. Reorganizing the seating helpsstudents concentrate on the lesson andnot become distracted. It also helps tea-chers observe the students’ responses dur-ing the lesson.

Teachall students study skills. All studentsin the class will benefit from learning studyskills. Explain the procedure for study skillsand model the activities for studying.

Allow sufficient practice of the conceptsor skills. Students with disabilities and re-lated mild disabilities may process slowly,and they need many examples and oppor-tunities to practice the concepts and skillsthey are learning.

Use differentiated instruction. Take into ac-count the learning styles and learning needsof all students in the class. Students withlearning disabilities and related mild disabil-ities often have different styles of learning. Itis important to teach the lesson in several dif-ferent ways to respond to different interests,styles of learning, and personal talents.

Summarize what has been learned at theend of each lesson. After the lesson iscompleted, help all students pull the differ-ent parts of the lesson together and sum-marize what they have learned.



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The law also notes that the schools may also determine a child’s eligibilityfor learning disabilities services by using a comprehensive evaluation pro-cedure that may include a measurement of a severe discrepancy betweenachievement and intellectual ability (Fuchs, Fuchs, & Hollenbeck, 2007).

Statewide StandardsStatewide standards refers to the setting of achievement standards by indi-vidual states for the field of education. The Council for Exceptional Chil-dren (CEC), with the approval of the National Council for Accreditation ofTeacher Education (NCATE), developed ten content standards, as well asknowledge and skill-based standards for special education teachers. Formore information, visit the CEC website at http://www.cec.sped.org/ps/perf_based_stds/standards.html. These content standards refer to allareas of special education. Table 1.6 shows the ten content standards forspecial education and where each standard is addressed in this text. State-wide assessment standards are discussed in greater detail in Chapter 2,“Assessment and the IEP Process.”

Assistive and Instructional TechnologyToday’s children live in a technological society with an ever-changing influxof new computer-based technologies. Children today have more compre-hensive and faster world-wide links to commerce, communication, and cul-ture. Schools must prepare students to deal with these dramatic changes sothat they can fully participate and compete in the increasingly complextechnological workplace.

Society readily recognizes the benefits of computer-based technologiesfor typically functioning children. However, there are even greater benefitsfor students with learning disabilities and related mild disabilities. Com-puter applications can help level the playing field by allowing them to suc-ceed in the general education environment. For many students withlearning disabilities and related mild disabilities, their ease in operatingcomputers is an area of strength that helps them overcome areas of severedifficulty, such as their abilities to read and write. Research shows that of-ten students who have academic problems have a special facility with com-puters (Belson, 2003; Hasselbring & Glaser, 2000; Raskind & Higgins,1998a, 1998b). Specific applications of computer technology appear withinpertinent chapters throughout this book.

The Assistive Technology Act, passed in 2004, recognizes the need forpersons with disabilities to access and use assistive technology devices andprovides funding to support assistive technology (PL 108–364). Assistivetechnology for students with disabilities is defined as “any item, piece ofequipment, or product system, whether acquired commercially off theshelf, modified, or customized, that is used to increase, maintain, or im-prove functional capabilities of individuals with disabilities” (Individuals



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With Disabilities Education Act, 2004 Regulations, 34 CFR 300). Table 1.7lists some ways the students with learning disabilities and related mild dis-abilities can use computers.

In Student Stories 1.3, “Using a Computer,” we learn how importantcomputers were to one student with learning disabilities.

TABLE 1.6

Content Standardsfor Special Education

This chart correlates the Council Exceptional Children 2009 content standardsto specific chapters of this text. For more information about CEC’s contentstandards for teachers, visit the CEC website at http://www.cec.sped.org.

CEC ContentStandards Description Chapters

Foundation Understand the field as an evolving and changingdiscipline based on philosophies, evidence-basedprinciples and theories, relevant laws and policies,diverse and historical points of view, and humanissues that have historically influenced andcontinue to influence the field of special educationand the education and treatment of individualswith exceptional needs.

Chapters 1, 2,3, and 4

Development andCharacteristics ofLearners

Know and demonstrate respect for their studentsfirst as unique human beings.

Chapters 3, 5,and 6

Individual LearningDifferences

Understand the effects that an exceptionalcondition can have on an individual’s learning inschool and throughout life.

Chapters 1, 3, 5,6, and 10

InstructionalStrategies

Possesses a repertoire of evidence-basedinstructional strategies to individual instructionfor individuals with exceptional learning needs

Chapters 11, 12,13, and 14

LearningEnvironments andSocial Interactions

Actively create learning environments forindividuals with exceptional learning needs thatfoster cultural understanding, safety and emotionalwell-being.

Chapter 4

Language Understands typical and atypical languagedevelopment and the ways in which exceptionalconditions can interact with an individual’sexperience with and use of language.

Chapter 11

InstructionalPlanning

Develop long-range individualized instructionalplans anchored in both general and specialeducation curricula.

Chapters 2, 3,and 4

Assessment Uses multiple types of assessment informationfor a variety of educational decisions.

Chapter 2

Professional andEthical Practice

Guided by the profession’s ethical andprofessional practice standards

Chapters 1, 3,and 4

Collaboration Routinely and effectively collaborate with families,other educators, related service provides, andpersonnel from community agencies in culturallyresponsive

Chapters 4, 6, 8,9, and 10

Source: Council for Exceptional Children, Professional Standards (2009). Arlington, VA: Council forExceptional Children.



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STUDENT STORIES 1.2Computers as an Area of StrengthJason is a young adult with learning disabilitieswho is severely dyslexic; his reading and writingskills are at the first-grade level. Despiteparticipating in numerous kinds of readingprograms and working with many tutors overthe years, he still virtually cannot read or write.In a computer class, he was taught how to usespreadsheets for budgeting and PowerPoint tomake presentations. Jason successfully learnedand began using these computer programswithin a very short time. Apparently, these

computer applications did not tap his linguisticdisability areas; instead, they used his strengthsin visual areas. It has long been observed thatmany students with learning disabilities doextremely well in the arts. Perhaps thisphenomenon is also true of their facility withcomputer technology.

Reflective Question How can computers help studentswho have weaknesses in language skills and strengths invisual abilities?

1.2Often students whohave academicproblems have aspecial facility withcomputers.

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Universal Design for LearningA new model of technology use was developed by the organization Univer-sal Design for Learning (UDL). UDL emphasizes the idea that every cur-riculum should include alternatives to make learning accessible andappropriate for individuals with different backgrounds, learning styles, abil-ities, and disabilities in widely varied learning contexts. The website forUDL is http://www.cast.org.

TABLE 1.7

Ways ComputersCan Be Used byStudents WithLearning Disabilitiesand Related MildDisabilities

E-mail. E-mail is widely used by students with learning disabilities and related mild disabil-ities. With e-mail, students can send and receive electronic messages, make friends, com-municate with other students, and teachers can communicate with the entire class througha listserv. Students can obtain a free Yahoo e-mail address through http://www.yahoo.com. Teachers can also communicate with parents through e-mail.The Internet. Students enjoy using the Internet. They can conduct research or get backgroundmaterial for writing assignments. Students should receive instruction in Internet safety.

Social Networking. Examples of popular social networking sites include MySpace, Face-book, and Twitter. Many students with mild disabilities and learning disabilities are usingsuch social networking sites to build online communities and to communicate with friends.

Electronic Storybooks. Electronic storybooks on CD-ROM offer high-interest stories, andwords can be highlighted or read aloud by the computer.

Word Processing. Word processing is a boon for students with learning disabilities whohave difficulty in handwriting, spelling, and written composition.

Voice Recognition Devices. A voice recognition device allows the user to dictate througha microphone. The device then translates the user’s speech into a form that the computercan say. One specifically used speech recognition tool is Dragon Naturally Speaking. Moreinformation can be found on the website, http://www.scansoft.com/naturallyspeaking.

Text Readers. Text reader devices are known as text-to-speech applications. Such devicesconvert printed text into synthetic or digital speech. An excellent text reader program is theKurzweil Reading Program. More information can be found on the website, http://www.kurzweiledu.com.

STUDENT STORIES 1.3Using a ComputerI didn’t learn how to write until I learned how touse a computer. This sounds ironic, but in mypast, writing was spelling, and because I couldnot spell, I could not write. When I discovered aword processing system with a spell check, Ifinally understood that writing involved puttingthoughts and ideas into some kind of writtenform. Knowing that the computer would catch

my spelling errors, I began to ignore my spelling.Then I began to look at writing as content.

Source: C. Lee & R. Jackson (1992), Faking It: A Look into the Mind of aCreative Learner. Portsmouth, NJ: Heinemann.

Reflective Question How did the ability to use acomputer change this individual’s view of writing?



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CHAPTER SUMMARY1. Many changes are occurring in the field of

special education.2. Some state certification requirements call for

cross-categorical certification for teachers inspecial education.

3. Programs for mild disabilities often includethe special education categories of mentalretardation, emotional/behavioral dis-orders, learning disabilities, and otherdisabilities.

4. Mild disabilities include students withmental retardation, emotional/behavioral

disorders, learning disabilities, and otherdisabilities.

5. Students with related mild disabilities havemany similar characteristics.

6. The category of learning disabilities is stillthe largest category of special education.

7. The definition of learning disabilities infederal law is the basis for most state defi-nitions, but other definitions have beenproposed.

8. Common elements of the definitions in-clude neurological dysfunction, processing

I Have a Kid Who. . .Tiger, a Student With a Reading Problem

Tiger G. is 9 years old and in the third grade at theLincoln Elementary School. He moved into theschool district this fall and is in Ms. Jackson’s gen-eral education classroom. Tiger seems to try hard,but reading is very difficult for him. He is not ableto copy words from the chalkboard onto paper. Hedoes not seem to understand the phonics instruc-tions, nor does he complete his phonics assign-ments. He has a very limited sight vocabulary.Overall, Tiger’s reading is at about the first-gradelevel. His math skills are good; he enjoys math andcan easily keep up with the math work in theclass. Tiger participates with the class in oral activ-ities, but he is very quiet and cannot keep up withthe reading in the class.

Tiger has become very unhappy in school. Ms.Jackson had a conference with Tiger’s mother,who said he does not want to come to schooland that getting Tiger to school each day is a has-sle. Tiger’s mother also told Ms. Jackson that hewas very slow in his language development. Tigeris good in sports, likes to play baseball, and hasmade some friends. The major problem that Tigerhas is in the area of reading.

Tiger’s mother said that she is eager to havethe school conduct an evaluation of Tiger, andrequested an evaluation. The IEP team reported thefollowing scores in their assessment: WISC-IV(Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, 4th ed.):A full scale IQwas 125.Achievement Tests:ReadingWord Recognition, Grade 1.2; Reading Comprehen-sion, Grade 1.6; Spelling, Grade 1.5; Arithmetic,Grade 3.6.

The IEP team concluded that Tiger has a learn-ing disability. He has the potential to achieve muchhigher in reading but needs intensive reading inter-vention in a small group situation.

Note: Adapted from the popular annual session that has been held at theLearning Disabilities of America Conference for 29 years, moderated byDr. Jerry Minskoff. In the session, a member of the audience offers a problemand a group of experts tries to answer the problem, often with assistance fromthe audience.

Questions1. Why do you think the IEP team decided that

Tiger has a learning disability?2. What are Tiger’s strengths? What are Tiger’s

areas of need?

Chapter Summary 33


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deficits, difficulty in academic and learningtasks, discrepancy between achievementand intellectual ability, and/or response-to-intervention, and exclusion of other rea-sons for the learning difficulty.

9. Learning disabilities occur in all cultures,affecting individuals of all nations andlanguages.

10. The history of the field of learning disabil-ities has been evolving for over 45 years.

11. Laws that impact students with learningdisabilities and related mild disabilitiesinclude the No Child Left Behind Act, theIndividuals with Disabilities EducationImprovement Act (IDEA–2004) and Section504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973.

12. New issues and directions include inclusionpractices, statewide standards, testing, andUniversal Design for Learning (UDL).

TEACHSOURCE VIDEO CASE ACTIVITYAfter reading Chapter 1, please visit theEducation CourseMate website and watch theTeachSource Video Case entitled “Foundations:Aligning Instruction With Federal Legislation.”In this video a teacher, a specialist, anintern, and the principal discuss the federallaws of the Individuals With Disabilities Edu-cation Act (IDEA) and No Child Left Behind

(NCLB), and the implementation of theselaws.

Questions1. What problems did these educators discuss in

the process of implementing these laws?2. What are the differences between IDEA and

NCLB?

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION AND REFLECTION1. What are mild disabilities? How do mild dis-

abilities differ from categorical disabilities?2. How have the roles of teachers of special

education and learning disabilities changed?Discuss the new responsibilities.

3. All students are tested with standards tests.What are some implications of this testing

for students with learning disabilities andrelated mild disabilities?

4. Describe some ways that computers can beused by students with disabilities.

5. Describe four distinct historical phases inthe development of the field of learningdisabilities.

KEY TERMSadaptive behavior (p. 5)adequate yearly progress (p. 26)Americans With Disabilities Act (ADA) (p. 26)assistive technology (p. 29)behavioral disorders (p. 7)brain-injured children (p. 19)current achievement level (p. 12)emotional disorders (p. 6)emotional/behavioral disorders (EBD) (p. 6)high-incidence categories (p. 23)Interagency Committee on Learning

Disabilities (ICLD) (p. 11)

learning differences (p. 30)learning disabilities (p. 2)low-incidence categories (p. 23)mental retardation (p. 4)mild disabilities (p. 2)mild/moderate disabilities (p. 3)minimal brain dysfunction (MBD) (p. 22)National Joint Committee on Learning

Disabilities (NJCLD) (p. 11)neurologically impaired children (p. 19)No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) (p. 25)perceptual disorder (p. 20)



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perceptual handicap (p. 19)Public Law 94–142, Education for All

Handicapped Children Act (1975) (p. 24)Public Law 99–457, Education for All

Handicapped Children Act Amendmentsof 1986 (p. 24)

Public Law 101–476, Individuals With Disabil-ities Education Act (IDEA–1990) (p. 24)

Public Law 105–17, Individuals WithDisabilities Education Act of 1997(IDEA–1997) (p. 24)

Public Law 108–364, Assistive Technology Act(2004) (p. 24)

Public Law 108–446, Individuals withDisabilities Education Improvement Act(IDEA–2004) (p. 24)

response-to-intervention (RTI) (p. 28)Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973

(p. 26)severe discrepancy (p. 12)statewide standards (p. 29)Universal Design for Learning (UDL) (p. 32)

Key Terms 35


learning disabilities and related mild disabilities, 12th ed. · 2013. 2. 22. · education)....

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