learning styles

Learning stylesFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Learning style is an individual's natural or habitual pattern of acquiring and processing information in learningsituations. A core concept is that individuals differ in how they learn.[1] The idea of individualized learningstyles originated in the 1970s, and has greatly influenced education.[2]

Proponents of the use of learning styles in education recommend that teachers assess the learning styles of theirstudents and adapt their classroom methods to best fit each student's learning style. Although there is ampleevidence for differences in individual thinking and ways of processing various types of information, few studieshave reliably tested the validity of using learning styles in education.[2] Critics say there is no evidence thatidentifying an individual student's learning style produces better outcomes. There is evidence of empirical andpedagogical problems related to the use of learning tasks to "correspond to differences in a one-to-onefashion".[3] Well-designed studies contradict the widespread "meshing hypothesis", that a student will learn bestif taught in a method deemed appropriate for the student's learning style.[2]

Contents

1 Models1.1 David Kolb's model1.2 Peter Honey and Alan Mumford's model1.3 Anthony Gregorc's model1.4 Sudbury model of democratic education1.5 Neil Fleming's VAK/VARK model1.6 Other models1.7 Cognitive approach to learning styles1.8 A more recent evidence-based model of learning1.9 NASSP Learning Style Model

2 Assessment methods2.1 Learning Style Inventory2.2 NASSP Learning Style Profile2.3 Other methods

3 Criticism3.1 Critique made by Coffield, et al.3.2 The critique regarding Kolb's model3.3 Other critiques3.4 2009 APS critique

4 Learning styles in the classroom5 See also6 References

Models

Learning styles - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_styles

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David Kolb's model

The David A. Kolb styles model is based on the Experiential Learning Theory, as explained in his bookExperiential Learning.[4] The ELT model outlines two related approaches toward grasping experience:Concrete Experience and Abstract Conceptualization, as well as two related approaches toward transformingexperience: Reflective Observation and Active Experimentation. According to Kolb's model, the ideallearning process engages all four of these modes in response to situational demands. In order for learning to beeffective, all four of these approaches must be incorporated. As individuals attempt to use all four approaches,however, they tend to develop strengths in one experience-grasping approach and one experience-transformingapproach. The resulting learning styles are combinations of the individual's preferred approaches. Theselearning styles are as follows:

Converger;1.Diverger;2.Assimilator;3.Accommodator;.[5]4.

Convergers are characterized by abstract conceptualization and active experimentation. They are good atmaking practical applications of ideas and using deductive reasoning to solve problems.[5]

Divergers tend toward concrete experience and reflective observation. They are imaginative and are good atcoming up with ideas and seeing things from different perspectives.[5]

Assimilators are characterized by abstract conceptualization and reflective observation. They are capable ofcreating theoretical models by means of inductive reasoning.[5]

Accommodators use concrete experience and active experimentation. They are good at actively engaging withthe world and actually doing things instead of merely reading about and studying them.[5]

Kolb's model gave rise to the Learning Style Inventory, an assessment method used to determine an individual'slearning style. An individual may exhibit a preference for one of the four styles—Accommodating, Converging,Diverging and Assimilating—depending on their approach to learning via the experiential learning theorymodel.[4]

Although Kolb's model is the most widely accepted with substantial empirical support, recent studies suggestthe Learning Style Inventory (LSI) is seriously flawed [6]

Peter Honey and Alan Mumford's model

Two adaptations were made to Kolb's experiential model. Firstly, the stages in the cycle were renamed to accordwith managerial experiences of decision making/problem solving. The Honey & Mumford stages are:

Having an experience1.Reviewing the experience2.Concluding from the experience3.Planning the next steps.4.

Secondly, the styles were directly aligned to the stages in the cycle and named Activist, Reflector, Theoristand Pragmatist. These are assumed to be acquired preferences that are adaptable, either at will or through


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changed circumstances, rather than being fixed personality characteristics. The Honey & Mumford LearningStyles Questionnaire (LSQ)[7] is a self-development tool and differs from Kolb's Learning Style inventory byinviting managers to complete a checklist of work-related behaviours without directly asking managers howthey learn. Having completed the self-assessment, managers are encouraged to focus on strengtheningunderutilised styles in order to become better equipped to learn from a wide range of everyday experiences.

A MORI survey commissioned by The Campaign for Learning[8] in 1999 found the Honey & Mumford LSQ tobe the most widely used system for assessing preferred learning styles in the local government sector in the UK.

Anthony Gregorc's model

Dennis W. Mills discusses the work of Anthony F. Gregorc and Kathleen A. Butler in his article entitled"Applying What We Know: Student Learning Styles". Gregorc and Butler worked to organize a modeldescribing how the mind works.[9] This model is based on the existence of perceptions—our evaluation of theworld by means of an approach that makes sense to us. These perceptions in turn are the foundation of ourspecific learning strengths, or learning styles.

In this model, there are two perceptual qualities 1) concrete and 2) abstract; and two ordering abilities 1)random and 2) sequential.[9] Concrete perceptions involve registering information through the five senses, whileabstract perceptions involve the understanding of ideas, qualities, and concepts which cannot be seen. In regardto the two ordering abilities, sequential involves the organization of information in a linear, logical way andrandom involves the organization of information in chunks and in no specific order.[9] Both of the perceptualqualities and both of the ordering abilities are present in each individual, but some qualities and orderingabilities are more dominant within certain individuals.

There are four combinations of perceptual qualities and ordering abilities based on dominance: 1) ConcreteSequential; 2) Abstract Random; 3) Abstract Sequential; 4) Concrete Random. Individuals with differentcombinations learn in different ways—they have different strengths, different things make sense to them,different things are difficult for them, and they ask different questions throughout the learning process.[9]

Sudbury model of democratic education

Some critics (Mazza) of today's schools, of the concept of learning disabilities, of special education, and ofresponse to intervention, take the position that every child has a different learning style and pace and that eachchild is unique, not only capable of learning but also capable of succeeding.[citation needed]

Sudbury Model democratic schools in the United States assert that there are many ways to study and learn.They argue that learning is a process you do, not a process that is done to you, and that this is true of everyone;it's basic.[10] The experience of Sudbury model democratic schools shows that there are many ways to learnwithout the intervention of teaching, that is to say, without the intervention of a teacher being imperative. In thecase of reading for instance in the Sudbury model democratic schools, some children learn from being read to,memorizing the stories and then ultimately reading them. Others learn from cereal boxes, others from gamesinstructions, others from street signs. Some teach themselves letter sounds, others syllables, others whole words.Sudbury model democratic schools assert that in their schools no one child has ever been forced, pushed, urged,cajoled, or bribed into learning how to read or write. None of their graduates are real or functional illiterates,and no one who meets their older students could ever guess the age at which they first learned to read orwrite.[11] In a similar manner, students learn all the subjects, techniques, and skills in these schools.

Describing current instructional methods as homogenization and lockstep standardization, alternative


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approaches are proposed, such as the Sudbury Model of Democratic Education schools, an alternative approachin which children, by enjoying personal freedom thus encouraged to exercise personal responsibility for theiractions, learn at their own pace and style rather than following a compulsory and chronologically-basedcurriculum.[12][13][14][15] Proponents of unschooling have also claimed that children raised in this method learnat their own pace and style, and do not suffer from learning disabilities.

Gerald Coles asserts that there are partisan agendas behind the educational policy-makers and that the scientificresearch that they use to support their arguments regarding the teaching of literacy is flawed. These include theidea that there are neurological explanations for learning disabilities.[16]

Neil Fleming's VAK/VARK model

One of the most common and widely-used [17] categorizations of the various types of learning styles isFleming's VARK model (sometimes VAK) which expanded upon earlier Neuro-linguistic programming(VARK) models:[18]

visual learners;1.auditory learners;2.reading-writing preference learners;3.kinesthetic learners or tactile learners.[19]4.

Fleming claimed that visual learners have a preference for seeing (think in pictures; visual aids such asoverhead slides, diagrams, handouts, etc.). Auditory learners best learn through listening (lectures, discussions,tapes, etc.). Tactile/kinesthetic learners prefer to learn via experience—moving, touching, and doing (activeexploration of the world; science projects; experiments, etc.). Its use in pedagogy allows teachers to prepareclasses that address each of these areas. Students can also use the model to identify their preferred learning styleand maximize their educational experience by focusing on what benefits them the most.

Other models

Cognitive approach to learning styles

Anthony Grasha and Sheryl Reichmann, in 1974, formulated the Grasha-Reichmann Learning Style Scale. Itwas developed to analyze the attitudes of students and how they approach learning. The test was originallydesigned for college students. Grasha's background is in cognitive processes and coping techniques. Theconcepts of various learning styles are as follows:

avoidantparticipativecompetitivecollaborativedependentindependent

The conclusion of this model was to provide teachers with insight on how to approach instructional plans. [20]

Aiming to explain why aptitude tests, school grades, and classroom performance often fail to identify realability, Robert J. Sternberg listed various cognitive dimensions in his book Thinking Styles (1997). Several othermodels are also often used when researching learning styles. This includes the Myers Briggs Type Indicator


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(MBTI) and the DISC assessment.

A more recent evidence-based model of learning

Chris J Jackson's neuropsychological hybrid model of learning in personality argues Sensation Seeking providesa core biological drive of curiosity, learning and exploration. A high drive to explore leads to dysfunctionallearning consequences unless cognitions such as goal orientation, conscientiousness, deep learning andemotional intelligence re-express it in more complex ways to achieve functional outcomes such as high workperformance. The model aims to explain many forms of functional behaviour (such as entrepreneurial activity,work performance, educational success) as well as dysfunctional behaviour (such as delinquency and anti-socialbehaviour). The wide applicability of the model and its strong grounding in the academic literature suggests thatthis evidence based model of learning has much potential. Latest research is summarized here.[21] Evidence forthis model is allegedly impressive.[22][23][24][25][26][27] Siadaty and Taghiyareh (2007)[28] report that trainingbased on Conscientious Achievement increases performance but that training based on Sensation Seeking doesnot. These results strongly support Jackson's model since the model proposes that Conscientious Achievementwill respond to intervention whereas Sensation Seeking (with its biological basis) will not. Jackson's papers canbe downloaded here (http://www.cymeon.com/publications/defaultlsp.asp).

NASSP Learning Style Model

Learning style is a gestalt that tells us how a student learns and prefers to learn. Keefe (1979) says that:“Learning styles are characteristic cognitive, affective, and physiological behaviors that serve as relativelystable indicators of how learners perceive, interact with, and respond to the learning environment."

There are three broad categories of learning style characteristics:

•Cognitive styles are preferred ways of perception, organization and retention. •Affective styles represent themotivational dimensions of the learning personality; each learner has a personal motivational approach.•Physiological styles are traits deriving from a person's gender, health and nutrition, and reaction to schoolphysical surroundings, such as preferences for levels of light, sound, and temperature.

Styles are hypothetical constructs that help to explain the learning (and teaching) process. Because learning isan internal process, we know that it has taken place only when we observe a relatively stable change in learnerbehavior resulting from what has been experienced” (Keefe, 1979). Similarly, learning style reflects underlyinglearning behavior. We can recognize the learning style of an individual student only by observing his or herbehavior.

Assessment methods

Learning Style Inventory

The Learning Style Inventory (LSI) is connected with Kolb's model and is used to determine a student's learningstyle.[29] The LSI assesses an individual's preferences and needs regarding the learning process. It does thefollowing: (1) allows students to designate how they like to learn and indicates how consistent their responsesare, (2) provides computerized results which show the student's preferred learning style, (3) provides afoundation upon which teachers can build in interacting with students, (4) provides possible strategies foraccommodating learning styles, (5) provides for student involvement in the learning process; 6) provides a classsummary so students with similar learning styles can be grouped together.[29]


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A completely different Learning Styles Inventory is associated with a binary division of learning styles,developed by Felder and Silverman.[30] In this model, learning styles are a balance between four pairs ofextremes: Active/Reflective, Sensing/Intuitive, Verbal/Visual and Sequential/Global. Students receive fourscores describing these balances.[31] Like the LSI mentioned above, this inventory provides overviews andsynopses for teachers.

NASSP Learning Style Profile

The NASSP Learning Style Profile (LSP) is a second-generation instrument for the diagnosis of studentcognitive styles, perceptual responses, and study and instructional preferences. The Profile was developed bythe NASSP research department (Keefe and Monk, 1986) in conjunction with a national task force of learningstyle experts. The task force spent almost a year reviewing the available literature and instrumentation beforedeciding to develop a new instrument. The Profile was developed in four phases with initial work undertaken atthe University of Vermont (cognitive elements), Ohio State University (affective elements), and St. John'sUniversity (physiological/environmental elements). Rigid validation and normative studies were conductedusing factor analytic methods to ensure strong construct validity and subscale independence. The Learning StyleProfile contains 24 scales representing four higher order factors: cognitive styles, perceptual responses, studypreferences and instructional preferences (the affective and physiological elements). The LSP scales are asfollows: • Analytic Skill • Spatial Skill • Discrimination Skill • Categorizing Skill • Sequential Processing Skill• Simultaneous Processing Skill • Memory Skill • Perceptual Response: Visual • Perceptual Response: Auditory• Perceptual Response: Emotive • Persistence Orientation • Verbal Risk Orientation; • Verbal-Spatial Preference• Manipulative Preference • Study Time Preference: Early Morning • Study Time Preference: Late Morning •Study Time Preference: Afternoon • Study Time Preference: Evening • Grouping Preference • PosturePreference • Mobility Preference • Sound Preference • Lighting Preference • Temperature Preference

The LSP is a first-level diagnostic tool intended as the basis for comprehensive style assessment. Extensivereadability checks, reliability and validity studies, and factor analyses of` the instrument, combined with thesupervisory efforts of the task force, ensure valid use of the instrument with students in the sixth to twelfthgrades. Computer scoring is available.*

Current versions of the LSP are available from GAINS Education Group, 1699 East Woodfield Road,Suite 007A, Schaumburg, IL 60173; Phone: 847-995-0403.

Other methods

Other methods (usually questionnaires) used to identify learning styles include Fleming's VARK Learning StyleTest, Jackson's Learning Styles Profiler (LSP), and the NLP meta programs based iWAM questionnaire. Manyother tests have gathered popularity and various levels of credibility among students and teachers.

Ilene Thiel introduced LLL as a preferred method of learning style otherwise known as Lifelong Love ofLearning.

CriticismLearning style theories have been criticized by many.

Some psychologists and neuroscientists have questioned the scientific basis for and the theories on which theyare based. According to Susan Greenfield the practice is "nonsense" from a neuroscientific point of view:"Humans have evolved to build a picture of the world through our senses working in unison, exploiting the


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immense interconnectivity that exists in the brain."[32]

Many educational psychologists believe that there is little evidence for the efficacy of most learning stylemodels, and furthermore, that the models often rest on dubious theoretical grounds.[33] According to Stahl,[34]

there has been an "utter failure to find that assessing children's learning styles and matching to instructionalmethods has any effect on their learning." Guy Claxton has questioned the extent that learning styles such asVARK are helpful, particularly as they can have a tendency to label children and therefore restrict learning.[35]

Critique made by Coffield, et al.

A non-peer-reviewed literature review by authors from the University of Newcastle upon Tyne identified 71different theories of learning style.[36] This report, published in 2004, criticized most of the main instrumentsused to identify an individual's learning style. In conducting the review, Coffield and his colleagues selected 13of the most influential models for closer study, including most of the models cited on this page. They examinedthe theoretical origins and terms of each model, and the instrument that purported to assess individuals againstthe learning styles defined by the model. They analyzed the claims made by the author(s), external studies ofthese claims, and independent empirical evidence of the relationship between the learning style identified by theinstrument and students' actual learning. Coffield's team found that none of the most popular learning styletheories had been adequately validated through independent research, leading to the conclusion that the idea ofa learning cycle, the consistency of visual, auditory and kinesthetic preferences and the value of matchingteaching and learning styles were all "highly questionable."

One of the most widely known theories assessed by Coffield's team was the learning styles model of Dunn andDunn, a VAK model.[37] This model is widely used in schools in the United States, and 177 articles have beenpublished in peer-reviewed journals referring to this model.[36] The conclusion of Coffield et al. was as follows:

Despite a large and evolving research programme, forceful claims made for impact are questionablebecause of limitations in many of the supporting studies and the lack of independent research on themodel.[36]

Coffield's team claimed that another model, Gregorc's Style Delineator (GSD), was "theoretically andpsychometrically flawed" and "not suitable for the assessment of individuals."

The critique regarding Kolb's model

Mark K. Smith compiled and reviewed some critiques of Kolb's model in his article, "David A. Kolb onExperiential Learning". According to Smith's research, there are six key issues regarding the model. They are asfollows: 1) the model doesn't adequately address the process of reflection; 2) the claims it makes about the fourlearning styles are extravagant; 3) it doesn't sufficiently address the fact of different cultural conditions andexperiences; 4) the idea of stages/steps doesn't necessarily match reality; 5) it has only weak empiricalevidence; 6) the relationship between learning processes and knowledge is more complex than Kolb draws it.[5]

Other critiques

Coffield and his colleagues and Mark Smith are not alone in their judgements. Demos, a UK think tank,published a report on learning styles prepared by a group chaired by David Hargreaves that included UshaGoswami from Cambridge University and David Wood from the University of Nottingham. The Demos reportsaid that the evidence for learning styles was "highly variable", and that practitioners were "not by any means


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frank about the evidence for their work." [38]

Cautioning against interpreting neuropsychological research as supporting the applicability of learning styletheory, John Geake, Professor of Education at the UK's Oxford Brookes University, and a research collaboratorwith Oxford University's Centre for Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the Brain, commented that

We need to take extreme care when moving from the lab to the classroom. We do remember thingsvisually and aurally, but information isn't defined by how it was received.[39]

2009 APS critique

In late 2009, the journal Psychological Science in the Public Interest of the Association for PsychologicalScience (APS) published a report on the scientific validity of learning styles practices (Pashler et al., 2009[2]).The panel was chaired by Hal Pashler (University of California, San Diego); the other members were MarkMcDaniel (Washington University), Doug Rohrer (University of South Florida), and Robert Bjork (Universityof California, Los Angeles). The panel concluded that an adequate evaluation of the learning styleshypothesis—the idea that optimal learning demands that students receive instruction tailored to their learningstyles—requires a particular kind of study. Specifically, students should be grouped into the learning stylecategories that are being evaluated (e.g., visual learners vs. verbal learners), and then students in each groupmust be randomly assigned to one of the learning methods (e.g., visual learning or verbal learning), so that somestudents will be "matched" and others will be "mismatched". At the end of the experiment, all students must sitfor the same test. If the learning style hypothesis is correct, then, for example, visual learners should learn betterwith the visual method, whereas auditory learners should learn better with auditory method. Notably, otherauthors have reached the same conclusion (e.g., Massa & Mayer, 2006[40]).

As disclosed in the report, the panel found that studies utilizing this essential research design were virtuallyabsent from the learning styles literature. In fact, the panel was able to find only a few studies with this researchdesign, and all but one of these studies were negative findings—that is, they found that the same learningmethod was superior for all kinds of students (e.g., Massa & Mayer, 2006).

Furthermore, the panel noted that, even if the requisite finding were obtained, the benefits would need to belarge, and not just statistically significant, before learning style interventions could be recommended ascost-effective. That is, the cost of evaluating and classifying students by their learning style, and then providingcustomized instruction would need to be more beneficial than other interventions (e.g., one-on-one tutoring,after school remediation programs, etc.).

As a consequence, the panel concluded, "at present, there is no adequate evidence base to justify incorporatinglearning styles assessments into general educational practice. Thus, limited education resources would better bedevoted to adopting other educational practices that have strong evidence base, of which there are an increasingnumber."[2]

The article incited critical comments from some defenders of learning styles. The Chronicle of HigherEducation reported that Robert Sternberg from Tufts University spoke out against the paper: "Several of themost-cited researchers on learning styles, Mr. Sternberg points out, do not appear in the paper'sbibliography."[41] This charge was also discussed by Science, which reported that Pashler said, "Just so…mostof [the evidence] is 'weak.'"[42]

Learning styles in the classroom


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Various researchers have attempted to hypothesize ways in which learning style theory can be used in theclassroom. Two such scholars are Dr. Rita Dunn and Dr. Kenneth Dunn, who follow a VARK approach.

Although learning styles will inevitably differ among students in the classroom, Dunn and Dunn say thatteachers should try to make changes in their classroom that will be beneficial to every learning style. Some ofthese changes include room redesign, the development of small-group techniques, and the development ofContract Activity Packages.[29] Redesigning the classroom involves locating dividers that can be used toarrange the room creatively (such as having different learning stations and instructional areas), clearing the floorarea, and incorporating student thoughts and ideas into the design of the classroom.[29]

Their so-called "Contract Activity Packages" are educational plans that use: 1) a clear statement of the learningneed; 2) multisensory resources (auditory, visual, tactile, kinesthetic); 3) activities through which the newly-mastered information can be used creatively; 4) the sharing of creative projects within small groups; 5) at leastthree small-group techniques; 6) a pre-test, a self-test, and a post-test.[29]

Another scholar who believes that learning styles should have an effect on the classroom is Marilee Sprenger inDifferentiation through Learning Styles and Memory. Sprenger bases her work on three premises: 1) Teacherscan be learners, and learners teachers. We are all both. 2) Everyone can learn under the right circumstances. 3)Learning is fun! Make it appealing.[43] She details various ways of teaching, visual, auditory, ortactile/kinesthetic. Methods for visual learners include ensuring that students can see words written, usingpictures, and drawing time lines for events.[43] Methods for auditory learners include repeating words aloud,small-group discussion, debates, listening to books on tape, oral reports, and oral interpretation.[43] Methods fortactile/kinesthetic learners include hands-on activities (experiments, etc.), projects, frequent breaks to allowmovement, visual aids, role play, and field trips.[43] By using a variety of teaching methods from each of thesecategories, teachers cater to different learning styles at once, and improve learning by challenging students tolearn in different ways.[44]

James W. Keefe and John M. Jenkins (2000; 2008) have incorporated learning style assessment as a basiccomponent in their "Personalized Instruction" model of schooling. Six basic elements constitute the culture andcontext of personalized instruction. The cultural components - - teacher role, student learning characteristics,and collegial relationships - -establish the foundation of personalization and ensure that the school prizes acaring and collaborative environment. The contextual factors—interactivity, flexible scheduling, and authenticassessment—establish the structure of personalization. These six elements constitute the state of the art inpersonalized instruction. Cognitive and learning style aanlysis have a special role in the process of personalizinginstruction. Style elements are relatively persistent qualities in the behavior of individual learners. They reflectgenetic coding, personality, development, motivation, and environmental adaptation. Second only to the moreflexible teacher role, the assessment of student learning style, more than any other element, establishes thefoundation for a personalized approach to schooling: for student advisement and placement, for appropriateretraining of student cognitive skills, for adaptive instructional strategy, and for the authentic evaluation oflearning. Some learners respond best in instructional environments based on an analysis of their perceptual andenvironmental style preferences. Most individualized and personalized teaching methods reflect this point ofview. Other learners, however, need help to function successfully in any learning environment. If a youngstercannot cope under conventional instruction, enhancing his cognitive skills may make successful achievementpossible. Many of the student learning problems that learning style diagnosis attempts to solve relate directly toelements of the human information processing system. Processes such as attention, perception and memory, andoperations such as integration and retrieval of information are internal to the system. Any hope for improvingstudent learning necessarily involves an understanding and application of information processing theory.Learning style assessment is an important window to understanding and managing this process.


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Some research evaluating teaching styles and learning styles, however, has found that congruent groups have nosignificant differences in achievement from incongruent groups (Spoon & Schell, 1998). Furthermore, learningstyle in this study varied by demography, specifically by age, suggesting a change in learning style as one getsolder and acquires more experience. While significant age differences did occur, as well as no experimentalmanipulation of classroom assignment, the findings do call into question the aim of congruent teaching-learningstyles in the classroom.

See also

Theory of multiple intelligencesBig Five personality traitsCognitive stylesConstructivism (learning theory)Forer effectMetacognitionMontessori method

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