Marketing:The Core

Southern Methodist University

Steven W HartleyUniversity of Denver

University of Minnesota

MeGrawHill

McGraw-HillIrwin

DETAILED CONTENT!

Parti Initiating the Marketing Process

1 CREATING CUSTOMER RELATIONSHIPS AND VALUETHROUGH MARKETING 3

Discovering How College Students Study Helps Launch a NewProduct at 3M 3

Discovering Student Study Needs 3Satisfying Student Study Needs 3

What Is Marketing? 4Marketing and Your Career 4Marketing: Delivering Benefits to the Organization, ItsStakeholders, and Society 5The Diverse Factors Influencing Marketing Activities 5What Is Needed for Marketing to Occur 6

How Marketing Discovers and Satisfies Consumer Needs 7Discovering Consumer Needs 7The Challenge: Meeting Consumer Needs with NewProducts 7Satisfying Consumer Needs 9

The Marketing Program: How Customer Relationships AreBuilt 10

Customer Value and Customer Relationships 10Relationship Marketing and the Marketing Program 11The Marketing Program 113M's Strategy and Marketing Program to Help StudentsStudy 11

How Marketing Became So Important 13Evolution of the Market Orientation 13Ethics and Social Responsibility: Balancing Interests ofGroups 14The Breadth and Depth of Marketing 15

Learning Objectives Review 16Focusing on Key Terms 17Applying Marketing Knowledge 17Building Your Marketing Plan 17

Video Case 1: 3M's Post-it® Flag Highlighter: Extending theConcept! 18

2 DEVELOPING SUCCESSFUL MARKETING ANDORGANIZATIONAL STRATEGIES 21

Want to Be an Entrepreneur? Get an "A" in a CorrespondenceCourse in Ice Cream Making! 21Today's Organizations 22

Kinds of Organizations 22What Is Strategy? 22

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Structure of Today's Organizations 22

Making Responsible Decisions: Using SocialEntrepreneurship to Help People 23

Strategy in Visionary Organizations 24Organizational Foundation: Why Does It Exist? 24Organizational Direction: What Will It Do? 26

Marketing Matters: The Netflix Launch and Its ContinuallyChanging Business Model! 27

Organizational Strategies: How Will It Do It? 27Tracking Strategic Performance with MarketingDashboards 28

Using Marketing Dashboards: How Well Is Ben &Jerry's Doing? 29

Setting Strategic Directions 30

A Look Around: Where Are We Now? 30Growth Strategies: Where Do We Want to Go? 31

The Strategic Marketing Process 34 .

The Planning Phase of the Strategic Marketing Process 34The Implementation Phase of the Strategic Marketing Process 37The Evaluation Phase of the Strategic Marketing Process 39

Learning Objectives Review 40Focusing on Key Terms 41Applying Marketing Knowledge 41Building Your Marketing Plan 42

Video Case 2 IBM: Using Strategy to Build a "SmarterPlanet" 42

APPENDIX A Building an Effective Marketing Plan 44

3 UNDERSTANDING THE MARKETINGENVIRONMENT, ETHICAL BEHAVIOR, ANDSOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY 59

What Is the World's Third Largest Nation? The Social NationCreated by Facebook! 59

Facebook and the Influence of Environmental Forces 59Environmental Scanning 60

An Environmental Scan of Today's Marketplace 60Social Forces 60

Demographics 60

Making Responsible Decisions: Millennial Are Going toChange the World! 62

Culture 62Economic Forces 63

Macroeconomic ConditionsConsumer Income 63

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Technological Forces 65Technology of Tomorrow 65Technology's Impact on Customer Value 66

Competitive Forces 66Alternative Forms of Competition 66Small Businesses as Competitors 67

Regulatory Forces 67Protecting Competition 67Protecting Producers and Consumers 68Control through Self-Regulation 69

Understanding Ethical Marketing Behavior 69Societal Culture and Norms 69Business Culture and Industry Practices 70

Making Responsible Decisions: Corporate Conscience inthe Cola War 71

Corporate Culture and Expectations 71Your Personal Moral Philosophy and Ethical Behavior 72

Understanding Social Responsibility In Marketing 72Three Concepts of Social Responsibility 72

Marketing Matters: Will Consumers Switch Brands for aCause? Yes, If... 74

Sustainable Development: Doing Well by Doing Good 74

Learning Objectives Review 74Focusing on Key Terms 75Applying Marketing Knowledge 75Building Your Marketing Plan 75

Video Case 3: Toyota: Building Cleaner, Greener Cars 76

Part 2 Understanding Buyers and Markets

4 UNDERSTANDING CONSUMER BEHAVIOR 79

Enlightened Carmakers Know What Custom(h)ers Value 79Consumer Purchase Decision Process and Experience 80

Problem Recognition: Perceiving a Need 80Information Search: Seeking Value 80Alternative Evaluation: Assessing Value 81Purchase Decision: Buying Value 82Postpurchase Behavior: Value in Consumption or Use 82

Marketing Matters: The Value of a Satisfied Customer tothe Company 83

Consumer Involvement and Problem-Solving Variations 83Situational Influences 85

Psychological Influences on Consumer Behavior 86Motivation and Personality 86

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Making Responsible Decisions: The Ethics of SubliminalMessages 88

Perception 88Learning 90Values, Beliefs, and Attitudes 90Consumer Lifestyle 92

Sociocultural Influences on Consumer Behavior 93Personal Influence 93

Marketing Matters: BzzAgent—The Buzz Experience 95

Reference Groups 95Family Influence 95Culture and Subculture 98

Learning Objectives Review 100Focusing on Key Terms 100Applying Marketing Knowledge 100Building Your Marketing'Plan 101

Video Case 4: Groupon: Helping Consumers with PurchaseDecisions 101

UNDERSTANDING ORGANIZATIONS ASCUSTOMERS 105

Buying Publication Paper Is a Serious Marketing ResponsibilityatJCPenney 105The Nature and Size of Organizational Markets 106

Industrial Markets 106Reseller Markets 106Government Markets 107

Measuring Domestic and Global Industrial, Reseller, andGovernment Markets 107Characteristics of Organizational Buying 108

Demand Characteristics 108Size of the Order or Purchase 109Number of Potential Buyers 109Organizational Buying Objectives 110Organizational Buying Criteria 110

Marketing Matters: Harley-Davidson's SupplierCollaboration Creates Customer Value . . . and a GreatRide 111

Buyer-Seller Relationships and Supply Partnerships 111

Making Responsible Decisions: Sustainable Procurementfor Sustainable Growth 112

The Organizational Buying Process and the Buying CenterStages in the Organizational Buying Process 112The Buying Center: A Cross-Functional Group 113

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Online Buying in Organizational Markets 115Prominence of Online Buying in Organizational Markets

Marketing Matters: eBay Means Business forEntrepreneurs 116

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E-Marketplaces: Virtual Organizational MarketsOnline Auctions in Organizational Markets 117

Learning Objectives Review 118Focusing on Key Terms 118Applying Marketing Knowledge 119Building Your Marketing Plan 119

Video Case 5: Trek: Building Better Bikes throughOrganizational Buying 119

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6 UNDERSTANDING AND REACHING GLOBALCONSUMERS AND MARKETS 123

How Dell, Inc., Built a Billion-Dollar Business in India 123Marketing in a Borderless Economic World 124 r

Decline of Economic Protectionism 124Rise of Economic Integration 124

Making Responsible Decisions: Global Ethics and GlobalEconomics—The Case of Protectionism 125

A New Reality: Global Competition among Global Companiesfor Global Consumers 127

Marketing Matters: The Global Teenager—A Market of2 Billion Voracious Consumers with $250 Billion to Spend

Emergence of a Networked Global Marketspace 129A Global Environmental Scan 130

Cultural Diversity 130Economic Considerations 133Political-Regulatory Climate 135

Comparing Global Market-Entry Strategies 136Exporting 136

Marketing Matters: Creative Cosmetics and CreativeExport Marketing in Japan 137

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Licensing 137Joint Venture 138Direct Investment 139

Crafting a Worldwide Marketing ProgramProduct and Promotion Strategies 139Distribution Strategy 141Pricing Strategy 141

Learning Objectives Review 142Focusing on Key Terms 143

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Applying Marketing Knowledge 143Building Your Marketing Plan 143

Video Case 6: CNS Breathe Right Strips: Going Global 143

Part 3 Targeting Marketing Opportunities

7 MARKETING RESEARCH: FROM CUSTOMERINSIGHTS TO ACTIONS 147

How Test Screenings and Tracking Studies Reduce MovieRisks 147

What's in a Movie Name? 147The Risks of Today's (and Tomorrow's) BlockbusterMovies 147Converting Marketing Research Results into Actions 148

The Role of Marketing Research 148What Is Marketing Research? 148The Challenges in Doing Good Marketing Research 148Five-Step Marketing Research Approach 148

Step 1: Define the Problem 149Set the Research Objectives 149Identify Possible Marketing Actions 149

Step 2: Develop the Research Plan 150Specify Constraints 150Identify Data Needed for Marketing Actions 150Determine How to Collect Data 150

Step 3: Collect Relevant Information 151Secondary Data: Internal 151Secondary Data: External 152

Marketing Matters: Online Databases and InternetResources Useful to Marketers 153

Advantages and Disadvantages of Secondary Data 153Primary Data: Watching People 154Primary Data: Asking People 156Primary Data: Other Sources 159

Using Marketing Dashboards: Are the Carmex SocialMedia Programs Working Well? 160

Advantages and Disadvantages of Primary Data 163Step 4: Develop Findings 163

Analyze the Data 163Present the Findings 164

Step 5: Take Marketing Actions 165Make Action Recommendations 165Implement the Action Recommendations 166Evaluate the Results 166

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Sales Forecasting Techniques 166Judgments of the Decision Maker 166Surveys of Knowledgeable Groups 167Statistical Methods 167

Learning Objectives Review 168Focusing on Key Terms 168Applying Marketing Knowledge 168Building Your Marketing Plan 168

Video Case 7: Carmex®: Leveraging Facebook for Marketing

Research 170

MARKET SEGMENTATION, TARGETING, ANDPOSITIONING 173

Zappos.corn's "Wow" = Segments + Service 173A Clear Market Segmentation Strategy 173Delivering WOW Customer Service 173

Why Segment Markets? 174What Market Segmentation Means 174When and How to Segment Markets 175

Steps in Segmenting and Targeting Markets 178Step 1: Group Potential Buyers into Segments 178

Marketing Matters: To Which "Flock" Do YouBelong? 179

Step 2: Group Products to Be Sold into Categories 182Step 3: Develop a Market-Product Grid and Estimate theSize of Markets 183Step 4: Select Target Markets 184Step 5: Take Marketing Actions to Reach Target Markets 185

Marketing Matters: Apple's Segmentation Strategy—Camp Runamok No Longer 187

Market-Product Synergies: A Balancing Act 188Positioning the Product 188

Two Approaches to Product Positioning 188Writing a Positioning Statement 189Product Positioning Using Perceptual Maps 189A Perceptual Map to Reposition Chocolate Milk for Adults 190

Learning Objectives Review 190Focusing on Key Terms 191Applying Marketing Knowledge 191Building Your Marketing Plan 191

Video Case 8: Prince Sports, Inc.: Tennis Racquets for Every

Segment 191

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Part 4 Satisfying Marketing Opportunities

9 DEVELOPING NEW PRODUCTS AND SERVICES 195

Apple's New-Product Innovation Machine 195Apple's Innovation Machine 195iCloud: Where the Digital Lifestyle Is Heading 195

What Are Products and Services? 196A Look at Goods, Services, and Ideas 196Classifying Products 196Classifying Services 198The Uniqueness of Services 199Assessing Service Quality 199Product Items, Product Lines, and Product Mixes 200

New Products and Why They Succeed or Fail 201What Is a New Product? 201

Marketing Matters: Feature Bloat: Geek Squad to theRescue! 202

Why Products and Services Succeed or Fail 203

Using Marketing Dashboards: Which States AreUnderperforming? 206

How Marketing Dashboards Can Improve New-ProductPerformance 206

The New-Product Process 207Stage 1: New-Product Strategy Development 207Stage 2: Idea Generation 207Stage 3: Screening and Evaluation 209Stage 4: Business Analysis 210Stage 5: Development 210

Marketing Matters: Marissa Mayer: The Talent behindGoogle's Familiar White Home Page 211

Stage 6: Market Testing 212Stage 7: Commercialization 212

Learning Objectives Review 214Focusing on Key Terms 215Applying Marketing Knowledge 215Building Your Marketing Plan 215

Video Case 9: General Mills Warm Delights™: Indulgent,Delicious, and Gooey! 215

10 MANAGING SUCCESSFUL PRODUCTS, SERVICES,AND BRANDS 219

Gatorade: Bringing Science to SweatCharting the Product Life Cycle 220

Introduction Stage 220Growth Stage 222Maturity Stage 223

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Marketing Matters: Will E-mail Spell Extinction for FaxMachines? 224

Decline Stage 224Three Aspects of the Product Life Cycle 225

Managing the Product Life Cycle 227Role of a Product Manager 227Modifying the Product 227

Using Marketing Dashboards: Knowing Your CDIandBDI 228

Modifying the Market 229Repositioning the Product 229

Making Responsible Decisions: Consumer Economics ofDownsizing—Get Less, Pay More 230

Branding and Brand Management 231

Brand Personality and Brand Equity 231Picking a Good Brand Name 233Branding Strategies 234

Marketing Matters: Creating Customer Value throughPackaging—Pez Heads Dispense More than Candy 236

Packaging and Labeling Products 236

Creating Customer Value and Competitive Advantage throughPackaging and Labeling 237Packaging and Labeling Challenges and Responses 238

Managing the Marketing of Services 239Product (Service) 239Price 239Place (Distribution) 240Promotion 240People 240Physical Environment 241Process 241

Learning Objectives Review 241 v

Focusing on Key Terms 242Applying Marketing Knowledge 242Building Your Marketing Plan 242

Video Case 10: Mary Kay, Inc.: Building a Brand in India 243

11 PRICING PRODUCTS AND SERVICES 247

Vizio, Inc.—Where Vision Meets Value™ in HDTVNature and Importance of Price 248

What Is a Price? 248Price as an Indicator of Value 249Price in the Marketing Mix 249

General Pricing Approaches 250Demand-Oriented Pricing Approaches 250

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Marketing Matters: Energizer's Lesson in PricePerception—Value Lies in the Eye of the Beholder251

Cost-Oriented Pricing Approaches 252Profit-Oriented Pricing Approaches 253Competition-Oriented Pricing Approaches 254

Using Marketing Dashboards: Are Red Bull Prices Above,At, or Below Market? 255

Estimating Demand and Revenue 256Fundamentals of Estimating Demand 256Fundamentals of Estimating Revenue 258

Determining Cost, Volume, and Profit Relationships 258The Importance of Controlling Costs 258Break-Even Analysis 259

Pricing Objectives and Constraints 261Identifying Pricing Objectives 261Identifying Pricing Constraints 262

Setting a Final Price 264Step 1: Select an Appropriate Price Level 264Step 2: Set the List or Quoted Price 264Step 3: Make Special Adjustments to the List or QuotedPrice 264

Making Responsible Decisions: Flexible Pricing—Is ThereDiscrimination in Bargaining for a New Car? 265

Learning Objectives Review 266Focusing on Key Terms 267Applying Marketing Knowledge 267Building Your Marketing Plan 267

Video Case 11: Washburn Guitars: Using Break-Even Points toMake Pricing Decisions 267

12 MANAGING MARKETING CHANNELS AND SUPPLYCHAINS 271

Callaway Golf: Designing and Delivering the Goods forGreat Golf 271Nature and Importance of Marketing Channels 272

What Is a Marketing Channel of Distribution? 272Value Is Created by Intermediaries 272

Channel Structure and Organization 274Marketing Channels for Consumer Products and Services 274Marketing Channels for Business Products and Services 275Electronic Marketing Channels 276Direct and Multichannel Marketing 276Dual Distribution and Strategic Channel Alliances 277

Marketing Matters: Nestle and General Mills—CerealPartners Worldwide 278

Vertical Marketing Systems 278

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Marketing Channel Choice and Management 280Factors Affecting Channel Choice and Management 280

Using Marketing Dashboards: Channel Sales and Profit atCharlesburg Furniture 282

Managing Channel Relationships: Conflict andCooperation 283

Logistics and Supply Chain Management 284Supply Chains versus Marketing Channels 285Sourcing, Assembling, and Delivering a New Car: TheAutomotive Supply Chain 285Supply Chain Management and Marketing Strategy 286

Marketing Matters: IBM's Integrated Supply Chain—Delivering a Total Solution for Its Customers 287

Two Concepts of Logistics Management in a Supply Chain 288Total Logistics Cost Concept 288Customer Service Concept 288

Closing the Loop: Reverse Logistics 289

Making Responsible Decisions: Reverse Logistics andGreen Marketing Go Together at Hewlett-Packard:Recycling e-Waste 290

Learning Objectives Review 291Focusing on Key Terms 291Applying Marketing Knowledge 291Building Your Marketing Plan 292

Video Case 12: Amazon: Delivering the GoodsTimes a Day 292

. Millions of

13 RETAILING AND WHOLESALING 295

295Retailers Love It When the Mayor Visits!The Value of Retailing 296

Consumer Utilities Offered by Retailing 296The Global Economic Impact of Retailing 297

Classifying Retail Outlets 297

Making Responsible Decisions: Green Isn't Just a Color toRetailers. It's a Value! 298

Form of Ownership 298Level of Service 299Type of Merchandise Line 300

Nonstore Retailing 301Automatic Vending 301Direct Mail and Catalogs 302Television Home Shopping 302Online Retailing 303Telemarketing 304Direct Selling 304

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Retailing Strategy 305Retail Pricing 305Store Location 306Retail Communication 307Merchandise 307

Using Marketing Dashboards: Why Apple Stores May Bethe Best in the United States 308

The Changing Nature of Retailing 309The Wheel of Retailing 309The Retail Life Cycle 310

Wholesaling 311Merchant Wholesalers 311Agents and Brokers 311Manufacturer's Branches and Offices 312

Learning Objectives Review 312Focusing on Key Terms 313Applying Marketing Knowledge 313Building Your Marketing Plan 313

Video Case 13: Mall of America®: Shopping and a Whole LotMore 313

14 INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS ANDDIRECT MARKETING 317

Get Engaged. . . in the Twitterverse! 317The Communication Process 318

Encoding and Decoding 319Feedback 320Noise 320

The Promotional Elements 320Advertising 320Personal Selling 321Public Relations 322Sales Promotion 323Direct Marketing 323

Integrated Marketing Communications—Developing thePromotional Mix 324

The Target Audience 324The Product Life Cycle 324

Marketing Matters: How Can You Reach Generation Y?With Mobile Marketing! 325

Channel Strategies 326Developing an IMC Program 327

Identifying the Target Audience 327Specifying Promotion Objectives 328Setting the Promotion Budget 328

Using Marketing Dashboards: How Much Should YouSpend on IMC? 329

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Selecting the Right Promotional Tools 329Designing the Promotion 330Scheduling the Promotion 330

Executing and Assessing the Promotion Program 330Direct Marketing 332

The Growth of Direct Marketing 332The Value of Direct Marketing 332Technological, Global, and Ethical Issues in DirectMarketing 333

Making Responsible Decisions: What Information ShouldBe Private? 334

Learning Objectives Review 334Focusing on Key Terms 335Applying Marketing Knowledge 335Building Your Marketing Plan 335

Video Case 14: Mountain Dew: Using IMC and Social Media toCreate and Promote a New Flavor 336

15 ADVERTISING, SALES PROMOTION, AND PUBLICRELATIONS 339

Where Can You Watch TV? Where Can't You? 339Types of Advertisements 340

Product Advertisements 340Institutional Advertisements 341

Developing the Advertising Program 342Identifying the Target Audience 342Specifying Advertising Objectives 342Setting the Advertising Budget 342Designing the Advertisement 343Selecting the Right Media 344

Using Marketing Dashboards: What Is the Best Way toReach 7,000 Customers? 345

Different Media Alternatives 346

Making Responsible Decisions: Who fs Responsible forClick Fraud? 349

Scheduling the Advertising 350Executing the Advertising Program 351

Pretesting the Advertising 351Carrying Out the Advertising Program 351

Assessing the Advertising Program 352Posttesting the Advertising 352

Sales Promotion 353Consumer-Oriented Sales Promotions 353Trade-Oriented Sales Promotions

Public Relations 357356

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Learning Objectives Review 358Focusing on Key Terms 358Applying Marketing Knowledge 358Building Your Marketing Plan 359

Video Case 15: Google, Inc.: The Right Ads at the RightTime 359

16 USING SOCIAL MEDIA TO CONNECT WITHCONSUMERS 363

Connecting with Today's College Students Using Facebookand Twitter 363

Getting Help for Freshman Move-In Day 363

The New Age of Social Media 363Understanding Social Media 364

What Are Social Media? 364

Comparing Social and Traditional Media 366A Look at Four Important Social Networks 367

Facebook 367

Twitter 369

Linkedln 370

YouTube 371

Marketing Matters: What Are Some of Your OtherFavorite Social Networks? 372

Integrating Social Media into Today's Marketing

Strategies 373Social Media and the Strategic Marketing Process 373

Selecting the Social Network 373

How Social Media Produce Sales 374

Measuring the Results of Social Media Programs 375

Greenpeace vs. Nestle's Kit Kat: A Nightmarish Meltdown 377

The Future: Social Media + Smartphones + Exotic Apps 378The Convergence of Real and Digital Worlds 378

Marketing Matters: The Coolest, Wildest, Weirdest,and . . . Best. . . Apps??? 379

Mobile Marketing: Tightening Links to Marketing Actions 380

Where to Now? 380

The Global Marketing Reach of Social Media 381

Learning Objectives Review 382Focusing on Key Terms 382Applying Marketing Knowledge 383Building Your Marketing Plan 383

Video Case 16: AOI Marketing: Using Facebook to LaunchBitter Girls® 383

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17 PERSONAL SELLING AND SALESMANAGEMENT 387

Meet Today's Sales Professional 387Scope and Significance of Personal Selling and SalesManagement 388

Nature of Personal Selling and Sales Management 388Selling Happens Almost Everywhere 388Personal Selling in Marketing 388Creating Customer Solutions and Value through Salespeople:Relationship Selling 388

The Many Forms of Personal Selling 390

Order-Taking Salespeople 390Order-Getting Salespeople 390

The Personal Selling Process: Building Relationships 392Prospecting: Identifying and Qualifying ProspectiveCustomers 392Preapproach: Preparing for the Sales Call 393Approach: Making the First Impression 394Presentation: Tailoring a Solution for a Customer's Needs 394

Marketing Matters: Imagine This . . . Putting theCustomer into Customer Solutions! 396

Close: Asking for the Customer's Order or Business 396Follow-Up: Solidifying the Relationship 397

The Sales Management Process 397Sales Plan Formulation: Setting Direction 397

Marketing Matters: Creating and Sustaining CustomerValue through Cross-Functional Team Selling 399

Sales Plan Implementation: Putting the Plan into Action 400Salesforce Evaluation: Measuring Results 402Salesforce Automation and Customer RelationshipManagement 402

Using Marketing Dashboards: Tracking SalespersonPerformance at Moore Chemical & Sanitation Supply,Inc. 403

Learning Objectives Review 404Focusing on Key Terms 405Applying Marketing Knowledge 405

Building Your Marketing Plan 405

Video Case 17: Xerox: Building Customer Relationshipsthrough Personal Selling 406

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18 IMPLEMENTING INTERACTIVE AND MULTICHANNELMARKETING 409

Seven Cycles. One Bike. Yours. 409

Creating Customer Value, Relationships, and Experiences inMarketspace 410

Creating Customer Value in Marketspace 410Creating Interactivity, Individuality, and Customer Relationshipsin Marketspace 411Creating an Online Customer Experience 413

Online Consumer Behavior and Marketing Practice inMarketspace 415

Who Is the Online Consumer? 415

Using Marketing Dashboards: Sizing Up Site Stickiness atSewell Automobile Companies 416

What Online Consumers Buy 416

Marketing Matters: Meet Today's Internet Mom on aMission 417

Why Consumers Shop and Buy Online 418When and Where Online Consumers Shop and Buy 421

Making Responsible Decisions: Who Is Responsible forInternet Privacy and Security? 422

Cross-Channel Shoppers and Multichannel Marketing 422Who Is the Cross-Channel Shopper? 422Implementing Multichannel Marketing 423

Learning Objectives Review 424Focusing on Key Terms 425Applying Marketing Knowledge 425Building Your Marketing Plan 425

Video Case 18: Pizza Hut and imc2: Becoming a Multichannel *Marketer 426

APPENDIX B Planning a Career in Marketing 430

Glossary 441Learning Review Answers 447

Chapter Notes 455Credits 479Name Index 483Company/Product Index 488Subject Index 493