44

M d i Ethi

JUDITH LICHTENBERG

Th t " d i " l t f d i l d i i fil

t l i i di il d th I t t I thi h t I h l l " d i " i h

t i l t th di d i f i l l I ill i i t

d i i t t h t t f th di ll d i b d j l i Thi

h t th i b t th thi f j l i I h l l t di t h i l i

that arise for art or popular culture nor shall I consider pornography

Journalism has been slower than law and medicine to develop a set of principles

idl i d i l th t h i l i f d b it titi

T h t b b lik b i j l i t th f i

t d i t i l l i d I th l f th di i h i

i d h t d bli li h b i d t th t t f

t t t ft W t t th d f i i t l

i t h f d t h i ti i i l th b j t f bli ti d h

come to engage in a good deal of ethical selfstudy

Deception and Dishonesty

A th t i t t d l t t h i l i j l i t f b

l t d ith d t i d d i h t S h bl t t h l

i t f Th t b l t t i l th k i b l i t i f f l h d

ll l i i f J t C k ' 1980 f b i t i f t i The Washington

Post about a supposed eightyearold drug addict that won her a Pulitzer Prize (later

retracted) to Stephen Glass's many inventions in the New Republic and other maga

zines in the late 1990s

I th t i t t i t h i l bl i it

t i l t h t j l i t t t k t i B t h i

btl i f th t f i d i i d l j l i t b t f th i t i t

ti ithi h i h th k O h t t f ti it i

bl t t di i t i t t k i d t t f l h d d

l i i W h t t i t t d ? N t h i i t i f

t i l h d t h t d t t h d b th i d th

597

JUDITH LICHTENBERG

f j l i i t i t i ith th l t f bl

t d d

A t h bl th b l i f th li b t f t d fiti

h i h i d d b t i f h i b l t d i lit th E l i t

h j t th h i t i t i d f d th f it h t b d

l l b t t t h l t b f d i th ld B t l t h h it

b t b l t i l f l th i j t i f i t i f th

f it i k t h t t t b f t l A ll bl i th f

t t i t h t h b l d d f d th lik h i h t h f

l th l i t l d h k C l d t t i d i

i th ld f j l i d h t t t i i t b l Still th

t b i i f i t l i i t t h i d it t l b b i h t

d th li b t th i i b l d th i i i b l I h b l i i d

1991 i l i th it f th New Yorker, J t M l l th US S

C t h l d t h t bli f l ib l d h it t t i b t

l t d t t i t hi {Masson New Yorker Magazine, Inc., 501 US 496

[1991])

C t i t h i t h i l i ti b t d t i d di

h t J l i t ti d i i i t t h l t i t

i f t i R l l i l d t i t i h l t h k

t d t i h b j l i t h t h i l f h i d b l

t b l i d i d t d it d t l i i j l i t h i d

d f l t b k t h t d b d f d h d l i

ti (Thi l t l d t l i t i h i h F d Li S k t d th

t f ABC N Th US C t f A l h l d i Food Lion, Inc.

Capital Cities/ABC, Inc. (194 F 3d 505 [1999]) t h t th t " b h d t h i

d t f l l t d i t t d t " b t it did t t h f f d

d f i t d ti d it d i d F d Li b l i t i d )

S ill t h t d t i ti b j t i f i d M t l

h t h t f thi b l t i t iti A l i b l t h t i l t t

j t i f d t i i i h t lik thi h t h d t i i t d

i t i l d d th i t f th i f t i t b t d

th i t f th d t i i l d d th ilbilit l k f it f

l t t i f i i th i f t i S i l B k (1989) h t d

th i t i d t i ti i j t i f i d l if it ld b l d b t d

d t d t i d b f f t d ti (It i h t t t t h t th t

i t i ld i l d th t t i l )

J l i t d i i btl ll J t M l l b i The

Journalist and the Murderer ith d t h t h i b f t i

"E j l i t h i t t t i d t f l l f h i l f t ti h t i i

k t h t h t h d i ll i d f i b l H i k i d f fid

i l ' it i l l i i i t h i t t d

b t i th i t h t " ( M l l 1990 3) M l l iti

t i l b t J M G i i h b k Fatal Vision h i l d th t i l

d f Jff M D l d t i d f killi hi if d

hild M G i i h d b f i d d M D l d b f hi t i l d i t i d th

598

MEDIA ETHICS

l t i h i f f t d hil iti th b t l l i b k t h t

ld l d b ti M D l d ' ilt ( T h t M l l h l f d

f j l i t i b t l h d i b d b h l t d th d f Jff

M f h d f th F d A h i i h t lik i ti ti

h d t M l l h l f d t h t h d t i i i l l

i t )

M l l ' i i l t t i l t t d b t it i t t i

i h t j l i t lik ll h k k i d f t d f i t

l l t i h i t ft t h i b j t d h d t h i ti Th

l li t b d h b t th i i b l d th i i i b l

th t b l d th t d i i l l f l i t d f

l ( K t i i t d t h t t t t th solely

th ti i j t h t l i i t thi d i t i ) O l t f t i

th l t i h i t i t i f th b j t th Th i th bli

b t d t d t d th l f th j l i t i d it i bl

t l d t h t th l f t l t i t h bli f f i i l

d bli f i l d ( A i l ib l l i i l l d i t i i h b t

bli f f i i l d bli fi th h d d di l th

t h ) Wh j l i t i t i th i i th f th h

h ht t b b t h t h d d ill d

A t t i The New York Times Magazine i l l t t th i t Th

t M i h l L i t l d th t f h i h h l t d t f b b N

J h d $800000 th t k k t t h h I t t t i i t h

d b th S i t i d E h C i i f t k k t f d (H d

hi t t l l t t l d t f t ith th SEC) L i h d th b '

t ( i l l hi f t h ) b d S i l i k h t Th t l

t i l d d d t th i t t f th t d f it h b

t l t h h it h d b i th b i bl i d b th b ' t i i t i

Y t it i ti b t th t ' d hi d H did h t

h t h d i t th f i l ? W th f h th i h t

th t ? It ld b bl t i t h t j l i t t th f t t h f t

l f d b j t f th t i th it d h l i

ith f f i t diti f t t b l t

N t h l j l i t d t d ith i h th t t h l

t d b j t d i h t h h t h i k th t th t th

bli

A Riht t K ?

At th l t h l i l l t t th fliti ibiliti l i t

f t O id i th j l i t ' h l t i h i ith th b j t

d h d t t t l i t l t t th t t l Th d t i

th th id d i f f i l t t d i b t i d t i f J l i t

ti k f t h i b l i t i t t l l t th it t h i b l i t i

t th t t h t th bli i t t O th t l k b t "th b l i ' i h t t

599

JUDITH LICHTENBERG

k " I d d th S i t f P f i l J l i t Si D l t Chi t t h t

the public's right to know is "the overriding mission of the mass media" and that

"journalists must be free of obligation to any interests other than" promotion of this

right

C l l h th b l i h t t k i h t t k

thi d thi I d d th l f i h t i t t i l l h l f l

h th i h i h i h t l i b l k f i h t t k it

i i b d Oft fid thi t th d i t k

Th ti i h t f t l t t d i d i h t h i f t i d

i t i d i i d l ht t b b l i h d I th fil Absence of Malice, i

suspect's friend provides an alibi for him to a reporter claiming the suspect accom

panied her to an abortion during the time when the crime was being committed

The friend is emotionally unstable and a devout Catholic and commits suicide

h th t i l d i h i b l i h d th t d i th l l

Th t l i t h t th dibilit f th t i h i h th i

t ' t t i i t t k d d d i t i th ' H d

th t t d t h t th i h t it i i d f h d i

i i h t h b d i f f t d ll k h l t th t h l d

have been to the risks In addition the claim that the credibility of the story

depended on using a real name must be evaluated in the light of the widespread

use of unnamed sources in news stories also staunchly defended by journalists

Phili M i th l f i t M i d t b i

t i i i F l i d h hi h t l b d (M 1987 26) Th i i

t l i t hi th h d i j d d i d t i f i th h t l

t Th b i t h t i i d if hi i b l i h d i th t

b hi h t S h l d th b l ih th t it i

i t h t hi itti th l ? O h l d it kill th t ?

T d i d h l i l t th i t f th t th

likelihood and magnitude of harm to the individual; the relevance of the disputed

information to the story (can the story be usefully told without it?); and finally the

extent to which the person in question has chosen the limelight or is responsible for

fidi h i l f i it E h f th ti b d i f f i l t t ( B t th

t b A t t t i t th f t ld t l l i t M i h l L i ' t l

f th h i h h l t d t d hi t )

Wh l i t th i b ki b t th i t f ti

t i b l i t b h i ( h l t i i t ) f bli f f i i l bli

fi th ti b d i f f i l t W t h t th t

the question "When should reporters write about the private lives of public offi

cials?" is "When the behavior is relevant to their fitness for office" But agreement

about when that condition is fulfilled is difficult to achieve There is profound dis

t i W t i t ( h l i th i t i t l t

di t t i l i d ) b t h t h t h t t t '

i t h t d h t fl l thi i i f i t b t hi bilit

t l d d t

N t h i i i l i f i d b th f t t h t th bliit j l i t t b t h i

t d i l l h th bli i t d t h f l lt th

600

MEDIA ETHICS

t th fit ti S f l i h t b l i t h t l i t i l

leader's sexual peccadillos are not in and of themselves relevant to his fitness for

office but also that once these become public knowledge or the object of public

obsession the formerly private behavior no longer is When Franklin Roosevelt or

J h K d i d ith t t h i i it t bli k l d

t l t tl b j l i t f th ti h t i d i t i b t

h t th k S i h t till t h t th i d i t i t l

l fl b t t h t th d i d th i d t ' bli d t

B t l t h i l d i t f d i d i t b t k i t

h ti d i t t i th f i t t bli b i it i i l i b l

to maintain that such acts unknown to the public could be relevant to evaluating

their public success We may wish for a kind of moral unity in the universe

according to which all the virtues go together and all the vices do too but alas

th i ti b t i t lit d bli t

U l ik t h i d t j l i t h h t t th

l t i i t i f litii S th t ibilit f t h i

i d b l l t l i h l i t d t i th f h i t i l t

b t l i ki thi t t h t i h t t h t h i b t

such as that a politician's sexual practices are relevant to his ability to lead

Of course journalists and news organizations are likely to argue that as long as

other journalists cover these issues they have little choice but to report them if they

h t i i b i Th titi d f i i d d It i

l it i At th l t if l di t l t t d

t ( t h t ld i li ti h i d k )

t d h t i ft t k lif f t h i t h t k it h d f j l

i t t i th

J l i t i ti t h t d th h d i f " t i th b d "

ll t b h i h f l f f i t d b th di

But they can also include practices that offend audiences such as the use of profan

ity or the publication of shocking pictures In some cases we may find both at once:

the photographer who pushes himself on the grieving family taking pictures of

d d hild t h t h k d th i i di

Y t it b d t h t th bl f t i l i t t

l t th i th b i f d i l d i t d j l i th th th

k i d f lit d d fil d i b M G i i M l l d

L i i t th b t l f d b j t M l l h i b t th

th it t l t i h i i h i h b t h j l i t d h

interest in remaining on good terms even at the cost of other values they are

supposed to serve To be effective in their respective positions the ournalist needs

the source especially when the source is a politician public official or some other

fi ith d i l d th li t i i bli f f i i l d th j l

i t B t h b i t i l t i h i d th j l i t ' l t t h

k d t h d f th bli i t t Thi t i b t th l i t '

d t l t i t d th i t f d t h t f th lt i

f d flit f i t t d bi i th i h i h t t d

ll i t t t t d

601

JUDITH LICHTENBERG

M d i Bi

Thi b i t b d ti b t bi b j t i i t d t l i t

li Th i i l f l F i t it i ti t l

b t thi b t b t i t l h t k h k d th

l i i t t d t i t k l d S d it b t l th b h

i f i d i i d l j l i t b t t l t h th i t i t t i ithi h i h

they operate

The subject is complicated also because although in our society the accusation

that journalists are biased is widespread according to a recent poll (ASNE 1999)

78 t f A i d l t b l i th i bi i th di t i th

i t h t f j l i t d i d d f t t h d b j t i i t i

ibl d bi i i i t b l B t th d i t t h t " h t " i l i " " it ld

b f i t i t i i j l i t f d i h t th t h l d i If it i

i i b l f l t thi t "f t h i t i " ( d f thi

i t i l t t l ) t t t t b b j t i i f i t l

It ld t k t f fild t id th l i t h t i j l i d

broadly objectivity and truth are impossible even as ideals (but see Lichtenberg

2000) So I shall assume here that they are possible and plausible ideals I shall ask

what lies behind accusations of journalistic bias and to what extent they are justi

fid

T l t th ti d t k d i t i t i O i b

t d i i N i t i d h li b t th

d d i t i l id f t h i ti Th ti f bi i i l d ith

t t d i t i l h i h d t b " b i d " (Thi t t t l th

dd h t f th t " b i " O th h d th t i j t i l

describe a view as biased if we mean to condemn it or the person who holds the

view On the other hand the popular outcries of bias in the media suggest that a

view is equivalent to a bias Deeply embedded here is the assumption that views

b t i l l i t i l tt t b t b t i l th t i l

i t t f th h h l d th i t I h l l t t i th t

t i )

It i ibl t ti th i t i t f th li b t

d d i t i l b f l k t i i i b j t i i t f th t

j t t i d b f th l t d i t h t f t " t h l d "

" l l d " b f th i di i l d i " l

s is" that partakes of both news and opinion Nevertheless I shall take the distinc

tion between news and opinion to have some validity even if the line is not sharp

Another distinction relevant to evaluating the accusation of bias is between ndi

i d l j l i t th i t i f h i h d ithi h i h th k

d t h i " d t " th lti f t h i l b

W h t i t f t b t f th S f l i 1996 " t f

179 d i l d i i d t i l h f l D l d th t f

111 " hil P i d t C l i t d l i t f i (Gibb 1996 7) At

th ti di t t d i d t d b th A i S i t f N

602

MEDIA ETHICS

Edit A i j l i t " l ik l t ffilit ith l

toward' the Democratic party (53 percent of the journalists vs 35 percent of the

public)" (ASNE 1999)

Clearly the distinction between news and opinion is also relevant here; the owners

f i t i t l th d i t i l id f th ti d d t i

h t i i th hil ki j l i t th id B t

iti d b t di bi t thi i t b i l i d t b t h t

d i t i l l i i th l t f it O th d i t i l d d d t

t fid l ' i i it i i th h i h d t b t l

d b i d t h t j l i ' i i d i b btl l t l

itself

It will be easier to evaluate this charge by making it more specific I shall there

fore focus on the common claim that the American news media suffer from a liberal

bi l t h h f h t I li ll t ti f th t f

bi Th h f l i b l bi i ll d i t d t th l t i l di h

t k t th t i f l t i l h The New York Times

d The Washington Post, d th f bli di d t l i i T

l t it d t t t l l t i

(1) First it is worth noting how relative the notion of liberalism is What passes

for liberal bias in the United States would be considered rightofcenter in many

European countries whose conservative parties generally lie to the left of the

A i D t i t

(2) O i f id ti f f d f th l i t h t th i

t A i di h l i b l bi i t h t t A i l i t

l i b l (Gldb 2001) B t th l i t h t t h f t h i li t

l b l i b l i non sequitur d d t t h t If t d i

l d i t h t l i b l j l i t t d l i b l j l i th it i

ll l i b l t h t ti j l i t t d ti l

ism; more generally journalists of persuasion X must produce journalism of persua

sion X On this view truth or accuracy are hopeless ideals; no one can escape his or

her biases I have already rejected this view To make the complaint about bias

th t t d i t t t h t t t h d l i b l i d l

Th ti i h j d apart f i d t i f th j l i t '

l i t i l l i h t h i b i d

(3) T f t i l t i i b i d i t it t

th f t t h t it it l t f t t h t it i t t f t t

i i t i l d i t t d T k t h t t th f t

omits relevant facts would seem to require an independent source of information

about the situation In some cases when we ourselves have been participants n

or eyewitnesses to an event we may be in a position to judge that media coverage

i d i t t d f l d B t t f th ti t h i f t i i t l f d d

di d i th t f th thi b i lb l Of

t bi i t h t t l l h i i d d t f t i

b t i t I l l l ik l t t t h t t i b i d

if it flit ith d i t h i l i t i l i M t h t t h t

f A i d b l i th di b i d d th t l ll

603

JUDITH LICHTENBERG

th l i t i l t (ASNE 1999) C t i d t t l i b l bi hil

members of minority groups find bias in coverage about their groups Accusations

of bias may be more farreaching involving the claim not simply that this or that

story is told in an unfair or distorted way but that important issues or problems are

i d d l d b th di hil th i d i t i t

Th ti t l b t th i l l d i f f i l t t d

l t

(4) Th ti f l i b l bi t d i ti ith th t i t f

i d i i d l j l i t i th i d ti bi f th di It

i h t b d t h t th t i t t d t i t f h t i d t i

get covered and how (not to mention what does not get covered) are not the beliefs

or values of individual journalists but rather the structures and institutions within

which they work Massmedia organizations are vast corporate entities; they are

th t h t b d th h f d i t t i ti

tt i th th th P t b d i t b t

ft th ill b btl d i l i i t (At th ti th ft ti f

di i t i ti ll i t t h i th i l

i t i l i t t i t i l l t th i th b f Th

profit motive can contain its own sorts of biases: not so much political biases as

biases toward the sensational the entertaining and the accessible) The adherence

of journalists to the standard norms of their profession such as their reliance on

f f i i l l f f t h t t d d h d t i b t t

ti t d i i di F l li t

h i t t i i t i i d l t i ith t f f i i l h

i l f i f t i Th lt b k i d l t t t f th

f l

Is Neutrality a Virtue?

S f th t h t f thi d i i h b t t t th l i t h t i t

di h l i b l bi I h d t h t th f t t h t l i t t d

t b l i b l d t t h t t h i j l i i l i b l t h t th f l

ti bi i th di t l t i t t l i b l d t h t

" l i b l " i l t i t t h t i th A i t t i t f t th l f t

A t h t t ld b t d t h t i t th di h

l i b l bi d t t h t thi i t il b d thi C i d

example of the kind of coverage that raises the ire of conservatives A recent story

on National Public Radio's All Things Considered described the experiences of gay

teenagers and how they have changed over the past few years Although the story

did t l i i t l d i t i l i th b j t it t d b l b i it d

b h d l t h t i t th bl t f t i i

t d b H R i h t W t h th h t f t b t h i

A h d i l d b ft t l i i d th kl i

d t d f t h i t h i t t i d "

" th ibilit f bi l l l i d l i l l t l li i

604

MEDIA ETHICS

A d t th t t t h t j l i t f th l t i l i t i

tend to be urban bicoastal affluent and well educated they are likely to cover and

impart the cultural and political points of view associated with those traits

Is this a problem? If so what is the appropriate response to it? One answer is

d i t l l t d t th i t f th l t ti Th t h d ti t d

i f th di ht t b t t d ith l i b l th Milli d

t h t t t h ill t l ik l f th d i l t i l i t t i b t th

O i h t l ll t h t d i f f t h i i t b l b i ith

th d i f f t bi d l i t i l t d i It b t l t l t i

t i l l t l t t t h t i i t i b t i f l i b l i d t h t

ations are not We might say in other words that there exists a division of political

labor That mainstream journalism is more liberal than the general public f it is is

not necessarily problematic

Of l i b l l ik l t ith thi t th

ti t l t i t b th b i l i d t d t h t l i b l bi is bi

A d thi b i t th d f i t th h f l i b l bi h i h

i t l f ti b t t l i t l d th ibilit f t t h

C i d i th t b t th t h i h iti i h t

exhibits the liberal cultural biases of our society's elites A more sympathetic ap

praisal might see it instead as one element in the movement to expand the circle

of human rights to include not only women and ethnic and racial minorities

b t l l ith d ib i l i t i d th ith t d d l i t t i

D th h d l i b l bi t d i th f b l i t h t

t h t i f i t t i f f t i Littl R k M t i i

l l f l d ?

Th l ti i h t b t thi i th thi b j t i l

i h t b t ti b l k h i h t ? A d l d

l ith d ib i l i t i i i l l t i t ld t th i h t ? If ( d f I d t

pretend that everyone would agree nor that it is obvious what the human rights in

question amount to) we can ask how this should affect the journalist's stance The

standard view in American journalism has been that the journalist should be neu

t l Sh h l d t t k iti b t h l d t d t d t th

iti th t k Y t thi i ll t d i t t h

th fliti t i l iti b t h t th t t h i I l b l

i t k i l ? Did G W B h t l th 2000 l t i ? W ft i d

ll th h i l i t h t l f t b t hil l

h b l i f b t h i h t i l th i t t f th h

hold them Nevertheless as certain values become entrenched in a society as civil

rights for racial minorities for example have become entrenched in ours they

come to be seen as "true" or "objective" and one is no longer required or expected

( ibl i t td ) t b t l b t th (Th BBC d t h

l " B t d d il t t l " )

A lt d t d b i d t h t i j l i t i t l f

l f f i l t i j t i d d t t j l i t t b d t h d

d t l b t h tt T h t i tl d f t th ll

j t i i f th t " b i " W it t f th ti t

605

JUDITH LICHTENBERG

ld i t d t h t bi i h i d thi S i i l l th f

thetic portrayals of gay teenagers If you believe that they ought to be treated as

others are treated and not punished for their sexual orientation then you will say

either that sympathetic media portrayals of them are not biased (because they

th i h t i ) l t h t th b i d b t t h t bi i h i

d b l

Th ti th t th h t f th j l i t ' iti i i th

l t i t t i d i h t T h t t t h l d

t i i t t l i t l t d i t i l l t l l d i A i j l

i ? N t l i t ' l h b b j t d t h l l i t f

variety of sources including not only critics on the left but also proponents of

"civic" or "public" journalism who readily acknowledge that their values do and

ought to shape their reporting (Lichtenberg 1999; Rosen 1999) The foregoing

d i i t t h t t h i k b t d i i t t l i t l h th

j l i t ' i t t diff b t t i l l f f i t d

t b t l b t h t ll i th t th d Wh th

j l i t ' l d di f th f hi di th d i i t ill ll

b t A d h thi i i th d th b t h f t h t b

able to recognize a dissenting perspective for what it is For then we can employ our

critical faculties to determine how that perspective colors the stories that are told

how they are told and which stories still lie in the shadows

References

A i S i t f N Edit (ASNE) (1999) E i i Cdibilit P t i

f th Pbli d th Ps available at: wwwasneorg/kiosk/reports/99reports/1999exami i d i b i l i t /

B k S i l (1989) Li Ml Chi i Pit d Pbli Lif N Y k Vi tGibb D t h (1996) D l i i d t Edit d Pblih N b 9 7 Goldberg Bernard (2001) Bi A CBS Iid E h th Mdi Ditt th Ns Wash

i t DC R L i M i h l (2001) J t h L b d ' t i l tiiti Th N Yk Ti M

i F b 25 26Lichtenberg Judith (1999) Beyond the public journalism controversy In Robert Fullinwider

( d ) Ciil Sit D d Cii R l 34154 L h MD R d Littlflld

(2000) In defense of objectivity revisited In James Curran and Michael Gurevitch (eds)M Mdi d Sit 3 d d 23854 L d E d d A l d

M l l J t (1990) Th J l i t d th Md N Y k K fM Phili (1987) Ethil J l i N Y k L Rosen Jay (1999) Wht J l i t f? New Haven CT: Yale University Press

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Further reading

Christians, Clifford, Fackler, Mark, Rotzoll, Kim, and McKee, Kathy (2001) Media Ethics: Cases

and Moral Reasoning, 6th edn. New York: Longman.Curran, James and Gurevitch, Michael (eds) (2000) Mass Media and Society, 3rd edn. London:

Edward Arnold.Fallows, James (1997) Breaking the News: How the Media Undermine American Democracy. New

York: Vintage.Gross, Larry, Katz, John Stuart, and Ruby, Jay (1988) Image Ethics: The Moral Rights of

Subjects in Photographs, Film, and Television. New York: Oxford University Press.Kieran, Matthew (ed.) (1988) Media Ethics. London: Routledge.Klaidman, Stephen and Beauchamp, Tom (1987) The Virtuous Journalist. New York: Oxford

University Press.Schudson, Michael (1995) The Power of News. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

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