methods and techniques of research:

Methods and Techniques of Research:

An Introduction of the Course Program for Thesis Writing

Definition of Research:

• Research is “a process of scientific thinking that leads to the discovery or establishment of new knowledge or truth.

• It is not a subjective expression of ideas or opinion.” According to these authors, a scientific thinking has these characteristics:

(1) It is based on facts;

(2) It starts from a complex of problems;

(3) It is free from personal bias or opinion; and

(4) It uses objective measurement. (Aquino, 2006, p.1).


• “Careful critical, disciplined inquiry, varying in technique and method according to the nature and condition of the problem identified, directed toward the clarification or resolution (or both) of a problem.” (Good, p.464).


• “Research in its broadest sense is an attempt to gain solutions to problems.

• More precisely, it is the collection of data in a rigorously controlled situation for the purpose of prediction or explanation.” (Treece and Treece, p. 3)

Definition of Research:• Formulated in a more comprehensive form, research may be defined as a

• Purposive; • Systematic and;• Scientific process of:

• Gathering; • Analyzing;• Classifying; • Organizing;• Presenting and:• Interpreting data for the:

• solution of a problem, • for prediction, • for invention, • for the discovery of truth, or • for the expansion or • verification of existing knowledge, all for the preservation and improvement of the

quality of human life.

Purposes of Research (Aims, Objectives, Goals):

• The main or principal purpose and goal of research is “the preservation and improvement of the quality of human life”.

• All kinds of research are directed towards this end. “The purpose of research if to serve man,”

• “The goal of research is the good life.” (Good and Scates, pp. 9, 14)

• Specifically:

1. To discover new facts about known phenomena.

• Ex: Alcohol is a known phenomenon and research may turn it into a kind of fuel equal in quality to gasoline.

2. To find answers to problems which are only partially solved by existing methods and information.

• Ex: Cancer is a serious disease which is only partially cured by present methods but due to intensive and continuous research, the disease may be eradicated later on.

3. To discover previously unrecognized substances or elements.

• Ex: Previously we had only 92 elements but due to research we now have more than 100.

4. Discover pathways of action of known substances and elements.

• Ex: Due to research we come to know the dangers from the abusive use of unprescribed drugs and some poisonous substances.

5. To order related, valid generalizations into systematized science.

• Ex: The result of this purpose research is the science we are now studying in school.

6. To provide basis for decision-making in business, industry, education, government, and in other undertakings. One approach in decision-making is the research approach (This is basing important decisions upon the results of research)

7. To satisfy the researcher’s curiosity.

• Ex: Edison was curious about how a hen hatches her eggs and made a research on that and he invented the incubator.

8. To find answers to queries by means of scientific methods.

• Ex: One important question that may be asked which can be answered only by means of research is: In what setting is life expectancy higher, in the city or in the barrio?

9. To acquire a better and deeper understanding about one phenomenon that can be known and understood better by research.

• Ex: Why women are generally smaller than men?

10.To expand or verify existing knowledge. This usually happens when researches are replicated. Newly discovered facts may be found to expand knowledge gained from a previous research or verified if the same facts are found.

11. To improve educational practices for raising the quality of school products.

• Ex: Research surveys often result in the revision of curricula and instructional innovations to maximize the effectiveness of the learning process.

12.To promote health and prolong life.

• Ex: This purpose is very obviously demonstrated in pharmaceutical, nutritional, and medical research.

13.To provide man with more of his basic needs – more and better food, clothing, shelter, etc.

• Ex: The work of the International Rice Research Institute in Los Baños, Laguna is a good example of this purpose.

14.To make work, travel, and communication faster, easier, and more comfortable.

• Ex: Due to research airplanes are made to fly faster, land vehicles to run faster, labor-saving machines have been invented and improved, radio and television bring news immediately to the remote areas, and more wonders of electricity are making life easier and better.

Characteristics of a Good Research:• Research is systematic

• Research is controlled

• Research is empirical

• Research is analytical

• Research is objective, unbiased, and logical

• Research employs hypothesis

• Research employs qualitative or statistical methods

• Research is original work

• Research is done by expert

• Research is accurate investigation, observation and description

• Research is patient and unhurried activity

• Research requires an effort-making capacity

• Research requires courage

Characteristics of a Good Research:

Research is systematic

It follows an orderly and sequential procedure that leads to the discovery of truth, solution of a problem, or whatever

is aimed to be discovered.


Research is controlled

All variables except those that are tested or being experimented upon are kept constant (not allowed to

change or vary) so that the changes made on the subjects of the study can be attributed only to the experimental variable. This is especially true in an

experimental research.


Research is empirical

All the procedures employed and the data gathered are perceived in the same manner by all observers. For instance, one says that there are five persons in the room, all agree to the existence of the five persons.

However, if one says that there are five ghosts in the room; one or more at all may believe it because not all people believe in ghosts. Ghosts are examples of data

that are not empirical.


Research is analytical

There is a critical analysis of all the data used so that there is no error in their interpretation.


Research is objective, unbiased, and logical

All the findings and conclusions are logically based on empirical data and no effort is made to alter the results of

the research.


Research employs hypothesis

This is to guide the investigation process. In experimental studies, hypotheses are expressly stated but in

descriptive studies, the specific sub-problems or specific questions serve as the hypotheses and the hypotheses

are tested and not proved.


Research employs qualitative or statistical methods

Data are transformed into numerical measures and are treated statistically to determine their significance or

usefulness.


Research is original work

Except in historical research, data are gathered from primary sources or first-hand sources and not from

secondary sources (usually printed materials such as books, or theses, etc.)


Research is done by expert

The researcher uses valid and carefully designed procedures, valid data-gathering instruments, and valid

data. He subjects his data to expert scrutiny.


Research is accurate investigation, observation and description

In fact, every research activity must be done accurately so that the findings will lead to the formulation of scientific

generalizations. All conclusions are based on actual evidence.


Research is patient and unhurried activity

This is to ensure accuracy. Research that is hurriedly done or conducted carelessly due to racing against time may

lead to shaky conclusions and generalizations.


Research requires an effort-making capacity

No research can be conducted without the exertion of much effort. No one without any effort-making capacity

can conduct a research because research involves much work and time.


Research requires courage

Research requires courage because the researcher oftentimes undergoes hazards, discomforts and the like.

At times the researcher encounters public and social disapproval. Also, disagreements with colleagues may

arise.

Kinds and Classifications of Research:

• According to purpose• According to goal• According to the levels of investigation• According to the type of analysis• According to scope• According to choice of answers to problems• According to statistical content• According to time element• Other types and kinds of research are named according t

o the area or field of activity


• According to purpose:

• Predictive or prognostic research has the purpose of determining the future operation of the variables under investigation with the aim of controlling or redirecting such for the better. “Predictive research proposes to give the result from one specific educational practice or pattern and seeks to establish a close statistical connection between characteristics of students and a prediction of educational outcome.”

• Directive research determines what should be done based on the findings. This is to remedy an unsatisfactory condition if there is any.

• Illuminative research is concerned with the interaction of the components of the variable being investigated, as for example, “interaction of the components of educational systems and aims to show the connections among, for example, student characteristics, organizational patterns and policies, and educational consequence.”


• According to goal.

• Basic or pure research is done for the development of theories or principles. It is conducted for the intellectual pleasure of learning. Much of this kind of research has been done in psychology and sociology. (Manuel and Medel, p. 18)

• Applied research is the application of the results of pure research. This is testing the efficacy of theories and principles. For instance, a principle says that praise reinforces learning. To determine if this is true, one conducts an experiment in which there are two classes. In one class, he uses praise but in the other class there is no praise at all. All other things are kept equal. At the end of the experimental period, he gives the same test to the two classes. If the scores of the pupils in the class with praise are significantly higher than those in the class without praise, then the principle is true.


• According to the levels of investigation.

• In exploratory research, the researcher studies the variables pertinent to a specific situation.

• In descriptive research, the researcher studies the relationships of the variables.

• In experimental research, the experimenter studies the effects of the variables on each other.


• According to the type of analysis.

• In the analytic approach, the researcher attempts to identify and isolate the components of the research situation.

• The holistic approach begins with the total situation, focusing attention on the system first and then on its internal relationships.


• According to scope.

• Under this category is action research. This type of research is done on a very limited scope to solve a particular problem which is not so big. It is almost problem solving.

• In education, it is a firing-line or on the job type of problem solving or research used by the teachers, supervisors, and administrators to improve the quality of their decisions and actions; it seeks more dependable and appropriate means of promoting and evaluating pupil growth in line with specific and general objectives and attempts to improve educational practices without reference to whether findings would be applicable beyond the group studied. (Good, p. 464)


• According to choice of answers to problems.

• In evaluation research, all possible courses of action are specified and identified and the researcher tries to find the most advantageous.

• In developmental research, the focus is on finding or developing a more suitable instrument or process than has been available.


• According to statistical content.

• Quantitative or statistical research is one in which inferential statistics are utilized to determine the results of the study. Inferential statistics such as correlation, chi-square analysis of variance, etc. are used to test the hypothesis. This type of research usually includes comparison studies, cause-and-effect relationships, etc.

• Non-quantitative research. This research in which the use of quantity or statistics is practically null. This is especially true in anthropological studies where description is usually used. Descriptive data are gathered rather than quantitative data.


• According to time element.

• Historical research describes what was.• Descriptive research describes what is.• Experimental research describes what will be.

Historical, descriptive, and experimental researches are the three major research methods.

All other methods, kinds, and types of research whatever they are called fall under these three major methods.


Other types and kinds of research are named according to the area or field of activity.

Hence, we have sociological research, social research, psychological research, anthropological research, physical research, chemical research, industrial

research, economics research, health research, nursing research, curriculum research educational research, and

countless others.

Some Hindrances to Scientific Inquiry:

• Tradition

• Authority

• Inaccurate observation

• Overgeneralization

• Selective observation

• Made-up information

• Illogical reasoning

• Ego-involvement in understanding

• Mystification

• To err is human

• Dogmatism

Tradition:

• This is accepting that customs, beliefs, practices, and superstitions are true and are parts of the daily lives of men.

• For example: there is a traditional belief among some women that women who are conceiving should avoid eating dark or black foods such as black berries because their children will become dark also.

• This may be true or not, but many women believe and practice it without verifying its truth.

Authority:

• This is accepting without question, an opinion about a certain subject which is given by someone who is considered an authority on the subject.

• If an ordinary person says that kissing transmits colds, he is not believed much, he may even be laughed at. On the other hand, when a doctor says the same thing, he is believed without question.

Inaccurate Observation:

• This is describing wrongly what is actually observed.

• For instance, in the dead of a moonlit night, a man sees a shadow in the form of a person and the man concludes at once without any investigation that he has seen a ghost. He does not investigate anymore.

Overgeneralization:

• This is establishing a pattern out of a few instances.

• For example: when one sees one or two Ilocano husbands who are hardworking, responsible, and trustworthy, then he concludes that Ilocano husbands are hardworking, responsible and trustworthy.

Selective Observation:

• This is persisting to believe an observed pattern from an overgeneralization and ignoring other pertinent patterns.

• For example: one sees for the first time one or two prosperous Chinese stores beside a poor, struggling Filipino store. He forms the conclusion that the Chinese are more shrewd and more competitive than Filipinos.

Made-up Information:

• This is making up information to explain away confusion.

• For example: Suppose a buyer buys from a store, goods worth P50.00 and gives to the storekeeper a P100.00 bill. The storekeeper mistakenly gives a change of P40.00. The buyer goes away without counting the change but when he gets home he finds that the change is short of P10.00. Instead of going back to the store to find out why he has a wrong change, he concludes that the storekeeper is a cheater and the members of his family are also cheaters.

Illogical Reasoning:

• This is attributing something to another without any logical basis.

• For instance: because of the extended good weather it may rain at the weekend. Or, because it is sunny it will not rain that day. Or, when a woman is believed to be a sorcerer.

• These are beliefs without any logical basis and no effort is exerted to verify them.

Ego-involvement in Understanding:

• This is giving an explanation when one finds himself in an unfavorable situation.

• For instance: when foreigners make a slur on Filipinos, the latter counter that, that is racial discrimination without investigating whether the slight is true or not.

Mystification:

• This is attributing to supernatural power, the phenomena that cannot be understood.

• This is accepting that there are things which are beyond human intelligence to understand and which are exerted to make a scientific inquiry.

To Err is Human:

• This is an attitude that admits the fallibility of man.• When a man renders a wrong decision or commits

mistake, he merely leans on the saying “To err is human.”

• He does not make any effort anymore to study why he committed the error, how he committed the error, the implications of his error, how he can correct his error and how to make more sound decisions in the future.

Dogmatism:

• This is an unwritten policy of certain institutions and governments prohibiting the study of topics that are believed to run counter to the established doctrines of such institutions or governments.

The Scientific Method of Research:

• Determining (recognizing/ identifying) the problem;

• Forming (formulating) a hypothesis;

• Doing the library research;

• Designing the study;

• Developing the instruments for collecting data;

• Collecting the data;

• Determining implications and conclusions from the findings; and

• Making recommendations for further research.

Initial Parts of the Research Paper:

• Tile Page• Acknowledgment• Approval Page• Table of Contents• List of Tables• List of Figures

Main Body Parts of the Research Paper :

• Chapter 1: THE PROBLEM AND REVIEW OF

LITERATURE AND STUDIES

• Chapter 2: METHODOLOGY

• Chapter 3: RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

• Chapter 4: SUMMARY, FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS

AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Body Parts of a Research Paper :

Chapter 1

THE PROBLEM AND REVIEW OF LITERATURE AND STUDIES

• Introduction • Background of the Study (optional)• Review of Literature and Studies• Synthesis• Theoretical / Conceptual Framework• Statement of the Problem / Statement of Objectives• Hypothesis • Scope and Delimitation of the Study• Significance of the Study• Definition of Terms

Chapter 2

METHODOLOGY

• Research Design• Population and Locale of the Study• Sampling Technique • Research Instrument • Evaluation of Research Instrument • Data Gathering Procedures• Statistical Treatment / Analysis of Data

Chapter 3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The results and discussion section includes short description of the methods employed followed by the presentation of data. All relevant results, including those that run counter to the hypothesis must be

mentioned.

Individual scores or raw data, with the exception, for example, of single-case designs or illustrative samples are not included.

Discussion of the implications of the results is not appropriate at this point. The problems encountered passed in the study will be

answered in this chapter.

• Tables and Figures, are meant to illustrate the results of the study and thus shorten the text. Construct a table of data which provides exact values and presents complex data and analyses in a format that is familiar to the reader. Use Hindu-Arabic when citing consecutively in the text as figure 1, figure ; table 1. table 2, etc.

• A caption stating how the table or figure was constructed including the key findings should be stated.

• Figures and tables should be oriented vertically in a portrait mode.

• Scale and form of figures can have a great influence on the resulting interpretation of the data and thus should be presented accurately.

• Discussion, this part presents the analysis and interpretations or gathered data that answer the questions post in the study.

• Each problem/ question or objective is answered through tabular presentation, its textual following interpretation.

• In problems or objectives that require inferential statistics or complex statistical treatment, tabular presentations follow the format of the statistical treatment. The interpretation depends on the significance of the values relative to differences, relationship/ association or the variables being compared and treated at certain levels of significance.

• It should be noted however that results of the study or statistical findings found similar/ parallel to the reviewed literature and studies should be mentioned/ cited. This is to prove that the reviewed literature and studies lend support to the study at hand.

• Statistical Presentations, an effective statistical presentation makes it easy for the readers to understand and interpret the data as well as the data used to test a hypothesis.

• Statistical tests relate directly to the hypothesis. In presenting statistical results, state whether the results support the hypothesis and then give the data and statistics that allowed you to arrive at such conclusion.

Chapter 4 SUMMARY, FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND

RECOMMENDATIONS

• Summary of the Study• This part of the chapter presents the research problem and

specific sub-problems, hypothesis, research design, respondents, research instruments including validation. Data-gathering procedures, and statistical tools.

• All presentations in the summary must be brief so that they will not duplicate chapters 1 and 2 of the study. The summary is essential as a benchmark in the presentation of findings, conclusions and recommendations for systematic, logical and consistent results (Vizcarra, 2003)

• Findings of the Study• The researcher presents the summary of the answers to the specific problems. This

section contains significant numbers/percentages and also statistical values used in testing the hypothesis of the study. At also states/ justifies why the hypothesis are accepted or rejected.

• Findings of the study are presented, discussed and analyzed including their implications and relationships or differences with reviewed literature. In the findings of the study only specific results are included – both qualitative and quantitative without any explanations or reasons.

• They are presented as they were organized and categorized in the specific sub-problems of the study. If there are five specific problems, naturally there are also five findings.

• Avoid irrelevant, indirect or unnecessary findings because these were carefully treated in the interpretation of data.

• Furthermore, findings must be written in the past tense. State descriptive and qualitative findings if necessary (Vizcarra, 2003)

• Conclusions• After a careful analysis of the findings, the researcher writes the

conclusions drawn from the study which answers the primary objective or purpose of the paper. The general conclusion is presented in the first paragraph.

• Conclusions must be written in the present tense. They are stated based on the findings of the study.

• There is a need for careful analysis in identifying them so that they will not appear as findings or recommendations.

• They are made in a general statement which reflects the results of the study.

• If there are five specific problems, there should also be five conclusions. If there are sub-topics under one sub-problem, you may or may not present them separately. You can lump them in one conclusion if applicable (Vizcarra, 2003)

• Recommendations• The recommendations of the study are based on the findings and

conclusions. The number of findings and conclusions must also be the number of recommendations if possible.

• However, the researcher may lump them in one paragraph if the recommendation made in one sub-problem is applicable to the others.

• The recommendations must be specific and point out the direct agency or people involved like administrators, teachers, students, and researchers for possible future action. They must be carefully stated so that they will not appear as the importance of the study (Vizcarra, 2003)

• After the conclusions, the researcher enumerates the recommendations or suggestions offered by the study, i.e. further research implications like policy formulation, program development among others.

REFERENCES

Ariola, Mariano M. (2006). Principles and Methods of Research. Rex Bookstore, Sampaloc, Manila.

Calderon, Jose F. and Expectacion C. Gonzales. (1993). Methods of Research and Thesis Writing. National Bookstore.

Garcia, Carlito D. and Arnulfo Aaron R. Reganit. (2010). Developing Competencies in Research and Thesis Writing. Books Atbp. Publishing Corp. Mandaluyoing City.

Research and Development Center. (2009). Thesis Manual for Undergraduate Students. University of Perpetual Help System DALTA, Las Piñas Printing.

Vizcarra, Florante O. (2003). Introduction to Educational Research Great Books Trading, Quezon City.

APPENDIX ASample Questionnaire

CURRICULUM VITAE

Name :

Address :

Contact Number :

Date of Birth :

Place of Birth :

Civil Status :

Religion :

EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND

Elementary :

Secondary :

Tertiary :

2” x 2” scanned recent, colored

picture

THE END

methods and techniques of research:

Documents

purpose of research

purpose research

goal of research

research approach

continuous research

techniques of research

kinds of research

purposes of research