metro train automation & display system

CONTENTSCONTENTS

Photograph

Abstract

Flow chart

Chapter 1: Introduction

Block Diagram

Block Diagram Description

Chapter 2: Principle/Theory/Concept

Chapter 3: Circuit Details

Circuit Description

Circuit Layout

Component list

Chapter 4: Breadboard Implementation

Connections on Breadboard

Chapter 5: Working

Chapter 6: PCB details

PCB Layout component side

PCB Layout solders side

Chapter 7: Assembling and Testing

Chapter 8: Components Details

Resistors

Sensor & LED

Capacitors

Transistors& IC

Transformer

Metro Train Automation

Chapter9: Shortcoming and limitations

Chapter 10: Future Applications and Scope

Chapter 11: Project Cost

Chapter 12: Reference and Bibliography

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LIST OF FIGURESLIST OF FIGURES

1.1. FLOWCHARTFLOWCHART

1.11.1 BLOCK DIAGRAMBLOCK DIAGRAM

3.1 CIRCUIT LAYOUT3.1 CIRCUIT LAYOUT

4.1 BREADBOARD DESIGN4.1 BREADBOARD DESIGN

8.1 EXAMPLE OF RESISTOR8.1 EXAMPLE OF RESISTOR

8.2 RESISTOR CIRCUIT SYMBOL8.2 RESISTOR CIRCUIT SYMBOL

8.3 RESISTOR COLOUR CODE8.3 RESISTOR COLOUR CODE

8.4 EXAMPLE OF CAPACITORS8.4 EXAMPLE OF CAPACITORS

8.5 TRANSISTORS CIRCUIT SYMBOLS8.5 TRANSISTORS CIRCUIT SYMBOLS

8.6 TRANSISTORS B182, B1088.6 TRANSISTORS B182, B108

8.7 DIODE SYMBOL8.7 DIODE SYMBOL

8.8 PIN DIAGRAM OF 89C518.8 PIN DIAGRAM OF 89C51

8.9 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF 89C518.9 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF 89C51

8.10 RELAY IN0078.10 RELAY IN007

8.11 TRANSISTOR BC5488.11 TRANSISTOR BC548

8.12 IC LM78058.12 IC LM7805

8.13 IC LM3868.13 IC LM386

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LIST OF TABLESLIST OF TABLES

TABLE 1 PROJECT SPECIFICATIONTABLE 1 PROJECT SPECIFICATION

TABLE 2 COMPONENT LISTTABLE 2 COMPONENT LIST

TABLE 3 COLOUR CODETABLE 3 COLOUR CODE

TABLE 4 PORT 3 PIN TABLETABLE 4 PORT 3 PIN TABLE

TABLE 5 RATINGS OF BC548 TABLE 5 RATINGS OF BC548

TABLE 6 PROJECT COSTTABLE 6 PROJECT COST

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PHOTOGRAPHPHOTOGRAPH

metro train automation & display system

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ON-CONDITION ON-CONDITION

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RF-TRANSMITTERRF-TRANSMITTER

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ABSTRACTABSTRACT

In this project, we are designing a remote control information displaying system with the facility of voice, which is capable of measuring travelled distance and detecting obstacles.

For line tracking,we are using an IR led and the photodiode pair, which analyses the reflected infrared rays from the wheels that performs the measurement of distance here.

For remote controlling, to provide wireless communication between vehicle and station , we are implementing asynchronous serial communication through RF.

The voice chip requires large current , but the microcontroller cannot provide that much current. Hence to control the large currents by the pulses provided by microcontroller.

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FLOWCHARTFLOWCHART

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CHAPTER 1CHAPTER 1

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Start

Initialize SFR’s

Clear Counter

Display information taking counter as Pointer

Display Distance taking counter as Measure

Check Distance for intermediate Stations

IfMatc

hOperate Voice Generator

Check for Last Station

IfMatc

h

Idle Loop

Yes No

Yes No

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INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION

A problem faced by every one during the traveling is that there is always

an uncertainty of the next station and time to arrive or distance between

stations, that causes tension to the passengers. To overcome this problem

we started working on a circuit that can display the passed station,

upcoming station, total distance between stations and distance traveled

even it should announce the station’s name. the things we have discussed

above are the non technical feature to make it applicable on train and

local transport areas it should also full fill some technical limitation, like

operable by battery, low power consumption, should work on largely

fluctuating power supply, rouged structure and low cost.

At the end we achieved all the goals of our project perfectly.

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1.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM:1.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM:

Fig 1.1

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CHAPTER 2CHAPTER 2

PRINCIPLE/THEORY/CONCEPTPRINCIPLE/THEORY/CONCEPT

The objects of the project are:

1. Designing of a remote control Information displaying system with the facility of Voice.

2. Measurement of distance.

To fulfill all these requirements we need the following blocks:

1. For tracking :--

Analyzing the reflected infrared rays from the wheels performs the measuring of the distance here. (The line created by special ink will reflect the IR ray in much greater amount then rest of the surface.)

To do this, an IR LED & the photodiode pair is best suitable option. The IR LED generates IR light, which is traveled towards surface, & the photodiode is placed in such a position that only the reflected part of the light reaches it. Which causes the rise in the reverse current through the diode using a resistor this change of current can be transformed into change in voltage & then it is compared with a predefined threshold voltage. If it crosses the threshold value comparator provides the high output, which confirms the presence of the line. For proper tracking two IR detector required to track the line from both corners.

2. Micro-Controller :--

This is the heart of the circuit, which controls all the devices (Blocks) connected to it. Here we use the controller 89C51 manufactured by Atmel. We prefer this Micro controller because it has 4 full I/O 8 bit ports, which is our basic requirement to control all the blocks.

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3. Remote Controlling :--

To provide wireless communication between vehicle and station many methods are availablebut we are implementing the asynchronous serial communication through RF.

For proper RF communication following blocks is required:

RF receiver: - We are using here the Radio Frequency as communication medium because of its better reception in long range communication. To make the receiver perform better it is designed to recognize the switching RF of particular wavelength.The wave length and switching frequency can be taken from the manufacturers data sheets

RF transmitter:- It generates the RF waves to modulate the DATA the frequency of the T/X depend upon the module used

4. Relays Array: --

The voice chip required large current, but the micro controller cannot provide that much current. Hence to control the large currents by the pulses provided by micro controller.

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relays

Fig 2.1

CHAPTER 3CHAPTER 3

CIRCUIT DETAILSCIRCUIT DETAILS

1. IR DETECTOR :- To do this, an IR LED & the photodiode pair is best suitable option. The IR LED generates IR light, which is traveled towards surface, & the photodiode is placed in such a position that only the reflected part of the light reaches it. Which causes the rise in the reverse current through the diode using a resistor this change of current can be transformed into change in voltage & then it is compared with a predefined threshold voltage. If it crosses the threshold value comparator provides the high output else low.

2. LCD Display :- Display plays an important role whenever we want a user friendly system because user can see & read the information from display & can get better understanding about the system.Since we want to display alphabets for massages & digits for readings we required aalphanumeric LCD display so we use a 16 character , 2 line display best suitable for our requirement because our massage length to not greater then 16 character, so they can be displayed on single line only.

3. Indications & Beeper :- Although we are using here a LCD display to display the information but it is still requirement of a system that it should create the special attention of user to read same specific information on LCD this is done by this block. It generates a beeping sound on over loading & reserve mode. So that user need not to read the meter frequently (when not required).

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4. Micro-Controller :- This is the heart of the circuit, which controls all

the devices (Blocks)

connected to it. Here we use the controller 89C51 manufactured by

Atmel. We prefer this Micro controller because it has 4 full I/O 8 bit

ports, which is our basic requirement to control all the blocks.

5. R.F. transmitter :- for communication we are using radio frequency hence we required a R.F. transmitter. Here we use the transmitter transmitting at 315 Mhz using the Frequency Modulation technique.

6. Key Pad :- to provide the input by user we are using here four push to

on switches

Receiving Side

7. R.F. receiver :- It receives the R.F. signals since we are using the FM here we use the FM receiver tuned to demodulate the 315MHz signals.

8. TTL to RS232 : - We are using here serial port of pc, which follows the RS232, standard hence we use a Level Converter.The first level converter converts the TTL signals in to RS232 signals.

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3.2 3.2 CIRCUIT LAYOUTCIRCUIT LAYOUT

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SERIAL PORT PC CONVERTER FIG 3.1

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3.3 3.3 COMPONENT LISTCOMPONENT LIST

Number Quantity Rate/P. ICs

o AT89C51 1 150.00o MAX232 1 98.00o LM358 1 22.00o LM386 1 20.00o LM7805 2 10.00

Transistors

BC548B 8 3.00

Light Emitting Diodes (LED’s)

LED 4 30.00

Diodes

o 1N4007 6 1.50

Sensors

RF Module 1 550.00

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Crystal

12 MHz 1 30.00

Electrolytic Capacitors

o 1000F/25V 1 7.00o 100F/25V 1 4.00o 10F/25V 1 3.00o 1F/25V 4 3.00

Ceramic Capacitors

o 33pf 2 1.00

Carbon Resistors (0.25W)

o 10K 15 0.25o 6.8k 3 0.25o 4.7k 2 0.25o 2.2k 2 0.25o 1K 6 0.25

Buzzer

12V 1 30.00

Transformers

o 9/0/9 500mA 1 40.00

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Display

o LCD16x2 1 250.00

PCB

o 6” X 8” 2 90.00

Miscellaneous

IC Base (40 pin) 1 14.00

IC Base (8 pin) 2 5.00

IC Base (16 pin) 1 3.00

Mains Cable 1 15.00

Ferric Cloride 100gms. 40.00

Soldering Wire 20gms. 12.00

Connecting wires 3mtrs. 10.00

Soldering Paste 10gms. 5.00

9pin connector 1 20.00

voice recorder 4 90.00

Table 2

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CHAPTER 4CHAPTER 4

BREAD BBREAD B OARD IMPLEMENTATIONOARD IMPLEMENTATION

A breadboard (solder less breadboard, protoboard, plug board) is a reusable sometimes solder less device used to build a (generally temporary) prototype of an electronic circuit and for experimenting with circuit designs. This is in contrast to strip board (overboard) and similar prototyping printed circuit boards, which are used to build more permanent soldered prototypes or one-offs, and cannot easily be reused. A variety of electronic systems may be prototyped by using breadboards, from small analogy and digital circuits to complete central processing units (CPUs).

The term breadboard is derived from an early form of point-to-point construction: in particular, the practice of constructing simple circuits (usually using valves/tubes) on a convenient wooden base, similar to a cutting board like the kind used for slicing bread with a knife. It can also be viewed as bread with a large number of pores (holes for connection); like the bread most commonly used in America and Europe, a modern prototyping board is typically white or off-white.

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cutting_board

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point-to-point_construction

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point-to-point_construction

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_processing_unit

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_processing_unit

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printed_circuit_board

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stripboard

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_circuit

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prototype

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solder


Bread board

Fig 4.1

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Connection on Breadboard

Breadboards have many tiny sockets (called 'holes') arranged on a 0.1" grid. The leads of most components can be pushed straight into the holes. ICs are inserted across the central gap with their notch or dot to the left.

Wire links can be made with single-core plastic-coated wire of 0.6mm diameter (the standard size). Stranded wire is not suitable because it will crumple when pushed into a hole and it may damage the board if strands break off.

The top and bottom rows are linked horizontally all the way across as shown by the red and black lines on the diagram. The power supply is connected to these rows, + at the top and 0V (zero volts) at the bottom.

I suggest using the upper row of the bottom pair for 0V, then you can use the lower row for the negative supply with circuits requiring a dual supply (e.g. +9V, 0V, -9V).

The other holes are linked vertically in blocks of 5 with no link across the centre as shown by the blue lines on the diagram.

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CHAPTER 5CHAPTER 5

WORKINGWORKING

As the circuit is powered micro controller checks the status of inputs from IR sensor and serialRX pin ,If it found serial RX data it ignores the o/p from the IR sensors & wait for the serial data from the IR Receiver section & works according to the serial data.

For distance counting it checks the signals from the o/p of the LM358 which is working here as a comparator & compares the voltage across the photodiode with a predefined threshold voltage provided by a variable resistor (preset).

As in the circuit we have used one sensor pair for counting, so if micro controller senses that the sensor is detecting reflected light it means that the line is placed at the Wheel now if station reached the micro controller sets the relay array in such a pattern that it sets the particular voice chip on.

All these things are done by programme feeded in the micro controller’s ROM.

The communication circuit works in the following way :-

RF transmitter:-

as we know that Receiver module only detects 433MHz RF signals so we modulate the data at this frequency using OOK. To perform this we use the RF T/X module & components are selected such that it producesa 433MHz pulse train.

Working of Module (internal detail):-

The ckt. works as the charging of capacitor (which decide the on time) is done by the 1K resistor & 6.8K resistor although another resistor of 22K is connected but due to the diode connected in series with this resistor, it does not affects in charging because during charging diode gets reverse biased so behave as open circuit. During the discharging of capacitor the 6.8K resistors gets disconnected from the ckt. due to the reverse biasing of diode connected with this resistor.

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Now to modulate these pulses we apply the modulating signal at the pin 4 of IC this pin is used to reset the IC hence when ever we apply a low pulse at this pin the IC’s O/P immediately switch to low state & remain at that state until the pulse does not changes its state.

RF receiver:-

In this section we are use RF module of 433Mhz which detects the RF of switching rate maximum 4Khz, as it detects this light its output gets low or we can say that its O/P is active low.

PC Unit:-

The transmitting & receiving unit of this section work in same way as in card but here we use the PC to show the details.

In our project we are using the serial port to communicate with PC & as we know that on serial communication mode it uses the RS232 standard for which logic 1 is assigned to a voltage less than –3V & logic 0 to greater than +3V because Rx.,Tx. Sections & microcontroller provides the O/P at TTL level, we use here MAX232 as level converter which have two TTL to RS232 converter & two RS232 to TTL converter hence the O/P of serial port available at pin3 is applied to one of the two RS232 to TTL converter & I/P to serial port is fed through TTL to RS232 converter

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CHAPTER 6CHAPTER 6

PCB DETAILSPCB DETAILS

6.1 PCB Designing

The main purpose of printed circuit is in the routing of electric currents of

electric currents and signal through a thin copper layer that is bounded

firmly to and instating base material some time called the base. This base

is manufactured with integral bounded layers of thin copper foil which has

to be partly etched of other wise remove to arrive at a pre designed

pattern to suite the circuit connections or whatever other application is

noted

The term printed circuit board is derived from the original method where

by a printed pattern is used as the mask over be wanted areas of copper.

The PCBprovides an ideal; base board upon which to assemble and hold

firmly most of the small components.

From the constructors point to view the main attraction of using PCB is its

role as the mechanical support for small components. There is less need

for complicate and time consuming metal work of chassis contraception

except perhaps in providing the final enclosure Most straight forward

circuit designs can be easily covered in to printed wiring layer the thought

required to carry out the inversion cab footed high light an possible error

that would otherwise be missed in conventional point to point wiring. The

finished project is usually neater and truly a work of art.

Actual size PCB layout for the circuit shown is drawn on the copper board,

while the help of a material inactivate of FeCl3 solution. The hoard is then

immersed in FeCl3 solution for 12 hours, in this process only the hidden

copper portion that is etched out by the solution.

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Now the paint is washed out by the petrol. Now the copper layout on PCB

is rubbed with a smooth sand paper slowly and lightly such that only the

oxide layers over the Cu is removed. Now the holes are drilled at the

respective places according to component layout.

6.2 Layout Design :-

When designing the layout one should observe the minimum

size(component body length and weight) Before starting to design the

layout have all the required components to hand so that an accurate

assessment of space can be made it is often necessary to mount these so

thwart the body is clear of the board to allow adequate air flow. Other

space consideration might also include from case mounted components

over the printed circuit board or to access path to present components in

the case.

It might be necessary to turn some components round to a different

angular position so that terminals are closer to the connections of the

components. The scale can be checked be positioning the components on

the squared paper. If any connection crosses, then one can reroute to

avoid such condition. All common or earth lines should ideally be

connected to a common line routed around the perimeter of the layout this

will act as the ground plane. If possible try to route the outer supply line

ground plane. If possible try to route the other supply lines around the

opposite edge to the layout to through the center. The first set is to

tearing the circuit eliminates the crossover with out altering the circuit

detail in any way.

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Plan the layout as if looking at the top side to this board first this should

be translated inverse later for the etching pattern large areas rate

recommended to maintain good copper adhesive it is impotent be bear in

mind always that cooper track width must be atlas to the recommended

minimum dimensions and allowance must be made fort increased width

where termination holes are need from this aspect if can become little

tricky to negotiate the route for connects to small transistors. There are

basically two ways one can effect the copper interconnections pattern in

the under side to the board. The first is the removal of only the amount of

copper necessary to isolate the junction to the components to each other

resulting in the large areas of copper. The second is to make the

interconnection pattern looking more like conventional point wiring by

routing uniform width of copper from component to component.

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6.3 Etching :-

Etching process requires the use of chemicals acid resistant dishes and

running water supply Ferric chloride is maximum used solution but other

enchants such as ammonium per sulfate can be used. Nitric acid can be

used but in general it is not used due to poisonous fumes.

The pattern prepared is print on to the copper surface of the board using

screen printing or the marker. Before going to next stage, check the

whole gotten and cross cheek against the circuit diagram check for any

freeing matte on the copper. The etching bath should be in a galls or

enamel disc. If using crystal of ferric- chloride these should be thoroughly

dissolved in water to the proportional suggested. There should be 0.5 Lt.

Of water for 125 Gm of crystal.

Waste liquid should be thoroughly deflated and druid in water land; never

pour down the drain. To prevent particles of copper hindering further

etching, agitate the solutions carefully be gently twisting or rocking the

tray.

The board should not be left in the bath a moment longer than is needed

to remove just the right amount of copper. In spite of there being a resist

coating there is no protection against etching away through exposed

copper edges; this leads to over etching. Have running water ready so that

etched board can be removed properly and rinsed; this will halt etching

immediately.

6.4 Material Required:-

1. Copper clad laminate PCB board cut into required size

2. Iron(III) chloride (ferric chloride)crystals 50 grams

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3. Dilute HCL

4. Thinner or Acetone

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Chemistry of PCB etching :-

Iron(III) chloride is etching copper in two-step redox reaction to copper(I)

chloride and then to copper(II) chloride in the production of printed circuit

boards.

FeCl3 + Cu → FeCl2 + CuCl

FeCl3 + CuCl → FeCl2 + CuCl2

Precautions :-

Iron(III) chloride is toxic, highly corrosive and acidic. The anhydrous

material is a powerful dehydrating agent. In secondary/high schools all

around the world, where Design and technology is a subject taught, Ferric

Chloride used for PCB etching is usually diluted with water. Despite this,

hands and other surfaces that have contacted it should still be washed

immediately after one finishes with it.

6.5 Drilling :-

Drilling is one of those operations that call for great carebecause most of

the holes will be made a very small drill. For most purposes a 1mm drill is

used Drill all holes with this size first those that need to be larger can be

easily drilled again with the appropriate lager size. Drilling of a PCB is

done after the PCB has been itched by the circuit layout using the PCB

drill machine or a simple hand driller. Now your PCB is ready for

mounting of the components.

6.6 Soldering :-

Soldering is an important part of electronics, and it is used almost

everywhere, and it is good to know how to solder if you are in electronics,

no matter what your level of experience. In order to solder you will need

the proper type of solder, and a soldering iron (pencil), gun, station, or if

there is no power available, a soldering torch. In most electronics a simple

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15-40 watt soldering iron will do fine, any higher wattage can damage

components or circuit board traces. But for larger jobs, like soldering

together two very large pieces of metal or a wire to a large chassis, a

soldering

gun may be used. But normally soldering guns should not be used in

electronics because of their very high wattage, and because they generate

their heat by running a current through the tip. This could cause voltages

from the tip to destroy components. And for static sensitive components, a

soldering iron with anti-static control and wrist straps should be used, and

maybe even an anti-static mat.

The solder used should be 60/40, 50/50, or 40/60 with a rosin core. 60/40

is the ratio of tin-to-lead in the solder, so in 60/40 solder there is 60% tin

and 40% lead. I think that 60/40 is the best in electronics, but any of the

three will do. And rosin is a type of flux (flux is used to clean the metal so

the solder will stick), and it is what is used in electronics. But only rosin

flux should be used, any other type of flux will corrode and destroy

components, component leads, and circuit board traces. The size of the

solder is not too important, but you might want to use a thin solder so that

you don't apply too much.

Before you solder, you will need to tin the tip of your iron. Tinning the tip

is just putting a coat of solder on the tip. This can be done by applying

some solder to the tip, and then wiping it off on a damp sponge or rag. The

tip of the iron should then be nice and shiny.

6.6.1 Soldering to PCB :-

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First you should clean the PCB (printed circuit board) with steel wool or a

PCB cleaner that can be found at most electrical part suppliers. Clean the

pads (part where component will be soldered to) so that it becomes shiny,

but be careful not to rip the pad off the board. Using a pencil eraser

sometimes works to get the oxidation off the pads. You should also clean

the component leads with steel wool or sand paper to ensure a good

connection.

After everything is clean you can start to put components in. It is a good

idea to put in the smaller components first, to make it easier. Bend the

leads of the component if necessary to fit in place. Then put them through

the board, and bend the leads to about 45° so they stay in place, and then

you can begin to solder it. Take the tip of the iron and touch it to the pad

and the lead to heat them both up. Then on the opposite side begin to

apply solder. Be careful not to apply too much

solder. The solder should spread all over the joint, and make a shiny

connection. Remove the solder and then the iron. If the joint was not

heated properly the solder will bubble, and make what is called a cold

joint. Any cold joints will need to be disordered, and then soldered again.

It is sometimes easier to solder to the PCB when the pads are tinned. To

tin the PCB pats, heat the pad with the soldering iron, then apply a small

amount of solder, just enough to coat the pad. Then using disordering

braid, remove the excess solder. Heat sinks are good to use when

soldering semiconductors and other components that can be easily

damaged by heat. Heat sinks are just aluminum clips that absorb some of

the heat going to the component, and help prevent damaging the

component from too much heat. To use a heat sink clip it onto the lead

between the component and joint to be soldered. When soldering ICs you

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may want to put in a socket, so you won’t have to worry about the IC

overheating from soldering it in place, and it makes it easy to replace the

IC if it ever breaks.

6.6.2 Soldering Wires to Wires/Component Leads :-

First you may want to clean off the wires and component leads with steel

wool or sandpaper. Then twist the wires together, and heat the joint with

the soldering iron. On the opposite side begin to apply solder, but not too

much. The solder should flow all around the joint, making a good

connection. Remove the solder, and then the iron.

You may wish to cover the joint with heat shrink tubing, to insulate the

joint. To use heat shrink tubing, find the smallest tube that can still fit over

all the wires. Put the tubing over one side of the wires, solder the joint,

and allow it to cool. Then move the tubing over the joint. Using a lighter or

match (the soldering iron will not work well) heat the tubing so that it

shrinks completely, and tightly covers the joint. When heating the tubing,

don't put the flame too close, or the tubing will burn a little, even though

they are usually fire resistant.

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6.6.3 Soldering Wires to Component Terminals :-

Clean off the wire(s) and terminal to be soldered. Then put the wire(s)

through the hole in the terminal, or if there is no hole wrap the wire(s)

around the terminal. Then heat the terminal and

wire(s) with the tip of the iron, and begin to apply solder on the opposite

side, but not too much. The solder should spread all over the terminal and

wire(s) and create a good connection. Then remove the solder, and then

the iron. To insulate the joint, you may want to use heat shrink tubing. To

use the heat shrink tubing, first find the smallest tube that can still fit over

the terminal and wire(s). Put the tubing over the wire(s), and solder the

joint. Allow the joint to cool, then move the tubing over the joint. Using a

lighter or match (the soldering iron will not work well) heat the tubing so

that it shrinks completely, and tightly covers the joint. When heating the

tubing, don't put the flame too close, or the tubing will burn a little, even

though they are usually fire resistant.

6.7 Tips to Remember :- Keep everything clean.

Use a wattage only necessary for the job

Heat the joint, not the solder

Use only rosin core solder, 60/40, 50/50, or 40/60

Don't heat the joint too long

Don't put on too much solder

Solder smaller components first.

Use heat sinks

Use sockets

Tin the PCB pads

Cover joints with heat shrink tubing

Use thin solder

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6.8 Precautions of soldering :-

The development engineer indicates any specific electrical requirements

that may be influenced by the production process and the chemical

compatibility of the chosen components. When these are decided, the

designer must know the processing, especially for SMT circuits. SMT

components having different types of footprints are ideally suited for wave

soldering, infrared fusion, thermoses fusion, and vapors phase fusion,

irrespective of whether cleaning is done or not. Cleaning of SMDs is not

easy because of the small clearances under the components and the

closure of the side spaces by the solder fillets. To maximize the ingress of

the cleaning solution or solvent, it is necessary to maximize the clearance

and to minimize the width of the solder fillets. As the component leads are

generally fixed, the only recourse is to make the soldering pads (lands) as

narrow as possible, consistent with satisfactory soldering.

The orientation of the components is also very critical and must be

optimized, in conjunction with the method of cleaning, to maximize the

penetration of fluid under the components.

If a no-clean soldering technique is used, the parameters can be optimized

to obtain the maximum soldering quality. For example, quad flat packs and

similar devices with soldering lands on all four sides should be placed at

45° to the soldering axis, if these are to be wave soldered. Robber lands on

the lee side of the device may also be useful to aid the drainage of excess

solder from the region of the connections, thereby reducing the risk of

short-circuits and consequent retouches.

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For all solder paste fusion methods, orientation is usually less critical,

except where subsequent cleaning takes place, so optimization may be

concentrated on the style and size of the pad. This is especially so with

vapors phase fusion, but this soldering method is discouraged on

environmental grounds. With infrared fusion, care must be taken to ensure

that the heat distribution is sufficient for all different-sized components,

and that all vias are well separated from the pads by a thin conductor to

prevent the molten solder from being removed from the solder zone by

capillary action.

The fan-out feature of the router will control this. Internal power planes

must be connected through thermal breaks. It is also a good practice to

use annular rings (or squares), rather than

solid discs, for the artwork, where no connection is to be made to the

power plane. This ensures that there is a pad on all layers and thus a

constant build-up at all plated-through holes and visa. Particularly when

there are many layers, the lack of internal layers can physically distort the

board at the most critical point. This may result into de-lamination or

conductive anodic filaments.

But it is advisable to leave a 1mm gap between the power planes and the

edge of the board for a number of reasons. This gap should never exceed

2.5 mm, as it may result into resin starvation and de-lamination. Multilayer

boards should be cut always with a routing tool or a diamond saw, to have

a clean edge. Never shear, stamp, or score rigid multilayers. Printed

circuit design can have a colossal effect on the electromagnetic

compatibility (EMC) of an electronic assembly. There may be radiation

from oscillators on the board or high-speed logic switching, susceptibility

to picking up external radiation from a nearby source (such as a poorly

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maintained commentator motor, cell phone, and local high-power

transmitter), crosstalk from poorly matched characteristic impedances,

etc.

The designer can reduce these effects to a minimum by using an

appropriate design. Critical tracks can be prioritized into the shortest

possible length, placed between power planes, surrounded by ground

planes, designed for good characteristic impedance matching, etc.

CHAPTER 7CHAPTER 7

ASSEMBLINGASSEMBLING

Assembling means :-

To bringor call togetherinto a group or whole: assembled the jury.

To fit together the parts or pieces of: assemble a machine; assemble data.

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We design this useful circuit considering the knowledge of electronics and use of this project.

The following steps have been followed in carrying out the project:-

Understand the working of the circuit.

Prepare the circuit diagram.

Prepare the list of the components along with their specification.

Estimate the cost and procure them after carrying out market

survey.

Plan and prepare PCB for mounting all the components.

Fix the components on the PCB and solder them.

Test the circuit for desired performance.

Trace and rectify faults if any.

Give a good finish to the unit.

Prepare the project report.

CHAPTER 8CHAPTER 8

COMPONENTS DETAILSCOMPONENTS DETAILS

8.1 Resistors

Example: Circuit symbol:

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Fig 8.1 Fig 8.2FunctionResistors restrict the flow of electric current, for example a resistor is placed in series with a light-emitting diode (LED) to limit the current passing through the LED.

Connecting and solderingResistors may be connected either way round. They are not damaged by heat when soldering.

Table 3

8.1.1 Resistor values - the resistor colour code

Resistance is measured in ohms; the symbol for ohm is an omega . 1 is quite small so resistor values are often given in k and M . 1 k = 1000 1 M = 1000000 .

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Colour

Number

Black 0

Brown

1

Red 2

Orange

3

Yellow

4

Green 5

Blue 6

Violet 7

Grey 8

White 9

44


Resistor values are normally shown using colours bands. Each colour represents a number as shown in the table. Most resistors have 4 bands: The first band gives the first digit. The second band gives the second digit. The third band indicates the number of zeros. The fourth band is used to shows the tolerance (precision) of the resistor, this may be ignored for almost all circuits but further details are given

Fig 8.3 Resistor colour code

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This resistor has red (2), violet (7), yellow (4 zeros) and gold bands. So its value is 270000 ohms =270 k ohms.

The standard colour code cannot show values of less than 10 . To show these small values two special colours are used for the third band: gold which means × 0.1 and silver which means × 0.01. The first and second bands represent the digits as normal.

8.1.2 Resistors in series and parallel

For information on resistors connected in series and parallel please see the resistance page,

Power Ratings of Resistors :-

Electrical energy is converted to heat when current flows through a resistor. Usually the effect is negligible, but if the resistance is low (or the voltage across the resistor high) a large current may pass making the resistor become noticeably warm. The resistor must be able to withstand the heating effect and resistors have power ratings to show this. Power ratings of resistors are rarely quoted in parts lists because for most circuits the standard power ratings of 0.25W or 0.5W are suitable. For the rare cases where a higher power is required it should be clearly specified in the parts list, these will be circuits using low value resistors (less than about 300 ) or high voltages (more than 15V).

8.1.3 Classification Of Resistors

Shows the classification of resistors in the form of a family tree. The resistors are basically of two types, namely linear resistors and non- linear resistors. Each type is further subdivided into many types as shown in the figure.

Linear resistors:-

The resistors, through which the current is directly proportional to the applied voltage, are called linear resistors. Such resistors have a property that their resistance value does not change with the variation in applied voltage, temperature or light intensity. The linear resistors are of two types namely fixed resistors and variable resistors.

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Non-linear:-

The resistors, through which the current is not directly proportional to the applied voltage, are called non-linear resistors. Such resistors have a property that their resistance values change with variation in applied voltage, temperature of light intensity. The non-linear resistors are of three namely thermostat, photo resistor and varistor.

Fixed Resistors :-

The fixed resistors are those whose do not change with the variation in applied voltage, temperature and light intensity. Such resistors are available in various shapes and sizes, with both axial and radial leads as shown in Fig.7.2. In addition to this, the fixed resistors are available with sugs for installation by soldering or mounting with screws and rivets. The fixed resistors are of the following types:

Carbon composition resistors :-

These resistors are made by mixing carbon powder and insulating binders to produce the desired value of resistance. The resulting resistance values are within + 10% of the desired value. However, the resistors with + 5% tolerance are also obtained through special techniques. Usually, the resistance element is a simple rod of carbon powder, which is enclosed in a plastic case for insulation and mechanical strength as shown in Fig.7.3.(a). The two ends of the carbon resistance element are joined to metal caps with leads of tinned wire. The leads are provided for soldering the resistor into a circuit. The carbon composition resistors are available in resistance values ranging 1 to 22 M and power ratings of 1/8, 1/4,1/2,1 and 2 watts. The size of these resistors varies with the power ratings as shown in Fig.7.3 (b). These days, the carbon composition resistors with power rating of 1 W of less are widely used in electronic equipments.

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8.2 Capacitors

Function :-

Capacitors store electric charge. They are used with resistors in timing circuit because it takes time for a capacitor to fill with charge. They are used to smooth varying DC supplies by acting as a reservoir of charge. They are also used in filter circuits because capacitors easily pass AC (changing) signals but they block DC (constant) signals.

8.2.1 Capacitance

This is a measure of a capacitor's ability to store charge. A large capacitance means that more charge can be stored. Capacitance is measured in farads, symbol F. However 1F is very large, so prefixes are used to show the smaller values.

Three prefixes (multipliers) are used, µ (micro), n (nano) and p (pico): µ means 10-6 (millionth), so 1000000µF = 1F n means 10-9 (thousand-millionth), so 1000nF = 1µF p means 10-12 (million-millionth), so 1000pF = 1nF Capacitor values can be very difficult to find because there are many types of capacitor with different labelling systems! Polarized capacitors (large values, 1µF +)

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Examples: Circuit symbol:

Capacitors

Fig 8.4

Small value capacitors are unpolarized and may be connected either way round. They are not damaged by heat when soldering, except for one unusual type (polystyrene). They have highvoltage ratings of at least 50V, usually 250V or so. It can be difficult to find the values of these small capacitors because there are many types of them and several different labeling systems Many small value capacitors have their value printed but without a multiplier, so you need to use experience to work out what the multiplier should be .

8.2.2 Classification of Capacitors

The capacitors are commonly classified on the basis of dielectric material

used for their manufacturing. it is because of the fact that characteristics

of a capacitor are mainly due to the properties of a dialectic. Figure 7.23

shows different types of capacitors manufactured these days. The

capacitors may be divided into two classes, namely fixed capacitors and

variable capacitors. Each type is further subdivided in to many types as

shown in the figure.

Fixed Capacitors :-

The capacitors, in which the capacitance value cannot be varied by any means (i.e., either by changing plate separation or area) are called fixed

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capacitors. These capacitors are broadly of two types namely electrostatic (or non-electrolytic) and electrolytic capacitors. Both these capacitor types are discussed in the following pages.

Electrostatic Capacitors :-

These capacitors are made up of two metal conductors (called plates) separated by a dielectric. Theyare characterized by very low leakage current and high leakage resistance. Following are the various types of electrostatic capacitors:

Ceramic capacitors :-

These capacitors are made by using various ceramic materials as

dielectrics. Usually, a powdered mixture of barium-strontium-titan ate is

used can have values from less than 10 pF to more than 1 uf. These

capacitors have a very high dielectric constant and therefore are usually

smaller in size than paper or mica capacitors for the same capacitance

value. However, ceramic capacitors have lower breakdown voltage than

that of mica or paper type capacitors. The leakage resistance in ceramic

capacitors is very high. But it is not as high as that of paper or mica type.

These capacitors

are available in both disc and tubular types and are used as bypassing and

coupling capacitors in electronic circuits. The ceramic capacitors are

cheaper than paper or mica type capacitors and have excellent

performance up to 200 MHz

Mica capacitors :-

These capacitors are available in capacitance values ranging from 1 pF to

10000 pF. These capacitors are expensive but have a stable capacitance

value even at a frequency of 200 MHz These capacitors are able to

withstand very high voltage (about 500V) due to thigh dielectric constant.

The mica capacitors are widely used in radio and telecommunication

applications.

Plastic film capacitors :-

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These capacitors are made by using plastic materials as a dielectric. The

plastics used for this purpose are polyester, (Mylar), polypropylene,

polystyrene, Teflon etc. But in actual practice, polyester and polystyrene

materials are more commonly used. The polyester capacitors, from 5 pF

to 0.05 uF. The Teflon capacitors may be operated up to 250º C. The

polystyrene capacitors have very low leakage and good high frequency

properties. The plastic film capacitors provide a wide choice in cost versus

performance.

Paper capacitors :-

These capacitors are made by using strips of aluminum foil with treated

paper as a dielectric. The foil and the paper is rolled in a ribbon form. The

leads are connected to the aluminium foil and taken out at each end. The

capacitor may be sealed in a wax paper or plastic. The paper capacitors

are available with capacitance values ranging from 0.001 uF to 1 uF.

These capacitors have excellent high voltage characteristics. Their

working voltage may be as high as 2000.

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8.2.4 Electrolytic Capacitors

These capacitors are made up of metal plates, which have a definite

polarity separated by a thin metal oxide dielectric as shown in Fig. 7.24.

The metal oxide is a conductive compound having dielectric constant

between 8 and 25. Usually, it is in a paste form, though it can be in a

liquid form also. The plate acts as a positive electrode or anode. The

capacitor is formed by using either a conducting electrolyte as a second

electrode or a semiconductor such as manganese dioxide. The electrolyte

used is either in a liquid form or in the form of a paste, which saturates a

paper or a gauge. The capacitor is packed in metal cylinder.

The cathode is connected to the cylinder. The cylinder is usually, enclosed

in a paper tube or cardboard tube, in order to insulate it form outside.

When a voltage of correct polarity is applied to a capacitor, a very thin

insulating layer of oxygen atoms forms between the anode and the oxide

layer. A reversal of polarity removes the insulating layer, thereby allowing

very high currents. Thus electrolytic capacitors are known as polarized

capacitors. They must be connected in a circuit according to the 'plus' (+)

and 'minus' (-) markings on the body of a capacitor. If the capacitor is

connected with a reverse polarity, it will act as a short circuit and get

overheated, due to excessive leakage current, and it can explode also.

Some electrolytic capacitors are made with two capacitors in one cylinder.

These capacitors are internally connected in series in an inverse

arrangement, so that one of them is always working as a capacitor. This

prevents the high leakage current, when operated with reverse polarity.

Such capacitors are known as non-polarized electrolytic capacitors. The

electrolytic capacitors possess a large value of capacitance ranging form 1

uFto 10000 uF in very compact sizes. The electrolytic capacitors are used

in a variety of specialized applications. Such application include their uses

in starting motors, blocking D.C. current, passing A.C. current, filtering

unwanted signals, tuning currents to a specific frequency, coupling and

bypassing signals etc.

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8.3 TRANSISTOR

A transistor consists of two junctions by sandwiching either p-type of n-type semiconductor between a pair of opposite types. Accordingly, there are two types of transistors namely;

(1) n-p-n-transistor (2) p-n-p-transistor

An n-p-n-transistor is composed of two n-type semiconductors separated by a thin section of p type. However a p-n-p-transistor is formed by two p-sections separated by a thin section of n-type. In each type of transistor the following points may be noted. These are two p-n junctions. Therefore a transistor may be regarded as combination of two diodes connected back to back. There are three terminals taken from each type of semiconductor. The middle section is a very thin layer. This is the most important factor in the function of a transistor.

Transistor as an Amplifier :-

A transistor raised the strength of a weak signal and thus acts as an amplifier. The weak signal is applied between emitter base junction and output is taken across the load Rc connected in the collector circuit in order achieve faithful amplification the input circuit should always remain forward biased. This D.C. Voltage V EE is applied in the input in addition to the signal. This D.C. Voltage is known as bias voltage and magnitude is such that is always keeps the input circuit forward besides regardless of the polarity to the signal. As the input circuit has low resistance therefore a small change in signal voltage caused an appreciable change emitter current. This caused almost the same change in collector current due to transistor action. The collector current flowing through a high load resistance Re-produced a large voltage across it. Thus a weak signal applied in the input circuit appears in the amplified form in the collector circuit it is in this way that a transistor acts as an amplifier.

Function:-

Transistors amplify current, for example they can be used to amplify the small output current from a logic IC so that it can operate a lamp, relay or other high current device. In many circuits a resistor is used to convert the changing current to a changing voltage, so the transistor is being used to amplify voltage.

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A transistor may be used as a switch (either fully on with maximum current, or fully off with no current) and as an amplifier (always partly on). The amount of current amplification is called the current gain, symbol hFE. For further information please see the Transistor circuits page.

8.3.1 Types of transistor

There are two types of standard transistors, NPN and PNP, with different circuit symbols. The letters refer to the layers of semiconductor material used to make the transistor. Most transistors used today are NPN because this is the easiest type to make from silicon. If you are new to electronics it is best to start by learning how to use NPN transistors.

Fig 8.5

The leads are labeled base (B), collector (C) and emitter (E).These terms refer to the internal operation of a transistor butthey are not much help in understanding how a transistor is used, so just treat them as labels.A Darlington pair is two transistors connected together to give a very high current gain. In addition to standard (bipolar junction) transistors, there are field-effect transistors which are usually referred.

Fig. 8.6: Transistors

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55


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8.4 TRANSFORMER

Definition :-

The transformer is a static electro-magnetic device that transforms one

alternating voltage (current) into another voltage (current). However,

power remains the some during the transformation. Transformers play a

major role in the transmission and distribution of ac power.

Principle :-

Transformer works on the principle of mutual induction. A transformer

consists of laminated magnetic core forming the magnetic frame. Primary

and secondary coils are wound upon the two cores of the magnetic frame,

linked by the common magnetic flux. When an alternating voltage is

applied across the primary coil, a current flows in the primary coil

producing magnetic flux in the transformer core. This flux induces voltage

in secondary coil.

Transformers are classified as: -

(a) Based on position of the windings with respect to core i.e.

(1) Core type transformer

(2) Shell type transformer

(b) Transformation ratio:

(1) Step up transformer

(2) Step down transformer

(a) Core & shell types: Transformer is simplest electrical machine,

which consists of windings on the laminated magnetic core. There

are two possibilities of putting up the windings on the core.

(1) Winding encircle the core in the case of core type transformer

(2) Cores encircle the windings on shell type transformer

(b) Step up and Step down: In these Voltage transformation takes place

according to whether the primary is high voltage coil or a low

voltage coil.

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(1) Lower to higher-> Step up

(2) Higher to lower-> Step down

8.5 DIODES

+ _

Fig 8.7 Diode Symbol

It is a two terminal device consisting of a P-N junction formed either of Ge

or Si crystal. The P and N type regions are referred to as anode and

cathode respectively. Commercially available diodes usually have some

means to indicate which lead is P and which lead is N.

8.6 RELAY

In this circuit a 12V magnetic relay is used. In magnetic relay, insulated

copper wire coil is used to magnetize and attract the plunger .The plunger

is normally connected to N/C terminal. A spring is connected to attract the

plunger upper side. When output is received by relay, the plunger is

attracted and the bulb glows.

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8.7 IC- AT895C1

PIN CONFIGURATION

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Fig 8.8 pin diag of 89c51

Features :-

• Compatible with MCS-51 • 4K Bytes of In-System Reprogrammable Flash Memory – Endurance: 1,000 Write/Erase Cycles • Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 24 MHz • Three-level Program Memory Lock • 128 x 8-bit Internal RAM • 32 Programmable I/O Lines • Two 16-bit Timer/Counters • Six Interrupt Sources • Programmable Serial Channel • Low-power Idle and Power-down Modes

Description :-

The AT89C51 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcomputer with 4K bytes of Flash programmable and erasable read only memory (PEROM). The device Flash is manufactured using Atmel’s high-density nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with the industry-standard MCS-51 instruction set and pinout. The on-chip

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Flash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed in-system or by a conventional nonvolatile memory programmer. By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with Flash AT89C51 on a monolithic chip, the Atmel AT89C51 is a powerful microcomputer which provides a highly-flexible and cost-effective solution to many embedded control applications.

TABLE 4 TABLE 4

PORT 0PORT 0

Port 0 is an 8-bit open-drain bi-directional I/O port. As anoutput port, each pin can sink eight TTL inputs. When 1s are written to port 0 pins, the pins can be used as high-impedance inputs. Port 0 may also be configured to be the multiplexed low-order address/data bus during accesses to external pro-gram and data memory. In this mode P0 has internal pullups.Port 0 also receives the code bytes during Flash programming, and outputs the code bytes during program verification. External pullups are required during program verification.

PORT 1PORT 1

Port 1 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pullups. The Port 1 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 1 pins they are pulled high by the internal pullups and can be used as inputs. As inputs,Port 1 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the internal pullups. Port 1 also receives the low-order address bytes during Flash programming and verification.

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PORT 2

Port 2 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pullups. The Port 2 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 2 pins they are pulled high by the internal pullups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 2 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the internal pullups. Port 2 emits the high-order address byte during fetches from external program memory and during accesses to external data memory that use 16-bit addresses (MOVX @ DPTR). In this application, it uses strong internal pullups when emitting 1s. During accesses to external data memory that use 8-bit addresses (MOVX @ RI), Port 2 emits thecontents of the P2 Special Function Register. Port 2 also receives the high-order address bits and some control signals during Flash programming and verification.

PORT 3

Port 3 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pullups. The Port 3 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 3 pins they are pulled high by the internal pullups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 3 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the pullups. Port 3 also serves the functions of various special features of the AT89C51 as listed above.

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Fig 8.9

8.8 8.8 RELAY IN4007RELAY IN4007

Fig 8.10

Features

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• Low forward voltage drop.• High surge current capability.

8.9 8.9 TRANSISTOR BC548CTRANSISTOR BC548C

Fig 8.11 8.11

This device is designed for use as general purpose amplifiers and switches requiring collector currents to 300 mA.

TABLE 5TABLE 5

8.10 8.10 IC LM7805IC LM7805

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Fig 8.12

The LM78LXX series of three terminal positive regulators is available with several fixed output voltages making them useful in a wide range of applications. When used as a zener diode/resistor combination replacement, the LM78LXX usually results in an effective output impedance improvement of two orders of magnitude, and lower quiescent current. These regulators can provide local on card regulation, eliminating the distribution problems associated with single point regulation. The voltages available allow the LM78LXX to be used in logic systems, instrumentation, HiFi, and other solid state electronic equipment.The LM78LXX is available in the plastic TO-92 (Z) package, the plastic SO-8 (M) package and a chip sized package (8-Bump micro SMD) using National’s micro SMD package technology. With adequate heat sinking the regulator can deliver 100 mA output current. Current limiting is included to limit the peak output current to a safe value. Safe area protection for the output transistors is provided to limit internalpower dissipation. If internal power dissipation becomes too high for the heat sinking provided, the thermal shutdown circuit takes over preventing the IC from overheating.

Features

LM78L05 in micro SMD package Output voltage tolerances of ±5% over the temperature

range Output current of 100 mA Internal thermal overload protection Output transistor safe area protection Internal short circuit current limit Available in plastic TO-92 and plastic SO-8 low profile

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packages No external components Output voltages of 5.0V, 6.2V, 8.2V, 9.0V, 12V, 15V

8.11 8.11 IC LM358IC LM358

Features

Available in 8-Bump micro SMD chip sized package. Internally frequency compensated for unity gain Large dc voltage gain: 100 dB Wide bandwidth (unity gain): 1 MHz temperature compensated Wide power supply range:

— Single supply: 3V to 32V— or dual supplies: ±1.5V to ±16V

Very low supply current drain (500 µA)—essentiallyindependent of supply voltage

Low input offset voltage: 2 mV Input common-mode voltage range includes ground Differential input voltage range equal to the power

supply voltage Large output voltage swing: 0V to V+-1.5V

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8.12 IC LM386

Fig 8.13

Features

Battery operation Minimum external parts Wide supply voltage range: 4V–12V or 5V–18V Low quiescent current drain: 4mA Voltage gains from 20 to 200 Ground referenced input Self-centering output quiescent voltage Low distortion: 0.2% (AV = 20, VS =6V,RL =8Ω,PO =

125mW, f = 1kHz) Available in 8 pin MSOP package

Applications

AM-FM radio amplifiers Portable tape player amplifi Intercoms TV sound systems Line drivers Ultrasonic drivers Small servo drivers Power converters

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CHAPTER 9CHAPTER 9

SHORTCOMING AND LIMITATIONSSHORTCOMING AND LIMITATIONS

No feedback correction.

Applications of metro train automation & display system

Passenger guiding system. Distance meter. Automatic announcement system

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CHAPTER 10CHAPTER 10

FUTURE, APPLICATION & SCOPEFUTURE, APPLICATION & SCOPE

Feedback arrangement to correct the error. Connectivity with stations. It can be used for Survey Vehicle, Remote monitoring etc. In industries it can be used as self guided robotic vehicle. System can be used in industries, banks, workshops etc. for

monitoring of workers by officers. In security system .Highly relative compound container monitoring where excess

temperature, smoke, or flame can cause explosion. Robotics

Many railways are planning on using ATO in the future. It has been partially implemented on the Delhi Metro with plans of full ATO operations by the year 2013. ATO has been recently introduced on the London Underground's Northern line in 2013. Although ATO may also be used on the future Crossrail and Thameslink trains, it has not yet been implemented on any UK mainline railways.

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Rail

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crossrail

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_line

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Underground

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delhi_Metro


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PROJECT COSTPROJECT COST

Sno.

Component Description

Quantity Cost per piece

Total Cost

1TRANSISTORBC548

09 03 30

2VARIABLE RESISTORS 0303 0505 1515

33ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITORS

0303 1313 3939

44CERAMIC CAPACITORS 0606 0101 0606

55CARBON RESISTOR 2626 1.251.25 32.532.5

66 77

ICICAT89C51,LM324,1738,LM78AT89C51,LM324,1738,LM7805,LM55505,LM555DIODESDIODES

0505

0909

140,40,35,1140,40,35,10,100,10

1.51.5

235235

13.513.5

88LEDLED 0606 1.51.5 0909

99ZENER DIODESZENER DIODES 0303 0404 1212

1010CRYSTAL CRYSTAL 0101 3030 3030

1111RELAY RELAY 0606 2525 150150

1212 PCBPCB 0101 9090 9090

1313 MISCELLANIOUSMISCELLANIOUSIC BASE(40PIN,20 IC BASE(40PIN,20 PIN,16PIN,8PIN )PIN,16PIN,8PIN )

0404 2828 112112

1414 SOLDERING AND SOLDERING AND CONNECTING WIRES AND CONNECTING WIRES AND SOLDERING PASTESOLDERING PASTE

20mtrs,2m20mtrs,2mtrs, 10gmstrs, 10gms

22,522,5 2727

1515 FERRIC CHLORIDEFERRIC CHLORIDE 100gms100gms 4040 4040

Table 6

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Total Cost = Rs841


REFERENCE AND BIBLIOGRAPHYREFERENCE AND BIBLIOGRAPHY

Reference For Technical Information From Following Books:

1. Micro Processor Architecture by Ramesh S. Gaonkar .2. Communication System by Tob& Shilling.3. Micro controller by K. J. Ayala.4. Integrated Electronics by Millman&Hawlkiwas.5. Let us C by YashwanKanitker.

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metro train automation & display system

Engineering

metro train automation

breadboard chapter

principletheoryconcept

limitations chapter

scope chapter

project cost chapter

testing chapter

pin table table