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Abu Dhabi University

Research Methods in Business

(MGT 524(

Dr. AbdelMagid Mattar

MGT 534 - Research Methods in Business Dr. AbdelMagid Mattar 1

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Definition of Business Research

Business research can be described as:

A systematic and organized effort to investigate a specific problem

that needs a solution.

A problem is a gap between desired and actual state.

Simply, there are five major and important steps involved in the

research process:

1) Defining the Problem

2) Research Design

3) Data Collection

4) Analysis5) Report Writing and Presentation

Survey research

A research method involving the use of questionnaires to gather data

about people and their thoughts and behaviors

Qualitative Research

Usually emphasizes words (like interview, open ended survey responses,

emails, notes, feedback forms, photos, videos and focus group) ratherthan quantification in the collection and analysis of data.

Quantitative Research

Usually emphasizes quantification in the collection and analysis of data.

Precise count of some behavior, knowledge, opinion, or attitude.


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A brief discussion on these steps is:

1) Problem audit and problem definition

What is the problem?

What are the various aspects of the problem?

What information is needed?

2) Conceptualization and operationalization - How exactly do we

define the concepts involved? How do we translate these

concepts into observable and measurable behaviors?

A Concept is a generalized idea that represents something of

meaning.

Concepts such as age, gender and education are relatively concreteproperties and present few problems in either definition or

measurement.

Concepts such as brand loyalty, corporate culture, and attitude and

so on are more abstract and are more difficult to both define and

measure

3) Hypothesis specification - What claim(s) do we want to test?

4) Research design specification - What type of methodology to

use? - Examples: questionnaire, survey.

5) Question specification. What questions to ask? In what order

6) Scale specification - How will preferences be rated?

7) Sampling design specification - What is the total population?

What sample size is necessary for this population? Whatsampling method to use?- examples:

Probability Sampling

Simple Random Sampling

Systematic Sampling

Stratified Sampling

Cluster Sampling

Area Sampling Double Sampling

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothesishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Questionnaire_constructionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scale_(social_sciences)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sampling_(statistics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothesishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Questionnaire_constructionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scale_(social_sciences)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sampling_(statistics)

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Nonprobability Sampling

Convenience Sampling

Judgment Sampling

Quota Sampling.

8) Data collection - Use mail, telephone, internet, mall intercepts

9) Codification and re-specification - Make adjustments to the raw

data so it is compatible with statistical techniques and with the

objectives of the research - examples: assigning numbers,

consistency checks, substitutions, deletions, weighting, dummy

variables, scale transformations, scale standardization

10) Statistical analysis - Perform various descriptive and inferential

techniques. Make inferences from the sample to the whole

population. Test the results for statistical significance.

11) Interpret and integrate findings - What do the results mean?

What conclusions can be drawn? How do these findings relate to

similar research?

12) Write the research report - Report usually has headings such as:

Executive summary;

Objectives;

Methodology;

Main findings;

Detailed charts and diagrams. Present the report to the client in a 10

minute presentation. Be prepared for questions.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonprobability_samplinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonprobability_samplinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonprobability_samplinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonprobability_sampling

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Objectives of the Course

Knowledge and Skills

Gained

Personal and Professional

Development

Identify Problem Areas

Conduct Interviews

Do Library Research

Develop Theoretical

Framework

Formulate Hypotheses

Make Research Design

Decision

Collect Data

Analyze and Interpret Data

Discuss Findings and

Implications

Discriminate Between

Good and Bad Research

Know The Manager-

Self Management Of Time,

Talents, and Other Resources

Develop Communication Skills

Take Personal Responsibility

For Learning and Information

Seeking Learn To Handle Ambiguity

Develop Logical Thinking and

A Feel For What Is Involved in

Managerial Decision Making

Develop Confidence In Your

Competence

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Problems come to light in a variety of ways, including:

Customer complaints

Conversations with company employees

Observation of inappropriate behavior or conditions in the firm

Deviation from the business plan

Success of the firms competitors

Company records and reports

Ground Rules for the Business Research

Always know what you are researching

Always test a research model

Never use only one information-gathering technique

When it comes to study a problem, keep it short and simple (KISS)

If necessary, hire a professional

Make the decision

Fundamental Types of Research

Basic Research

Research conducted to generate knowledge and understanding of

phenomena that would add to the existing body of knowledge for

future use

Applied Research

Research conducted in a particular setting with the specific intention

of solving an existing problem in the situation or conducted when a

decision must be made about a specific real-life problem.

Problems for Basic and Applied Research

Management

Employee behaviors such as performance, absenteeism, and

turnover. Employee attitudes such as job satisfaction, loyalty, and

organizational commitment.

Employee selection, recruitment, training, and retention.

Validation of performance appraisal system.

Evaluation of assessment centers

Marketing

What price should we charge for our product?

What distribution channels should be used?


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How well does the product match up with the competitor's product?

How effective is the company's advertising?

How well this new product be received by the consumers?

What percentage of market penetration does Product X have?

What is Product X's image in the consumer's mind?

Finance

What would be the market reaction to a new stock offering?

How does that typical investor view the company?

What is the market value of the fixed assets in the manufacturing

division?

What do the accounting supervisors think about the new computer

installation?

Manufacturing

Who is the most reliable vendor for this raw material?

What is the most efficient plant layout and location for product X?

Does Product X meet the quality control standard?

Would it be possible to substitute raw material Y for Z?

What automated warehouse system should be purchased?

What lighting system gives the highest increase in productivity?

What is the exact nature of this production task?

Personnel

What skills are required for this job?

What is the salary range for similar employees in this area?

What type of training would be desirable for this job?

How do employees feel about their job, the company and its

management?

How good is the communication among employees, supervisor andsubordinates?

Which employees are promotable?


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Why Should a Manager Know Research?

Facilitates good decision making

Become discrimination about research findings

Prevents vested interests

Educates to share pertinent and relevant information withresearcher

Helps take calculated risks with probabilities attached

Understand the complexity of the variables in organization

An integral part of professionalization of management

The Manager-Researcher Relationships

Each should know his/her role

Trust levels Acceptance of findings and implementation

Internal Researcher

Advantages

Better acceptance from staff

Knowledge about organization

Would be an integral part of implementation and evaluation of the

research recommendations

Disadvantages

Less fresh ideas

Possibility not valued as "experts" by staff

External Researchers

Advantages

Divergent and convergent thinking

Experience from several situations in different types of

organizations

Better technical training, usually

Disadvantages

Takes time to know and understand the organization system

Seldom welcomed by the employees

Not available for evaluation after implementation

Costs


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The Hallmarks of Scientific Research

Purposiveness

The situation in which research is focused on solving a well-identified

and defined problem.

Rigor

The theoretical and methodological precision adhered to in conducting

research.

Testability

The ability to subject the data collected to appropriate statistical tests

in order to accept or reject the hypotheses developed for the research

study.

Replicability

The replicability of similar results when identical research is

conducted at different times or in different organizational settings.

Precision and Confidence

Precision: refers to the closeness of the findings to reality based on a

sample. In other words, precision reflects the degree of accuracy of the

results on the basis of the sample, to what really exists in the universe.

Confidence: refers to the probability that our estimations are correct.That is, it is not merely enough to be precise, but it is also important

that we can confidently claim that 95% of the time our results would

be true and there is only a 5% chance of our being wrong.

Objectivity

Interpretation of the results on the bases of the results of data analysis

should be objective, that is, they should be based on the facts of the

findings derived from actual data, and not on our own subjective or

emotional values as opposed to subjective or emotional interpretations

Generalizability

Generalizability refers to the scope of applicability of research

findings in one organizational setting to other settings. Obviously, the

wider the range of applicability of the solutions generated by research,

the more useful the research is to the user.

Parsimony

One of the main points in research is the achievement of a meaningfuland simple model rather than a complex one for problem solution.


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The Building Blocks of Scientific Research

Deduction and Induction

Answers to issues can be found either by the process of deduction or the

process of induction, or by a combination of the two.

Deduction is the process by which we arrive at a reasoned conclusion by

logical generalization of a known fact or the process of arriving at

conclusion based on the interpretation of the meaning of the results of

data analysis.

For example,

We know that all managers are human beings.

If we also know thatJohn Smith is a manager,

Then we can deduce thatJohn Smith is a human being.

Induction, on the other hand, is a process where we observe certain

phenomena and on this basis arrive at conclusion. In other words, in

induction we logically establish a general proposition based on observed

facts or the process by which general propositions based on observed

facts are established.

For example,

All managers that have ever been seen are human beings;

Therefore all managers are human beings.


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The Hypothetico-Deductive Method

The seven-step process in the Hypothetico-Deductive method in

organizations

Observation

Observation is the first stage, in which one sense that certain changes

are occurring, or that some new behaviors, attitudes, and feelings are

surfacing in one's environment (i.e., the workplace). When the

observed phenomena are seen to have potentially important

consequences, one would proceed to the next step.

Preliminary information gathering

Preliminary information gathering involves the seeking of information

in depth, of what is observed. A mass of observation would have beencollected through the interviews and library search.

Theory formulation

Is an attempt to integrate all the information in a logical manner, so

that the factors responsible for the problem can be tested. In this step

the critical variables are examined as to their contribution or influence

in explaining why the problem occurs and how it can be solved.

Hypothesizing

From the theorized network of associations among the variables,

certain testable hypotheses can be generated.

Further scientific data collection

After the development of the hypotheses, data with respect to each

variable in the hypotheses need to be obtained. In other words, further

scientific data collection is needed to test the hypotheses that are

generated in the study.

Data analysis

The data gathered are statistically analyzed to see if the hypotheses

that were generated have been supported.

Deduction

Is the process of arriving at conclusion by interpreting the meaning of

the results of the data analysis.


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Common Used Technologies in Business Research

The internet

Electronic mail

The intranet

Browsers

Web sites

Some Software Used in Business Research

Groupware

Neural networks

CAM/CAD

Data Analytic Software Programs SAS

SPSS

MINITAB

SYSTAT

SIGMASTAT

EXCEL


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Determining when to conduct business research


Time Constraints

Is sufficient time available before amanagerial decision must be made?

Availability of Data

Is the information already on hand

inadequate for making the decision?

Nature of the Decision

Is the decision of considerable strategic or

tactical importance?

Benefits vs. Costs

Does the value of the research information

exceed the cost of conducting research?

Conducting Business Researech

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

Do Not

Conduct

Business

Research

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Stages in the Research Process

Problem Discovery and Problem Definition

The formulation of the problem is often more essential than its solution

Informal gathering of background information to familiarize researchersor managers with the decision area

State the research questions and research objectives.

Research Proposal: A written statement of the research design that

includes a statement explaining the purpose of the study

Basic Questions that are related to the problem definition

What is the purpose of the study?

How much is already known?

Is additional background information necessary?What is to be measured? How?

Should research be conducted?

Research Design

What types of questions need to be answered?

Are descriptive or causal findings required?

What is the source of the data?

Basic research methods: Surveys, Experiments, Secondary data,

observation

Sampling

A sample is a subset of a large population

Who is to be sampled?

How large a sample?

How will sample units be selected?

Data Gathering

Who will gather the data?How long will data gathering take?

Data Processing and Analysis

How will the data be categorized?

What statistical software will be used?

What questions need to be answered?

Conclusions and Report

Who will read the report?


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Step 1

Observation - The Broad Problem Area

Examples of broad problem areas that a manager could observe at the

workplace are as follows:

Training programs are perhaps not effective as anticipated

The sales volume of a product is not picking up

Minority group members in organizations are not advancing in

their careers

The newly installed information system is not being used by the

managers for whom it was primarily designed

The introduction of flexible work hours has created more problems

than it has solved in many companies

The anticipated results of a recent merger have not been

forthcoming

Inventory control is not effective

The installation of an MIS keeps getting stalled

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Step 2

Preliminary Data Collection

Can be obtained from available published records,

the web site of the company, its archives, and other

sources), like,

The origin and history of the company.

Size in terms of employees, assets, or both.

Charter-purpose and ideology.

Location-regional, national, or other.

Resources-human and others.

Interdependent relations with other institutions.Financial position during the previous 5 to 10 years.

Background

information

of the

organization

Managerial

philosophy,

company

policies, and

other structural

aspects

Perceptions,

attitudes, and

behavioral

responses of

organizational

members and

client systems

Literature

Survey

Can be obtained from theorganizations records and

documents, like

Roles and position in the

organization and number of

employees at each job level.

Extent of specialization.

Communication channels.

Control systems.

Coordination and span of control.Reward systems.

Workflow systems and the like..

Nature of the work.

Workflow interdependencies.

Superiors in the organization

Participation in decision making.

Client systems.

Co-workers.

Rewards provided by the

organization, such as pay raises and

fringe benefits.Opportunities for advancement in

the organization.

Organizations attitudes toward

employee's family responsibilities.

Companys involvement with

community, civic, and other social

groups.

Next Page

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Literature Survey

Literature survey is the documentation of a comprehensive review of the

published and unpublished work from secondary source of data in theareas of specific interest to the researcher.

(Secondary data can be collected from, library, books, journals,

newspapers, magazines, conference proceedings, doctorial dissertations,

masters theses, government publications, and financial, marketing, and

other reports)

Reasons for the Literature Survey

Important variables that are likely to influence the problem

situation are not left out of the study. A clearer idea emerges as to what variables would be most

important to consider, why they would be considered important,

and how they should be investigated to solve the problem. Thus,

the literature survey helps the development of the theoretical

framework and hypotheses testing.

The problem statement can be made with precision and clarity.

Testability and replicability of the findings of the current research

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Step 3

Problem Definition

Is a clear and precise statement of the question or issue that is to be

investigated with the goal of finding an answer or solution?

Thus, it is fruitful to define a problem as: any situation where gap exists

between the actual and the desired ideal states.

Problem definitions could pertain to

Exiting business problems where a manager is looking for a solution.

(Applied Research)

Situations that may not pose any current problems but which the

manager feels have scope for improvement. (Applied Research) Areas where some conceptual clarity is needed for better theory

building. (Basic Research)

Situations in which a researcher is trying to answer a research

question empirically because of interest in the topic. (Basic Research)

Examples of Well-Defined Problems

To what extent do the structure of the organization and type ofinformation systems installed account for the variance in the

perceived effectiveness of managerial decision making?

To what extent has the new advertising campaign been successful in

creating the high-quality, customer-centered corporate image that it

was intended to produce?

How has the new packaging affected the sales of the product?

Has the new advertising massage resulted in enhanced recall?

How do price and quality rate on consumer's evaluation of products?

Does better automation lead to greater asset investment per dollar of

output?

Does expansion of international operations result in an enhancement

of the firms image and value?

What are the effects of downsizing on the long-range growth patterns

of companies?

What are the components of quality of life?

What are the specific factors to be considered in creating a data

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Step 4

Theoretical Framework

A theoretical framework is a conceptual model of how one theorizes or

makes logical sense of the relationships among the several factors that have

been identified as important to the problem.

From the theoretical framework, then, testable hypotheses can be developed

to examine whether the theory formulated is valid or not.

Since the theoretical framework is none other than identifying the network

of relationships among the variables considered important to the study ofany given problem situation, it is essential to understand what a variable

means and what the different types of variables are.

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Types of Variables

Dependent Independent Moderating Intervening

The dependent variable

is the variable of

primary interest to the

researcher. The

researcher's goal is to

explain or predict the

variability in the

dependent variable. Theresearcher is interested

in quantifying and

measuring this variable,

as well as the other

variables that influence

this variable.

Example

A manager is concerned

that the sales of a newproduct introduced after

market testing is not as

high as he had expected.

The dependent variable

here is sales. Since the

sales of the product can

vary- can be low,

medium, high- it is a

variable; since sales are

the main factor of

interest to the manager,

it is the dependent

variable.

An independent variable is one that

influences the dependent variable in

either a positive or a negative way.Example

Research studies indicate that successful

new product development has an

influence on the stock market price of the

company. That is, the more successful the

new product is believed to be, the higher

will be the stock market price of that firm.

Therefore, the success of the new product

is the independent variable, and stock

market price is the dependent variable.

A variable

that has a

strong effect

on the

independent

variable-

dependent

variablerelationship

A variable that

surfaces as a

function of the

independent

variable, and

helps in

conceptualizing

and explainingthe influence of

the independent

variable on the

dependent

variable.

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Example

Motivation to work as an independent variable

The performance of employees is influenced by their motivation to work.

IV DV

Motivation to work as an intervening variable

Employees performing better when they are given challenging jobs,

because such jobs tend to motivate them to work.

IV ITV DV

Motivation to work as a moderating variable

The performance of employees with low levels of motivation to work will

not improve despite increases in job challenge.

IV MO V DV


nioMotivat Performance

Job Challenge Motivation Performance

Job Challenge Performance

Motivation

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Features that should be incorporated in any theoretical framework

The variables considered relevant to the study should be

clearly identified and labeled in the discussions.

The discussions should state how two or more variables are

related to one another. This should be done for the important

relationships that are theorized to exist among the variables.

If the nature and direction of the relationships can be theorized

on the basis of the findings of previous research, then there

should be an indication in the discussions as to whether the

relationships would be positive or negative.

There should be a clear explanation of why we would expect

these relationships to exist. A schematic diagram of the theoretical framework should be

given so that the reader can see and easily comprehend the

theoretical relationshi s.

Step 5

Hypotheses Development

A hypotheses can defined as a logically conjectured relationship between

two or more variables expressed in the form of a testable statement or to

test whether the relationships that have been theorized do in fact hold true.

The steps to be followed in hypotheses testing are

State the null and alternative hypotheses

Choose the appropriate statistical test depending on whether the data

collected are parametric or nonparametric.

Determine the level of significance desired (p = 0.05, or more, or

less).

See if the output results from the computer analysis indicate that the

significance level is met.

When the resultant value is larger that the critical value, the null

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Purpose of the Study

Exploratory Descriptive Hypothesis testing Case study

Analytical PredictiveA research

study where

very little

knowledge

or

information

is available

on the

subject

under

investigation

A research study that

describes the

variables in a

situation of interest

to the researcher.

OR,

The elementary

transformation of

raw data in a way

that describes the

basic characteristics

such as central

tendency,

distribution, and

variability.

A research

study that

tries toexplain

why or

how certain

variables

influence

the

dependent

variable of

interest to

theresearcher

A research

study that

enables theprediction of

the

relationships

among the

variables in a

particular

situation

Step 6

A research study that involve in-depth,

appropriate analysis of similar situation

in other organizations, where the same

nature and definition of the problem

happen to be the same as experienced inthe current situation(i.e. A research approach that focuses ona detailed account of one or moreindividual cases (specific students or aspecific class))

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Descriptive Analysis

The transformation of raw data into a form that will make them

easy to understand and interpret; rearranging, ordering, and

manipulating data to generate descriptive information.

Frequency Table

The arrangement of statistical data in a row-and-column format

that exhibits the count of responses or observations for each

category assigned to a variable

Cross Tabulation

A technique for organizing data by groups, categories, or classes,

thus facilitating comparisons; a joint frequency distribution of

observations on two or more sets of variables

Contingency table- The results of a cross-tabulation of two

variables, such as survey questions

Analyze data by groups or categories

Compare differences

Contingency table

Percentage cross-tabulations


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Type of Investigation

Causal Correlation

A research study conducted to establish

cause-and-effect relationships among

variables.

A study that is designed to determine

whether one or more variables explain the

causes or effects of one or more outcome

(dependent variables

A causal study question:Does smoking cause cancer?

A research study conducted to

identify the important factors

associated with the variables of

interest.

A Correlational study question:

Are smoking and cancer related?

Study Settings

Contrivedor Unnatural Noncontrived or Natural

An artificial created or

"lab" environment in

which research is

conducted

A research conducted in a

natural environment

where activities take

place in the normal

manner

Time Horizon

Cross-Sectional Longitudinal

A research study for which

data are gathered just once to

answer the research question

A research study for which

data are gathered at several

points in time to answer the

research question

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Unit of Analysis

Refers to the level of aggregation of the data collection during the

subsequent data analysis stage.

The research question determines the unit of analysis

Individuals Dyads Groups Organizationsor Cultures

If the problem is to raise the motivational levels

of employees, then we are interested in

individual employees. We will be looking at the

data gathered from each individual and treating

each employee's response as an individual data

source

If the

researcher is

interested in

studying

two-person

interactions,then several

two-person

groups will

become the

unit of

analysis.

If the

problem

statement is

related to

groups, then

the unit ofanalysis

would be at

the group

level.

If the problem

statement is

related to

organizations

or cultures,

then the unitof analysis

would be at

the

organization

or culture

level.

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Variables

Anything that can take on differing or varying values. The values can differ

at various times for the same object or person, or the values can differ at the

same time for different objects or persons.

Objective

Can be measured

Subjective

Can't be measured

because of its

subjective nature

There are ways of

measuring thesubjective feelings

and perceptions of

individuals. One

technique is to

reduce the abstract

notions, or concepts

such as motivation,

involvement,

satisfaction, buyerbehavior to

observable behavior

and characteristics

Qualitative

-Brand of PC-Marital status

-Hair color

Quantitative

Discrete

-Children

in a family.

-Number of

Students in

class.

Continuous

-Amount of

income

-Weight of

Students

Example

Answer to the following questions from the respondents would be one

way of measuring the level of achievement motivation.

o To what extent would you say you push yourself to get the job

done on time?o How often do you neglect personal matters because you are

preoccupied with your job?

o How frequently do you think of your work when you are at home?

o To what extent would you prefer to take on extremely difficult

assi nments rather than moderatel challen in ones?

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Levels of Data

Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio

Data may

only be

classified

Data are

ranked

Meaningful difference

between values-Equal

Intervals

Meaningful zero

point and ratio

between values

Gender

Nationality

Your

rank in

class

Temperature Weight

Height

Len th

-Data

categories are

mutually

exclusive and

exhaustive.

-Data

categories have

no logical order

or distancerelationship

and have no

arithmetic

origin.

-Interval scale have the

power of nominal and

ordinal scales plus an

additional strength: they

incorporate the concept of

equality of interval. The

time between 3 and 6am

equals the time between 4

and 7am. One cannot say,6am is twice as late as 3am

because "zero time is an

arbitrary origin. 80F is

hotter than 40F but you

cannot conclude that the

40F is twice as cold as 80F

because this is a scaling

system.

80F = (80-32)*5/9 = 26.7C

40F = (40-32)*5/9 = 4.4C

-Ordinal scale

includes the

characteristics

of the nominal

scale plus an

indicator of

order.

-If a > b and

b > c, then a > cwithout stating

how much

greater or less.

-Ratio scale

has the power

of the interval

scale plus the

provision for

absolute zero

or origin. Ratio

data represent

the actualamounts of the

variable.

-Data

classifications

are ordered

according to

the amount of

the

characteristic

they possess.

-The zero point

is the absence

of the

characteristic.

Mode, Median, Mean, Standard deviation, Variance, t and Z-test.

One way ANOVA (for more than two groups). Correlation

Coefficient. Regression Analysis.

Frequency

table,

Proportion

(Percentages)Mode.

Chi-square test

(Difference

among two or

more

independent

groups)

Z-test (two

ro ortions

Median,

Percentile, and

Rank-order

correlations.

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Scales

Is a tool or mechanism by which individuals, events, or objects are distinguished on

the variables of interest in some meaningful way.

Scales that are commonly used in business research can be generally classified as

rating scales and ranking scales.

Rating

ScalesHave

several

response

categories

and are

used to

obtain

responses

with regard

to the

object,event, or

person

studied

Ranking Scales (Ordinal Scale)

This type of question requires the participant to rank order a list of items.Example: What are the most important three considerations in selecting a supermarket?

Location O Price O Meat quality O Cleanliness O Service O

Paired Comparison

Is used when, among a small number of objects, respondent are asked to choose between

two objects at a time.

Pair-wise comparison generally refers to any process of comparing entities in pairs to

judge which of each pair is preferred

An evaluation of two products that are given values based on set criteria as means of

comparing the two items.

A ranking technique that compares each job being evaluated individually to every otherjob in a pair-wise fashion to determine which job has a higher value. Ranks of jobs are

created which can than be pegged to the market via benchmark jobs.

Forced Choice

Enables respondents to rank objects relative to one another, among the alternative

provided. This is easier for the respondents, particularly if the number of choices to be

ranked is limited in number.

Example: Rank the following news papers that you would like to subscribe to in the order

of preference, assuming 1 for the most preferred choice and 5 for the last preferred

Gulf News --- Al Itehad --- Al Bayan ---

Khaleej Times--- Middle East ---

Comparative Scale

Ask respondents to rate a concept in comparison with a benchmark explicitly used as a

frame of reference.

Example: Please indicate how the amount of authority in your present position compares

with the amount of authority that would be ideal for this position

Too Much About Right Too Little

1 2 3

Example: In an unusual financial environment, compared to stocks, how wise or useful is

it to invest in Treasury bonds? Please circle the appropriate responseMore Useful About the Same Less Useful

1 2 3 4 5

Measurements

We know the four different types of data levels (scales) that can be used to measure

the operationally defined dimensions and elements of a variable, it is necessary to

examine the methods of scaling (that is, assigning numbers or symbols) to obtain the

attitudinal responses of subjects toward objects, events, or persons.

Next Page

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Rating Scales

Dichotomous Scale: (Closed-Ended Questions) (Nominal Scale)

This question uses an either/or or yes/no response.

Example:

I have good communication with my supervisor. Yes O No O

The color in our new store is generally. Attractive O Not attractive O

Do you own a car? Yes O No O

Category Scale (Multiple choice) (Nominal Scale): Uses multiple items to obtain a single

response (the most correct one).

Example:

What is your age? Less than 30 O 30 to 39 O 40 to 49 O More than 49 O

Likert Scale (Interval Scale)

Is designed to examine how strongly subjects agree or disagree with statements on a 5-point

scale with the following anchors:

1 2 3 4 5

Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Agree nor Disagree Agree Strongly AgreeExample:

Please indicate the degree to which you agree with each of the following statements:

Strongly Disagree Neither Agree Agree Strongly

Disagree nor Disagree Agree

My work is very interesting 1 2 3 4 5

Life without my work will be dull 1 2 3 4 5

Carrefour is the best supermarket in Dubai 1 2 3 4 5

I am not engrossed in my work at all 1 2 3 4 5

Semantic Differential: (Interval Scale)This method measures attitude by displaying pairs of opposite terms and asking respondents to

check which term better describes their feelings toward the concept or topic. Each pair consists

of a positive and negative adjective reflecting the extremes, such as: "honest, dishonest",

"efficient, inefficient", "powerful, week". The adjectives are placed at opposite ends of the line,

which is divided into an equal number of segments. Respondents can select the degree to which

the adjective describes the topic. It is important to reverse some of the items so that people don't

develop a "response set" marking the same column out of habit. In the following example you

can see some positive terms on the left column and some on the right column:

Example:

Happy ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- Sad

Not helpful ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- helpful

Slow ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- Fast

Numerical Scale (Interval Scale)

Similar to the semantic differential scale, with the difference that numbers on a 5-point or 7-

point scale are provided.

Extremely Pleased 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Extremely Displeased

Itemized Rating Scale (Interval Scale)

A 5-point or 7-point scale with anchors, as needed, is provided for each item and the respondent

states the appropriate number on the side of each item or circle the relevant number againsteach item.

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Example:

Respond to each item using the scale below, and indicate your response number on the line by

each item.

1 2 3 4 5

Very Unlikely Unlikely Neither Unlikely Nor Likely Likely Very Likely

I will be changing my job within the next 12 months -------

Fixed or Constant Sum Scale (Ordinal Scale)

The respondent are here asked to distribute a given number of points across various items

Example:

In choosing toilet soap, indicate the importance you attach to each of the following five aspects

by assigning points for each to total 100 in all

Fragrance ---

Color ---

Shape ---

Size ---

Texture of lather ---

Total points 100

Stapel Scale (Interval Scale)

Uses a single adjective as a substitute for the semantic differential when it is difficult to create

pairs of bipolar adjectives.

This scale simultaneously measures both the direction and intensity of the attitude toward the

items under study. The characteristic of interest to the study is placed at the center with a

numerical scale ranging, say, from +3 to -3, on either side of the item. This gives an idea of how

close or distant the individual response to the stimulus is.

Example:

State how you would rate your supervisor's abilities with respect to each of the characteristics

mentioned below, by circling the appropriate number.3 3 3

2 2 2

1 1 1

Adopting Modern Product Innovation Interpersonal Skills

Technology

-1 -1 -1

-2 -2 -2

-3 -3 -3

Graphic Rating Scale (Interval Scale)

A graphical representation helps the respondents to indicate on this scale their answers to a

particular question by placing a mark at the appropriate point on the lineExample: On a scale of 1 to 10 how would you rate your instructor?

1 Very bad

5 All right

10 Excellent

Open-Ended Questions:

This type of question allows the respondent to give an unlimited answer.Example:

Why do you shop at Carrefour?

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Concept

A generalized idea about a class of objects, attributes, occurrences, or

processes. Or a generalized idea that represents something of meaning.

Concepts such as age, gender, and education are relatively concreteproperties and present few problems in either definition or measurement.

Concepts such as brand loyalty, corporate culture, media skepticism, and

so on are more abstract and are more difficult to both define and measure.

Operational Definition

Specifies what the researcher must do to measure the concept under

investigation

Media Skepticism

Conceptual Definition

Media skepticism - the degree to which individuals are skeptical toward

the reality presented in the mass media. Media skepticism varies across

individuals, from those who are mildly skeptical and accept most of what

they see and hear in the media to those who completely discount and

disbelieve the facts, values, and portrayal of reality in the media.

Media Skepticism

Operational Definition

Please tell me how true each statement is about the media. Is it very true,

not very true, or not at all true?

1. The program was not very accurate in its portrayal of the problem.

2. Most of the story was staged for entertainment purposes.

3. The presentation was slanted and unfair


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Source of Data

Primary

Information obtained firsthand by the

researcher on the variables of interest for the

specific purpose of the study, like individuals,

focus groups, panels and unobtrusive methods

Secondary

Information

gathered from

sources already

existing, as for

example,

company records

or archives,

government

publications,

industry analysisoffered by the

media, web sites,

the Internet, and

so on.

Focus Groups

A group consisting of 8 to 10 members

randomly selected, who discus a product

or any given topic for about 2 hours with

a moderator present, so that their opinions

can serve as the basis for further research.

Focus group are used for

Exploratory studies

Making generalizations based on

the information generated by them.

Conducting sample surveys.

Panels

Whereas focus groups meet for a one-time group session, panels (ofmembers) meet more than once. In cases where the effects of certain

changes are to be studied over a period of time.

Unobtrusive Sources Data Collection

Trace measures as they are also called, originate from a primary source that

does not involve people. For example, the number of different brands of

soft drink cans found in trash bags also provides a measure of their

consumption levels.

Individuals

Who provide information when

interviewed, administered

questionnaire, or observed.

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Questionnaires

A questionnaire is a preformulated written set of questions to which respondents record

their answers, usually within rather closely defined alternatives. Questionnaires are an

efficient data collection mechanism when the researcher known exactly what is requiredand how to measure the variables of interest.

Gathering information via surveys is quick, inexpensive, efficient, accurate and flexible.

Preliminary Factors Necessary for Effective Surveys

The researcher must determine what information is needed to meet the purpose of

the research project.

The researcher must determine that the survey approach will be the best method

for collecting the needed information.

Before a survey project is implemented, the researcher must have a good

understanding of the population from which the sample for the survey will be

drawn.

How questions are worded and the level of sophistication of the language used.

The type and form of questions asked

Test the Questions

Pretest any questionnaire by administering the survey to a small group of people

people similar to those who will be asked to respond to the final version.

Responses to the pretest will tell you how well people understand the questions.The feedback will help you refine the questions to eliminate misunderstandings

and confusion.

Stages of an interview

The interview precedes through stages, beginning with introduction an entry.

Interviewers are trained to make appropriate opening remarks that will convince the

person that his or her cooperation is important.

Asslamm-o-Alaykum

My name is..

I am working for (or calling from, for a telephone interview.(

We are conducting a survey concerning

I would like to get a few of your ideas

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Draft and Develop the Questions

Validity

Validity is the degree to which the item

measures what the researcher want to

measure.

Or the ability of a scale to measure what was

intended to measure

One method of improving validity is to be

assured that the question will not produce a

biased response. Emotionally packed words

and questions that lead the respondenttoward an obviously preferred answer should

be avoid.

Reliability

Reliability is the degree to which

the item is likely to get the same

results consistently.

Questions that obtain reasonably

consistent results when

administered to similar samples (or

the same sample at different times)

are said to be reliable.

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Important Remarks

Once the questions have been tested, they should be integrated into a clean, straightforward

questionnaire that provides clear instructions on how it should be completed.

Numbering each question and all possible responses will help facilitate the coding process.

The final version of the questionnaire should be psychologically attractive, leaving ample

white space. Don't crowd the information; it'll look imposing to the reader and may reduce the

number of responses.

The questionnaire should have as many questions as necessary, but as few as possible.

Responses for multiple-choice questions should be mutually exclusive from the other choices.

Each choice is different from the others. Eliminate any ambiguous options.

The questionnaire should be titled and professionally reproduced. An attractively printed

survey will be positively received and will yield a higher response rate.

A good questionnaire should include both positively and negatively worded questions.

Double-barreled questions should be eliminated, like

"Do you think there is a good market for the product and that it will sell well?"

Ambiguous questions should be avoided

Recall-Dependent questions should be avoided.

Leading Questions

Questions should not be phrased in such a way that they lead the respondents to give the

responses that the researcher would like or want them to give, like

"Don't you think that in these days of escalating costs of living, employees should be given

good pay raises?"

Another way of asking the question"To what extent do you agree that employees should be given higher pay raises?"

Simple and short questions are preferable to long ones. As a rule of thumb, a question or a

statement in the questionnaire should not exceed 20 words, or exceed one full line in print.

Organize the questions logically in appropriate sections and providing instructions on how to

complete the items in each section will help the respondents to answer them without

difficulty.

Information of a very private and personal nature such as income, state of health, and so on

should be asked at the end of the questionnaire. Such questions should be justified by

explaining how this information might contribute to knowledge and problem solving.

The questionnaire could include an open-ended question at the end allowing respondents tocomment on any aspect they choose, like

"Please make any additional comments needed in the space provided"

The questionnaire would end with an expression of sincere thanks to respondents, like:

"I sincerely appreciate your time and cooperation. Please check to make sure that you have

not skipped any question, and then drop the questionnaire in the locked box".

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Ethics in Data Collection

Ethical Behaviors

of Sponsors

Ethical Behaviors of

Researchers

Ethical Behaviors of

Respondents

-The sponsors should

ask for the study to

be done to better the

purpose of the

organization, and not

for any other self-

serving reason.

-The sponsors should

respect the

confidentiality of the

data obtained by the

researcher and not

ask for the individual

or group responses

to be disclosed to

them, or ask to see

the questionnaire.-The sponsors should

have an open mind

in accepting the

results and

recommendations in

the report presented

by the researcher.

-Treating the

information given

by the respondent

as strictly

confidential and

guarding his or her

privacy is one of

the primary

responsibilities of

the researcher.

-The researcher

should not

misrepresent the

nature of the study

to subjects,

especially in lab

experiment. Thepurpose of the

study must be

explained to them.

-No one should be

forced to respond

to the survey.

- The subject, once

having exercised

the choice to

participate in a

study, should

cooperate fully in

the tasks ahead,

such as responding

to a survey or

taking part in an

experiment.

-The respondent

also has an

obligation to be

truthful and honest

in the responses.

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Sampling

Surveys are useful and powerful in finding answers to research questions through data

collection and subsequent analysis, but they can do more harm than good if thepopulation is not correctly targeted. That is not collected from the people, events, or

objects that can provide the correct answers to solve the problem. The process of

selecting the right individuals, objects, or events for study is known as sampling.

Population

Is the entire group of people, events, or things of interest that the researcher wishes to

investigate.

Element

A single member of the population

Population Frame

A listing of all the elements in the population from which the sample is drawn

Sample

A subset or subgroup of the population

Subject

A single member of the sample

Reasons to Sample

To contact the whole population would often be time consuming

The cost of studying all the items in a population is often prohibitive

The physical impossibility of checking all items in the population

The destructive nature of certain tests.

Remarks

Sample sizes larger than 30 and less than 500 are appropriate for most research.

Where samples are to be broken into subsamples, (Male/Female), a minimum

sample size of 30 for each category is necessary

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Systematic

Sampling

Stratified

Sampling

Cluster

Sampling

Probability Sampling Non-probability Sampling

Area

Sampling

Double

Sampling

Unrestricted or Simple

Random Sampling

Restricted or Complex

Probability Sampling

Every element in the population

has a known and equal chance

of being selected as a subject

Next Page

A probability sampling

design that involves

choosing every nth

element in the population

for the sample.

Suppose you want to

sample 8 houses from a

street of 120 houses.

120/8=15, so every 15th

house is chosen after a

random starting point

between 1 and 15. If therandom starting point is

11, then the houses

selected are 11, 26, 41,

56, 71, 86, 101, and 116.

A probability

sampling design

that first dividesthe population

into meaningful

non-overlapping

subsets (called

strata), e.g.

geographical

areas, age

group, genders.

A sample istaken from each

stratum.

The entire

population of interest

is divided intogroups, or clusters,

and a random sample

of theses clusters is

selected.Then the

required information

is collected from the

elements within each

selected group or

cluster

A type ofclustersamplingwheregeographicalareas are theclusters.

A probability sampling design where

initially a sample is used in a study to

collect some preliminary information

of interest, and later a sub-sample of

this primary sample is used to examine

the matter in more details.

Note: In stratified sampling, a

random sample is drawn from

each of the strata, whereas in

cluster sampling only theselected clusters are studied.

Types of Sampling

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Determine the Sample Size You Need

The following table gives us a simple way to calculate the sample size,

if the size of the population is approximately known.

A Sample Size Table Degree of Accuracy = 0.05

Population Sample Population Sample Population Sample

10 9 260 155 3000 340

20 19 300 168 5000 356

40 36 400 196 10000 36960 52 500 217 20000 376

80 66 700 248 50000 381

100 79 900 269 70000 382

140 102 1000 277 120000 282

180 122 1500 305 160000 383

220 140 2000 322 1,000,000 383


Non-probability

Convenience Purposive

QuotaJudgment

Information or data for

the researcher are

gathered from members

of the population

conveniently accessible

to the researcher.

The required information

is gathered from special

or specific targets or

groups of people on some

rational basis

The sample subject is

chosen on the basis of the

individual's ability to

provide the type of

special information

needed by the researcher

Predetermined proportion of people from different

subgroups is sampled

A non-probability stratified sampling procedure ( thepopulation is first segmented into mutually exclusive sub-

groups) in which units are selected for the sample from

each group to adhere to certain proportions of

characteristics

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Data Analysis Process

Getting Data Ready for Analysis

Feel forData

Goodness

of Data

Hypotheses

Testing

Creating data

file

Editing

Handling

blank

responses

Coding

Categorizing

The process of going over the dataand ensuring that they are complete

and acceptable for data analysis

If 25% of the items in the

questionnaire have been left

unanswered, it may be a good idea

to throw out the questionnaire

Assign the midpoint in the scale as

the response to that particular item

Assign the mean value of theresponses of all those who have

responded to that particular item

Assign the mean value of the

responses of this particular

respondent to all other questions

measuring this variable

Assign a random number within the

range for that scale to that

particular item.

Several items measuring a

concept should be grouped

together.

Responses to negatively

worded questions should be

reversed so that all answers

are in the same direction

Data Analysis

Frequency distribution for the

demographic variables

Measures of central tendency

Measures of dispersion

Correlations

To test the reliability and

validity of the measures

-Chi-Square Test: A

nonparametric testestablishes the

independence between

two nominal variables.

-t-Test: A statistical

test that establishes a

significant mean

difference in a

variable between two

groups.

-ANOVA Test:: tests

for significant mean

differences in

variables among

multiple groups

Interpretation of results and report

writing

Pearson Correlation Coefficient is used to indicate

the direction, strength, and significance of the

bivariate relationships of all the variables in the

study measured on an interval or ratio scale.

Spearman's rank correlation and Kendall's rank

correlation are used to examine relationships

between two ordinal variables.

If correlations were higher than 0.75, we might have

had to suspect whether or not the correlated

variables are two different and distinct variables and

would have doubted the validity of the measures.

Fisher exact probability test and the Cochran Q test

are used to determine the relationshipbetween twonominally scaled variables.

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Goodness of Data

To test the reliability and validity of the measures

Reliability

The reliability of a measure is

established by testing for both

consistency and stability.

Validity

Evidence that the instrument,

technique, or process used to

measure a concept does indeed

measure the intended concept.

Consistency of measure

Indicates how will the

items measuring aconcept hang together

as a set.

Stability of a measure

The ability of the measure

to repeat the same results

over time with low

vulnerability to changes in

the situation.

Cronbach's Alpha ()

Cronbach's Alpha is a reliability

coefficient that indicates how

well the items in a set are

positively correlated to one

another. Cronbach's alpha is

computed in terms of theaverage intercorrelations among

the items measuring the

concept. The closer Cronbach's

Alpha is to 1, the higher the

internal consistency reliability.

Reliability less than 0.6 are

considered to be poor, those in

the 0.7 range are acceptable,

and those over 0.8 are good.

Criterion-relate validity can

be established by testing

for the power of themeasure to differentiate

individuals who are known

to be different

Convergent validity can be

established when there is high

degree of correlation between

two different sources

responding to the same

measure

Discriminant validity can be

established when two distinctly

different concepts are not related

to each other

Note: negatively worded items in

the questionnaire should be

reversed before the items are

submitted for reliability tests.

Cronbach's Alpha = )1(1*

+ NMIIC

MIICN

Where:

N:= Number of items

MIIC:= Mean Inter-Item-Correlation

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One Sample Two Samples More than two Samples

-Sign Test

-Kolmogorov-

Smirnov Test

-Median Test

-Chi-Square

Test 2 with

nominal data

Related Independent

Sign Test:

For two

related

samples

measured

on ordinalscale

-Fisher exact probability Test: For

two independent samples measured

on nominal scale

-Mann-Whitney or Kolmogorov-

Smirnov (KS) Tests: For two

independent samples on ordinal

Scale. (Analogue of the twoindependent sample t-test).

-Chi-Square 2 with nominal data.

-KS test is a more powerful test

than 2 or Mann-Whitney U

Related

-Cochran Test: For more than two

related samples measured on

nominal scale

-Friedman two-way ANOVA Test:

For more than two related samples

measured on ordinal scale

-Kruskal-Wallis Test: For more than

two independent samples measured on

an ordinal scale.(An alternative to one-

way ANOVA where normality of

distributions cannot be assumed)

-Friedman two-way ANOVA: For more

than two related samples measured onordinal scale. (A good alternative to

two-way ANOVA where normality

cannot be assumed)

-Chi-Square 2 with nominal data

Some Nonparametric Tests

Independent

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Example

The following questionnaire consists of 6 demographic variables and

16 items measuring involvement and satisfaction

Demographic variables

1. Age 2.Education 3. Job Level 4.Gender 5. Work Shift 6. EmploymentStatus

[1] 55 [5] PhD [5]

Technician

[6] Other [6] Other

Here are some questions that ask you to tell us how you experienceyour work life in general.

Please circle the appropriate number on the scales below.

To what extent would you agree with the following statements, on a

scale of 1 to 7, 1 denoting very low agreement, and 7 denoting very

high agreement?

7 The major happiness of my life comes from my job 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

8 Time at work flies by quickly 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

9 I live, eat, and breath my job 1 2 3 4 5 6 710 My work is fascinating 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

11 My work gives me a sense of accomplishment 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

12 My supervisor praises good work 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

13 The opportunities for advancement are very good here 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

14 My coworkers are very stimulating 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

15 People can live comfortably with their pay in the organization 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

16 I get a lot of cooperation at the workplace 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

17 My supervisor is not very capable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

18 Most things in life are more important than work 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

19 Working here is a drug 1 2 3 4 5 6 720 The promotion policies here are very unfair 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

21 My pay is barely adequate to take care of my expenses 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

22 My work is not the most important part in my life 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

23. Please make any additional comments needed in the space provided

mgt 524 - part i - fall 2011[1]

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