ministry of education and training baria-vungtau …

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

BARIA-VUNGTAU UNIVERSITY

HIGH-SCHOOL TEACHERS’ ATTITUDES TOWARD

ENGLISH AS A LINGUA FRANCA (ELF) AND

CLASSROOM TEACHING PRACTICES IN BA RIA

VUNG TAU PROVINCE

Nguyen Lan Phuong

Supervisor: Tran Quoc Thao, Ph. D

Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of

Master of Arts

Theory and Methodology of English Language Teaching

Ba Ria- Vung Tau University

[02/2021]

MASTER’S THESIS REPORT

Student name: NGUYEN LAN PHUONG Sex: Female

Date of birth: 4/12/1994 Place of birth: Ba Ria Vung Tau Province

Major: English Language Student code: 17110002

I- Thesis title:

HIGH-SCHOOL TEACHERS’ ATTITUDES TOWARD ENGLISH AS A

LINGUA FRANCA (ELF) AND CLASSROOM TEACHING PRACTICES IN

BA RIA VUNG TAU PROVINCE

II-Objectives and contents:

This study aims at investigating high school teachers’ attitudes toward ELF and their

classroom teaching practices in Ba Ria Vung Tau Province. The research objectives

are as follows:

- To explore high school teachers’ attitudes toward ELF in their EFL

classrooms in Ba Ria Vung Tau Province

- To investigate the classroom teaching practices using ELF implemented by

high school teachers in Ba Ria Vung Tau Province.

This study was conducted at 11 high schools (including both public and private high

schools) in Ba Ria Vung Tau Province where there are more than 109 high-school

teachers of English. In order to gain the results, I applied the mixed method:

quantitative and qualitative, two instruments were used: questionnaire and semi-

structured interview for the collection of the data.

III- Starting date: (as stated in the Decision issued by the University)

IV- Completing date:

..............................................................................................................

V- Academic supervisor: TRAN QUOC THAO, Ph.D.

ACADEMIC SUPERVISOR

((full name, signature)

FACULTY DEAN

((full name, signature)

CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY

I certify my authorship of the Master’s Thesis submitted today entitled:

HIGH-SCHOOL TEACHERS’ ATTITUDES TOWARD ENGLISH AS A

LINGUA FRANCA (ELF) AND CLASSROOM TEACHING PRACTICES IN

BA RIA VUNG TAU PROVINCE

In terms of the statement of requirements for Theses in Master’s programs

issued by the Higher Degree Committee of Faculty of English Language, Ba

Ria Vung Tau University.

Vung Tau City, February 2021

NGUYEN LAN PHUONG

RETENTION AND USE OF THE THESIS

I hereby state that I, NGUYEN LAN PHUONG, being a candidate for the

degree of Master of Arts (English Language) accept the requirements of the

University relating to the retention and use of Master’s Theses deposited in

the Library.

In terms of these conditions, I agree that the original of my Master’s Thesis

deposited in the Library should be accessible for purposes of study and

research, in accordance with the normal conditions established by the

Librarian for the care, loan, and reproduction for theses.

Vung Tau City, February 2021

Signature …………………………….

NGUYEN LAN PHUONG

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my sincere thanks to those who have supported, encouraged

and assisted me in my thesis completion.

First of all, I would like to express my special appreciation and thanks to Dr. Tran

Quoc Thao, my supervisor, for his great patience, careful guidance, insightful advice,

and constant encouragement through the whole research process. Without his support

and guidance, this thesis would never have been completed.

Secondly, I would like to express my thanks to the school board staff, including the

principals, the vice principals and teachers of English at high schools in Ba Ria Vung

Tau Province who have given me encouragement, support of time and finance and

permission to implement this thesis there.

Last but not least, my deepest and sincerest gratitude goes to my family, including

my parents and younger brother with their unconditional love, understanding and

help.

ABSTRACT

This study aimed to explore the high school teachers’ attitudes toward ELF and

their classroom teaching practices in Ba Ria Vung Tau Province. The mixed-methods

approach was employed in this study, i.e., both quantitative and qualitative data were

collected from questionnaires and semi-structured interviews.

There were 109 high school teachers of English from 11 high schools in Ba Ria

Vung Tau Province who participated in the survey, and 22 of them were selected

purposively for the individual interviews. As for data analysis, descriptive statistics

(e.g., mean, standard deviation, and frequencies/ percentages) were used to analyse

quantitative data, whereas qualitative data were analysed through content analysis.

Based on the results obtained from the data analysis, there were two findings

which were explored in this study. First, the collected data showed that high school

teachers had positive attitudes toward ELF in three attitude components, including

cognitive, affective and behavioral attitudes. Second, high school teachers conducted

some activities for the promotion of ELF among their students relating to eight sub

variables from cultural knowledge, vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar to four

language skills of students. These included inviting non-native English speakers to

talk to students about ELF, asking students to make dialogues and play roles using

ELF in groups, organizing seminars for the students to compare English varieties,

creating activities containing aspects relating to ELF for students to take part in,

asking students to discover any aspects relating to ELF in the content of the textbook,

and introducing pictures or posters used ELF as well. Finally, high school teachers

found uneasy to create activities relating to ELF because of preparation time limit

and scarce of source of materials. Notwithstanding that, teachers still tried their best

to introduce the existence of ELF and help their students be accessible to ELF in

language learning.

Keywords: ELF, cognitive attitudes, affective attitudes, behavioural attitudes

high school teachers, Vietnamese ELF classrooms.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY ....................................................................... 3

RETENTION AND USE OF THE THESIS ............................................................ 4

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ....................................................................................... 5

ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................ 6

TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................. 7

APPENDICES ............................................................................................................. 9

LIST OF TABLES ..................................................................................................... 10

LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................... 11

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................................... 12

Chapter 1: Introduction ...................................................................................... 1

1.1 Background of the study ..................................................................................... 1

1.2 Statement of the problem .................................................................................... 3

1.3 Aim and objectives of the study ......................................................................... 4

1.4 Research questions.............................................................................................. 4

1.5 Scope of the study ............................................................................................... 4

1.6 Significance of the study .................................................................................... 5

1.7 Definitions of key terms ..................................................................................... 5

1.8 Organization of the thesis ................................................................................... 6

Chapter 2: Literature Review ............................................................................. 7

2.1 The status of English .......................................................................................... 7

2.2 World Englishes.................................................................................................. 8

2.3 The three circles of Katchru ............................................................................. 11

2.4 English as a lingua franca (ELF) ...................................................................... 12

2.5 Attitudes toward ELF ....................................................................................... 18

2.6 Classroom teaching practices ........................................................................... 21

2.7 Previous research .............................................................................................. 26

2.8 Conceptual framework...................................................................................... 30

2.9 Summary ........................................................................................................... 31

Chapter 3: Methodology .................................................................................... 32

3.1 Research design ................................................................................................ 32

3.2 Research site ..................................................................................................... 32

3.3 Sample and sampling procedures ..................................................................... 33

3.4 Research instruments ........................................................................................ 35

3.5 Data collection procedures. ............................................................................... 37

3.6 Data analysis procedures .................................................................................. 38

3.7 Reliability and Validity ..................................................................................... 39

3.8 Pilot Study ......................................................................................................... 41

3.9 Summary ........................................................................................................... 41

Chapter 4: Results and Discussions .................................................................. 43

4.1 Results ............................................................................................................... 43

4.1.1 Teachers’ attitudes towards ELF…………………………………………………..43

a) Teachers’ attitudes toward ELF in terms of cognitive attitudes…………...…….. 44

b) Teachers’ attitudes toward ELF in terms of affective attitudes …………...…….. 46

c) Teachers’ attitudes toward ELF in terms of behavioral attitudes……………..…... 49

4.1.2 Teachers’ classroom teaching practices in Ba Ria Vung Tau Province………52

a) Teachers’ knowledge of teaching practices in EFL classrooms………………….52

b) Other teaching activities in the EFL classrooms…………………………………….55

4.2 Discussion ......................................................................................................... 57

4.2.1 Teachers’ attitudes towards ELF…………………………………………………..58

4.2.2 Teachers’ classroom teaching practices in Ba Ria Vung Tau Province….……60

4.3 Summary ........................................................................................................... 62

Chapter 5: Conclusion and Recommendations ............................................... 63

5.1 Summary of the main findings of the thesis ..................................................... 63

5.2 Pedagogical implications .................................................................................. 64

5.3 Limitations ........................................................................................................ 66

5.4 Recommendation for the further research ........................................................ 66

References ................................................................................................................. 67

Appendices ................................................................................................................ 77

APPENDICES

Appendix A1: Questionnaire for Survey (English Version)

Appendix A2: Questionnaire for Survey (Vietnamese translation)

Appendix B1: Interview Protocol (English Version)

Appendix B2: Interview Protocol (Vietnamese translation)

Appendix B3: Sample of interview data analysis (English Version)

Appendix B3: Sample of interview data analysis (Vietnamese translation)

LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1 Demographic information of the participants. 35

Table 3.2 Mean scores for analyzing the quantitative data. 40

Table 3.3 Mean scores for analyzing the quantitative data 41

Table 4.1 The overall results of teachers’ attitudes toward ELF 43

Table 4.2 Teachers’ attitudes toward ELF in terms of cognitive attitudes 44

Table 4.3 Teachers’ attitudes toward ELF in terms of affective attitudes 47

Table 4.4 Teachers’ attitudes toward ELF in terms of behavioral attitudes 49

Table 4.5 Knowledge of teaching practices in EFL classrooms 52

Table 4.6 Other activities in the EFL classroom 55

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1 Three concentric Circles of English 12

Figure 2.2 The background knowledge of EFL 13

Figure 2.3 Conceptual framework of the study 31

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AEC ASEAN economic community

ASEAN Association of South East Asian Nations

EFL English as Foreign Language

ELF English as a Lingua Franca

MOET Ministry of Education and Training

SPSS Statistical Package for Social Sciences

WTO World Trade Organization

UAE United Arab Emirates

Chapter 1: Introduction 1

Chapter 1: Introduction

This chapter first presents a background of the study with a brief introduction

of the English language teaching and learning at high school level in Ba Ria Vung

Tau Province. The Statement of the problem is followed to raise the gap of the study

context. Then, Purpose of the study is established and research objectives and

research questions are introduced. In addition, Significance of the study, Definitions

of key terms and Organizations of the Study are provided at the end of this chapter.

1.1 Background of the study

The prediction made by Kachru (1983) that the continuous spread of English

led to the huge increase in non-native English speakers in the world (p. 3) proved to

be true by Harmer (1985) when he claimed that “native speakers” are “increasingly

out - numbered by people who have English as a second or third language and use it

for international communication” (p.13). Until now, there is an indispensable truth

that English these days is “a mother tongue for many people in the world” (Harmer,

1985, p.13) and the most common studied foreign language for the time being.

Additionally, the development of economy and technology create more and more

opportunities for communication all over the world, which raised the obligatory need

for a mutual language for people from different nations all over the world. The term

“English as a lingua franca” (ELF) was introduced by Tonkin (2003) under the

emergence of a common language for different first language speakers (Seodlhofer,

2005a).

And the spread of English as a lingua franca leads to a great many changes in

language teaching and learning. Seidlhofer (2005a) suggested incorporating ELF in

language education in order to facilitate the globalization of English in many aspects.

Since then, there have been a great many studies on ELF in wide range of aspects

relating to language teaching and learning at different levels. In the context of

international education, ELF is regarded as a tool for communication and medium

instruction in multi-national contexts where lectures and students are from different

countries. In the context of Vietnam, this is a country of ‘the expanding circle’

2 Chapter 1: Introduction

(Kachru, 1985, 1992), where English is not an official language, ELF is still really

necessary for communication and interaction in EFL classrooms in particular and in

daily life in general in order to help Vietnamese generations to be more fluent and

confident in English communication.

Furthermore, since being a member of ASIAN, along with WE's recognition

among ASEAN regional groups, Vietnam government have taken a lot of actions to

promote “mutual intelligibility” (Kirkpatrick, 2007, p.193) through ELF. The

importance of English has been enhanced through the project “Teaching and

Learning of Foreign Languages in the National Education System, 2008-2020”

(Decision No. 1400/QĐ-TTg, 2008), and then updated on December 22nd, 2017

named “Teaching and Learning of Foreign Languages in the National Education

System, 2017 - 2025” (Decision No. 2080/ QĐ-TTg, December 22, 2017) for

students to use English independently, communicate confidently, study, work in an

integrated environment, multilingual, multicultural, turn foreign languages into

strengths. Especially, students should explore more English varieties outside the

classroom for more effective communication with non-native speakers. Moreover,

the ability to communicate successfully should be the main goal of the learner,

instead of acquiring the proficiency and standards of native speakers.

In the context of Ba Ria Vung Tau Province, the “National Foreign

Languages Project, period 2017 - 2025” encouraged the changes in language

teaching methodology, especially at high school levels, Ba Ria Vung Tau Education

and Training Department held training courses for all the high school teachers and

appealed them to apply innovative and creative ways of teaching in order to motivate

students to communicate and interact with each other in EFL classrooms. Therefore,

the majority of high school teachers are aware of ELF and its roles in language

education. However, most of the students and their parents, even teachers preferred

native language to this kind of non-native language because native language is

always luxurious language in their mind set. Apparently, there should be more

research on teachers’ attitude toward ELF and incorporation of ELF in the EFL

classrooms in order to draw an overall picture of ELF in the context of language

teaching in Vietnam.


1.2 Statement of the problem

Relating to ELF and the incorporation of ELF in the classrooms, a large

number of studies on ELF in academic contexts were conducted in the western

countries (Bjorkman, 2011a). The findings of those research revealed that the

majority of teachers expressed strong preference on native language than non-native

language in spite of Bjorkman’s (2011a) a modern view of language teaching is that

teachers should pay attention to teaching comprehensibility in English first and help

students to be exposed to different varieties of English as ELF.

In the context of Vietnam, the research done by Ton and Pham (2010) made a

suggestion for the real interaction in ELF in the EFL classrooms because this helped

students to be familiar to different types of voices or English accents, which is really

important for communication in authentic contexts. According to Crystal (2002), the

purpose of learning English is to build up students’ communicative competence and

communicative skills in English in daily life instead of spending too much time on

native language. In reality, the norm British English or American is always

considered a selected or desired standard language, which attracted a lot of attention

and efforts from all learners of English. Obviously, it is normal to try to imitate

British English or American English in order to have a more appealing speech in

front of other people; however, it is better for learners to use English in their own

way but still express their meaning and conduct the goals in communication in

English.

More importantly, the administrators of Ba Ria Vung Tau Province paid much

attention to English language teaching and learning. The government held English

eloquence contests and awarded students who had international certificates in

English as well as held courses relating to English for the purpose of bettering

student’s language skills in the province. Because the majority of students preferred

to use standard English rather than ELF, teachers should initiate using ELF and

applying it into their EFL classrooms in order to change their mind set and help them

to be familiar to different kinds of English accents, which is really important for their

learning process to communicate in English outside the classroom.

Practically, the term English as a lingua franca (ELF) has interested a lot of

researchers and educators, especially in international universities recently (Jenkins,

2011). In contrast, there have been few researchers in Vietnam who investigated ELF


and its implications in the setting of higher education. In Ba Ria Vung Tau Province,

though high school teachers attended some training courses instructing to teach

English as ELF, there are not any studies to explore high school teachers’ attitude

toward ELF and the implementation of ELF in the classrooms. Thus, this thesis was

conducted in order to investigate ELF and its incorporation of ELF in language

teaching and learning in terms of teachers’ attitudes and teaching practices.

1.3 Aim and objectives of the study

The aims of this study are to investigate high school teachers’ attitudes toward

ELF and their classrooms teaching practices in Ba Ria Vung Tau Province. The

research objectives are as follows:

- To explore high school teachers’ attitudes toward ELF in Ba Ria Vung Tau

Province

- To investigate the classroom teaching practices used by high school

teachers in Ba Ria Vung Tau Province.

1.4 Research questions

In order to obtain the research objectives mentioned above, the thesis raises the

two following questions.

1. What are high school teachers’ attitudes toward ELF in Ba Ria Vung Tau

Province?

2. What are high school teachers’ classroom teaching practices in Ba Ria

Vung Tau Province?

1.5 Scope of the study

ELF has been put into a lot of research in the world in terms of a means of

communication at high school level (Bjorkman, 2011b); the implementation of ELF

in international universities (Jenkins, 2011), or Lingua Franca interactions

(Bjorkman, 2011b), teachers’ perceptions (Incecay, 2014; Ho, 2018). Thus, this

current thesis aimed to explore teachers’ attitudes toward ELF and classroom

teaching practices for the promotion of ELF in the EFL classrooms.

The researcher chose high schools in Ba Ria Vung Tau Province as the

research site for the government in this province are asking teachers to be more


creative and active in language teaching in order to build up communicative skills in

English for students. As a teacher, the researcher wants to examine whether high

school teachers are favor of ELF and willing to apply it in their EFL classrooms or

not after some training courses held by the Education and Training Department.

Methodologically, the mixed methods design including questionnaire and

semi-structured interviews provided the quantitative data of 109 participants and

qualitative data of 22 interviewees. All of them were high school teachers in 11 high

schools in Ba Ria Vung Tau Province. No students participated in this study.

1.6 Significance of the study

As mentioned above, this study aimed at investigating high school teachers’

attitudes toward ELF and explore teaching practices they carried out in the era of

ELF in their EFL classroom. Thus, the study expected to provide both theoretical and

practical significance to language teaching and learning in Ba Ria Vung Tau in

particular and Vietnam in general.

On a theoretical basis, this study is hoped to make a big contribution to the

literature of ELF in Vietnam with in-depth information on teachers’ attitude toward

ELF in the EFL classrooms. Besides, it will cast light on the application of ELF in

the EFL classrooms in terms of teaching practices.

On a practical basis, the results of the study may be beneficial to not only

educators regarding to teacher training in ELF setting but also teachers who are

trying to implement ELF in their classrooms. The study provides fundamental

foundation for ELF classrooms in the future so that high school teachers can have

more motivation and more understanding of activities for employing ELF in EFL

classrooms.

1.7 Definitions of key terms

In order to help elucidate a specific perspective on the discussed issues for the

purpose of the research, some key terms are defined as follows.

Attitude is considered as a crucial factor which have a great effect on teachers

who play different roles in language teaching such as an instructor, a facilitator, a

supervisor and a monitor in the language classroom.


English as a lingua franca refers to the use of English as a common means of

communication for those who have different mother tongues.

Classroom teaching practices refer to a set of actions a teacher can carry out

in order to engage the students into the lessons relating to a certain topic in the

classrooms.

High school EFL teachers are those who teach English in foreign language

classrooms at high schools in Ba Ria Vung Tau Province.

1.8 Organization of the thesis

This study report is divided into 5 chapters as follows:

Chapter 1 provides an introduction to the study including background of the

study, the statement of the problem, purposes of the study, research objectives and

research questions, significance of the study and definitions of key terms as well.

Chapter 2 concentrates on literature review, consisting of the information

related to the status of English, World Englishes, Three circles of Katchru and

English as a lingua franca. In terms of ELF, definitions, linguistic features and the

roles of ELF. Additionally, the definitions and components of attitudes are also

presented, then followed by definitions of classroom teaching practices, their

importance in EFL as well as classroom teaching practices in the era of ELF. This

chapter ends with previous research on ELF and classroom teaching practices related

to ELF and a conceptual framework for this study.

Chapter 3 elaborately describes the research methodology of the study in

connection with the research design, the research site, the sample and sample

procedures, the research instruments, the data collection procedures as well as the

data analysis procedures.

Chapter 4 presents the results of the study by analyzing the data collected from

questionnaire and semi-structured interviews. Then, the study discusses the results

compared and contrasted with the findings in previous studies.

Chapter 5 makes a conclusion on the main findings of the thesis, supplies some

implications and limitations of the research and makes some recommendations for

further research.

Chapter 2: Literature Review 7

Chapter 2: Literature Review

This chapter establishes the theoretical background of the study. Firstly, it

presents the status of English in Vietnam, World Englishes and Three Circles of

Katchru. Next, it describes the definitions of ELF from various perspectives, ELF

linguistic features and the ELF roles in language teaching and learning. Then,

definitions of attitudes, its components as well as models are included in the next

section. Besides, classroom teaching practices in terms of definitions, their

importance as well teaching practice perspectives in the era of ELF are summarised

in details. Plus, an in-depth review of previous studies in relation to high-school

teachers’ attitudes toward ELF and classroom teaching practices in the era of ELF

are necessarily presented. The last section highlights the framework of the study

which depicts the issues discussed in this chapter.

2.1 The status of English

Kirkpatrick (2012a) announces that the demand for English has become more

and more heated in Vietnam since 1986. One of the main causes of the changes in the

status of English is the accessions as the official member of World Trade

Organization (WTO) in 2007 and ASEAN economic community (AEC) in 2015

(Duong, 2015). The open - door policy for foreign investment long for the skilled

workforce with good language communicative competence for the deeper and wider

international and developmental process. Thus, English is no longer a language in

limited contexts as in schools or for examination. In other words, English is not only

used for communication but also correspondence in trading and services

(Walkinshaw, 2018).

According to Vu (2015), the requirement of English competence is for all

professional employment in Vietnam. And the number of people using English

around the country has been increasing at the high speed. Those significant signals

urgently the changes in language teaching and learning in Vietnam in order to train

Vietnamese young people to be better at English communication skills as well as

more confident in using English outside the classrooms. A great many detailed

measures have been taken by the government and the MOET for the purpose of

enhancing Vietnamese young people’ communicative competence in English.

8 Chapter 2: Literature Review

Relating to the changes in language teaching and learning, English is taught

and learned in all levels of education from primary school to tertiary level according

to the project called “Teaching and Learning of Foreign Languages in the National

Education System, 2008-2020” by MOET (Decision No. 1400/QĐ -TTg, 2008). This

decision was then updated on December 22nd, 2017 named “Teaching and Learning

of Foreign Languages in the National Education System, 2017 - 2025” (Decision No.

2080/ QĐ-TTg, December 22, 2017). The project calls for the changes in teaching

methods, teaching materials and language assessment so as to have a more balanced

and positive assessment to students’ performance. Besides, the appeal for paying

more attention to communication skills makes both teachers and students more

comfortable while conducting speaking and listening activities in the class.

Briefly, thanks to the integration into the world community in terms of

economy and society, English teaching and learning has received more concentration

than before. More importantly, the need for communicative exchange reduces the

pressure for teachers and students in terms of standard-English. Therefore, there is a

current tendency that non-native speakers outnumber native speakers in Vietnamese

streets and in tertiary institutions as Ngo (2015) presented. Crystal (1997) presented

that non-native speakers are the decision-makers of the future of English and there

will be much more varieties of English. English is the combination of different ways

which totally belong to the countries where it is used. To put it differently, English is

known as mutually used tool of communication spreading and accomplishing

transactional goals in a wide range of geographical areas (Kirkpatrick, 2011).

2.2 World Englishes

Since English was regarded as an international language, there has been a

ceaseless increase in the number of English speakers and learners, which makes the

spread of English faster and faster all over the world. However, there is a

phenomenon that the ways of using English in different countries are not the same;

for example, Australians did not employ the same English as the Americans, the

south Africans, the Canadians and the Indians (Kachru, 1986), which led to the new

concept of English called World Englishes by Kachru (1986). World Englishes refers

to the emergence of localized varieties of English, especially varieties that have

developed in territories influenced by the United Kingdom or the United States.

Thus, the study of World Englishes consists of identifying varieties of English used


in diverse sociolinguistic contexts globally and analyzing how sociolinguistic

histories, multicultural backgrounds and contexts of function influence the use of

English in different regions of the world.

Also, the number of territories where English is spoken either as first

language or as an institutionalized second language in domains of government, law

and education is rising for the time being. The more widely English is used, the

newer varieties of English are constantly being developed and discovered, which

lead to the difficulties in knowing the accurate number of Englishes in the world, not

to mention the reality that “a speaker can speak various dialects, depending upon the

circumstances of a discussion” (Kachru & Nelson, 2009, p.73). Therefore, it is very

normal that the American and British voices are also two of many varieties of

English (Kachru & Nelson, 2009, p.73). More importantly, what speakers of English

need to care about is the pragmatics factors such as appropriateness,

comprehensibility and interpretability, which justifies the use of English.

Native accents

Generally, standard native accents always receive more preferences over non-

standard accents or non-native accents (Ladegaard, 1998; Zhang & Hu, 2008). Also,

Ladegaard (1998) adds that despite the high rate on status and competence, standard

varieties are often adjusted at fairly low on social attractiveness and personal

integrity. According to Meerleer (2012), evaluation on the same standards is different

across cultures and countries; however, the results of the studies of non-native

speakers about English accents in many contexts are respectively similar to each

other; that is native-like competence is always long-term outcome of language

learning.

Two varieties which have gained most attention are British and American

accents; particularly, British accent is a representative of “traditional loving”,

“conservation”, “reserved” and “high class” (Cargile & Giles, 1998) while American

English is regarded to be “cool” or “dim and uneducated” (Sjostedt & Vranic, 2007).

However, the result of the study by Zang & Hu (2008) revealed that “L2 learners

have more positive attitudes toward the varieties they have most been exposed to” (as

cited in Meerleer, 2012, p. 342). More importantly, speakers’ intelligibility is not

related to their attitudes toward an accent (Zhang & Hu, 2008, as cited in Meerleer,

2012, p. 342).


In reality, there are a number of studies which have supported for one

standard native accent over the other and vice versa. For example, a survey by

Mobärg (1999) (founded in Le, 2016) concluded that some groups of Swedish

students liked American English more than Bristish English. This was similar to the

results of the study by Barros (2009) that American accent appeared to be clearer,

more useful and more straightforward. In contrast, British accent received

preferences by participants in the study by Ladegaard (1998). Or a study by

Botterman in 1995 (as cited in Tavernier, 2007) presented that participants preferred

the British accent to the American one. Another study by Norrborm (2008) showed

the finding that most of the textbooks were designed and taught with British accent

while they really wanted to use American accent. Nevertheless, Barros (2009)

revealed that many respondents in his study rejected the idea of standard varieties of

languages by not choosing a British or American accent when being asked.

Non-native accents

According to Meerleer (2012), the investigations of beliefs and attitudes

toward non-native English have been paid more attention in order to explore whether

there is any negative evaluation on non-native speakers or there are any prejudices

against the non-native accents or not. Bresnahan et al. (2002) emphasizes that

“speaking with a foreign accent identifies the other as a member of an out-group is

likely to evoke negative stereotypes”. Or Ryan et al. (1977, as cited in Cargile &

Giles, 1998) presented that the strength of the accent was able to cause some

negative effects on the more or less favorite ratings toward the speaker’s status and

attractiveness. However, the study by Flege and Fletcher (1991) suggests that the

respondents in their study became familiar with the sentences produced by the non-

native speakers after the duration of the experiment.

Moreover, the study by Phan (2016) presents that nearly half of the

respondents suggested accepting and respecting different varieties of English or non

– native accents. Also, she confirmed that despite the different pronunciation among

American, British and non-native accents, teachers and learners need to learn to

tolerate and stop judging as well as making bad criticisms on those varieties of

English because the long – lasting desire of language learning is the ability for real-

life communication in the future. In order to do this, teachers should have knowledge


of the changes in English in the world as well as understand the importance of the

use of English worldwide these days.

2.3 The three circles of Katchru

The American linguist Kachru developed the three-circle model of World

Englishes in 1985, which remains one of the most influential models for grouping the

varieties of English in the world (Mollin, 2006). The spread of English was described

in terms of three concentric circles: The Inner Circle, The Outer Circle and The

Expanding Circle. According to Kachru (1985), these circles represent "the type of

spread, the patterns of acquisition and the functional domains in which English is

used across cultures and languages".

The first Kachru’s model called Inner Circle referring the original bases of

English, dominated by the mother-tongue varieties (White, 1997). The countries

involved in the Inner Circle include the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada,

Australia and New Zealand. The Outer Circle is the second model which consists of

the earlier phases of the spread of English in non-native countries, where the

language has become a part of a country's chief institutions or as an important

'second language' in a multilingual setting (Rajadurai, 2005). Most of the countries

included in the Outer Circle are former colonies of the United Kingdom or the

United States, such as Malaysia, Singapore, India, Ghana, Kenya and others

(Rajadurai, 2005). The third model named Expanding Circle refers to the territories

where English is learnt as a foreign language.

According to the statistics of Walkinshaw (2018), there are about 375 million

users in the inner and outer circles while the number of people in the expanding

circle is about 750 million to one billion. Kachru (1992) stated that the characteristics

in the use of English within three circles are also distinctive under the influence of its

historical background, economic and education policies on the use of English. For

instance, with a majority of immigrants, a multiethnic nation like the United States

has a mixture of varieties of English. Or, the English of Canada and North America

are not the same in terms of phonology and syntax due to the dominance of

American in 18th century (Crystal, 1997). Not mention to that the countries in the

expanding circle such as China, Japan, Greece and Poland are not the colonies of

members of the Inner Circle, so the language is taught because of the usefulness of

English as vehicle of international communication. Therefore, the model is not


sufficiently dynamic to reflect the reality of English use in the world for the time

being. Kachru (1985) himself noticed that the concentric circles may be

oversimplified because some special cases like South Africa and Jamaica are difficult

to be classified.

Figure 2.1 Three concentric Circles of English (Kachru, 1985, p.16)

2.4 English as a lingua franca (ELF)

This section aims to present the background knowledge of ELF and ELF

linguistics features (Figure 2.2) so as to make ELF understood fully and exactly in

every aspect. The section is accompanied by the roles of ELF in language teaching

and learning in order to emphasize the importance of ELF in the classroom practices.


Figure 2.2 The background knowledge of EFL

2.4.1 Definitions of English as a lingua franca (ELF)

The New Encyclopaedia Britannica (p. 377) presents that the term lingua

franca derives from the Middle Age between the 15th and 19th century. This term

was first based on Italian and French and developed by the traders for illegible

communication. Then, this term relating to the spread of Latin appeared in the

ancient times along with the development of science, philosophy and culture among

European scholars in the 18th (Encyclopedia Britannica, Lingua franca). The history

recorded that Portuguese was served as a lingua franca in distinct parts of Africa and

Asia in the 15th – 18th for trade and diplomatic purposes. All the languages

mentioned above showed that a lingua franca was the significant position of a

language in distinct parts of the world for social and economic purposes. Then, in the

17th century, since settlers left Britain for colonies in the Americas, English began to

spread around the globe (Graddol, 1997). By the 19th century, there was a dramatical

increase in the number of people speaking English because of the raise in colonies

around the world which had been established by Great Britain (Graddol, 1997).

Currently, English is the mother tongue to more than 375 million speakers, a second

language to around 375 million speakers and a foreign language to additional 750

million foreign users (Graddol, 1997, p.10). Thus, English surpassed all languages in

the past and becomes the dominant language in technology, science, publishing,

education, media, international trade as well as politics around the globe (The

Hutchinson Encyclopedia, p. 363, 1999). Bjorkman (2011a, p. 3) also confirms that

English can nowadays be marked as the world’s lingua franca.


However, the concept of English as a lingua franca did not catch the attention

much in the literature until the 1980s (Jean & Chern, 2017). Only when Jenkins

(2000) and Seidlhofer (2001) mentioned ELF in the seminal publications, this

research field began to attract people’s attention (Jenkins, Cogo & Dewey, 2011). To

put it differently, the birth of lingua franca has spirited many researchers to explore

this field of language such as Jenkins, Berns, Crystal, etc. (Jenkins, Cogo & Dewey,

2011).

That is the reason why there are a variety of definitions of ELF in this field of

linguistics (Seidlhofer, 2011, p.4). For example, according to Seidlhofer (2005, p.

339), a “lingua franca” refers to a common language for communication between

people who do not share their first language. To put it differently, interlocutors

demand a language for their communication in reality. The language in such

situations is either the native language of one of the speakers or a foreign language of

both speakers. Or, Jenkins, a linguist specializing in the EFL phenomenon, defines a

lingua franca as “a contact language used among people who do not share a first

language, and is commonly understood to mean a second (or subsequent) language of

its speakers” (Jenkins, 2007, p. 1). Or, Crystal (2012) suggests that gradually people

must accept different kinds of use of English as a price of being global. Also, Berns

(2008) makes a suggestion that the outer circle should not include the accent of

native speakers and outer circle speakers should feel free to use the rules of

pronunciation in EFL contexts.

2.4.2 EFL linguistic features

According to Zikmundová (2016), every speaker is able to create his/her own

variety of English due to the reason that “no one owns the English language

anymore” (Zikmundová, 2016, p. 14). That means the linguistic features of EFL may

be much more challenging since each person has his/her own way of transferring

elements from their native language into English (Zikmundová, 2016). In this

section, some characteristics in terms of lexicogrammar, phonology and pragmatics

of ELF are presented to depict the common differences between the forms of the

Inner Circle and ELF.

Lexicogrammar of ELF

In relation to lexicogrammatical features, Breitender (2005, p. 13) has the

idea that non-native speakers tend to misuse or omit the grammatical rules of the


native language as long as the content of the communication is successfully

transmitted. The lexicogrammatical features of ELF are discovered by Seidlhofer

(2004) as followed:

• Omitting the 3rd person singular -s in the present tense.

• Confusing and incorrectly using the pronouns who and which in the

relative clause

• Misuse of definite and indefinite articles (using a definite article

where there should not be one in Standard English and not using one

where there should)

• Overusing prepositions where they are not needed (such as in We have

to study about …… instead of We have to study ….)

• Using incorrect forms in tag questions (such as in isn’t it? instead of

shouldn’t you?)

• Overusing certain verbs with a very general meaning (such as do/

have/ make/ put/ take)

• Using that -clause rather than infinitive constructions (as in I want

that)

• Putting too much stress on exactness (as in black colour instead of

black)

(Seidlhofer, 2004, as cited in Jenkins, Cogo, Dewey (2011). Review

of developments in research into ELF, p. 289)

This corpus of characteristic features of ELF presented above may be

considered as errors in the viewpoint of a native language. However, Breitender

(2005) explains that those standard grammatical rules seem to have no special

function and the focus of a communication is mainly on the content; thus, what non-

native speakers need is that the content is understandable during the communication.

Phonology of ELF

With regard to phonology, Zikmundová (2016) expresses that non-native

speaker also has his/her distinctive pronunciation which is definitely from the

Standard English of the native speakers. This is also the topic which attracts a lot of

attention from many linguists around the world in identifying phonological features


of ELF (Zikmundová, 2016). Zikmundová (2016) notices that every non-native

speaker carries his/her own unique accent as a portrait of his/her mother tongue

pronunciation, which may cause the difficulties and even the complication during the

conversation. Relating to this, Jenkins (2007) also mentions the phonological

features of ELF in her book in a set of recommendations for maintaining the

communication.

For example, non-native speakers of English often have problem in

pronouncing dental fricatives /θ/ and /ð/ because these two consonant sounds do not

exist in their mother tongue. The consonant clusters in English might lead to the

decrease of intelligibility according to Jenkins (2007). Or the distinguishing vowel

length and placing the nuclear stress correctly within a sentence are also kind of

challenge to non-native speakers (Jenkins, 2007).

To prevent the misunderstanding or incomprehension between speakers, they

must adjust their own pronunciation to ensure the mutual understanding.

Zikmundová (2016) uses the term “accommodation” to illustrate for the necessary

adjustment among the speakers. Jenkins (2007) makes some suggestions such as

adding the sounds for consonant clusters or choosing what information which needs

emphasizing to mark a nuclear stress.

Pragmatics of ELF

The field of pragmatics is also in great importance of linguistic features of

ELF, so there have been many studies on the role of pragmatics in ELF so far.

Zikmundová (2016) affirms that interlocutors have a tendency to prioritize for the

intelligible communication rather than the use of perfect English. It means that ELF

refers to the smooth of the conservation rather than the form of the language;

therefore, in order to make the message fully understood, the speakers naturally

make some adjustments in the use of language based on the context.

Jenkins (2011) provides some strategies that ELF should employ in order to

reduce or avoid the misunderstandings as followed:

• Repetition is one of the effective ways which helps the

communication intelligible; and the speakers also use clarification and

self-repair to check the information during the communication.

• Paraphrasing, saying in their own words or using minimal response

from the other counterpart also help avoid prolonged silence.


• Inserting or creating idiomatic expressions helps create the

incorporation among speakers of ELF though idioms may seem to be

really challenging to non-native speakers. Even, those creative

idiomatic expressions are considered as a signal of a group of ELF

speakers.

• Using discourse markers is used to introduce the new topic among

non-native speakers of ELF although in the native language, this is a

way of expressing politeness or involvement in communication.

(Jenkins, 2011, p. 293- 294)

Generally, those introduced linguistic features of ELF in terms of

lexicogrammar, phonology and pragmatics aim to show that there are varieties of

ELF around the world and in the field of research, ELF has received a lot of attention

among linguists. Breitender (2005) proposes to establish a set of rules for native and

non-native speakers to use for the purpose of avoiding misunderstandings as well as

increasing the mutual intelligibility. Furthermore, in education, the rise in a number

of speakers of ELF implies that teachers of English might introduce these features to

the students of English in EFL classrooms in the future in order for students to get

acquainted with these features during their English learning process as well as

making up for the situations in which there are unusual forms of the language or

grammatical errors. (Zikmundová, 2016)

2.4.3 The roles of ELF in language teaching and learning

EFL has been proved to hold a dominant position in many areas such as

international business, Information Technology, aviation, transportation and even in

education (Zikmundová, 2016). According to Zikmundová (2016), EFL creates a

great many chances for the trade in the globalized world; for example, the

negotiation process, goods - ordering and selling activities and partnership-

establishing activities for company. This is totally consistent with Graddol’s (2012)

opinion that English tends to be widely for business outside the borders of European

countries. Or the ASEAN Charter in 2009 stated that ‘the working language of

ASEAN shall be English’ (Jenkins, 2011), which means that English is a tool for

ASEAN to connect to other international organizations. In a broader extent,

Zikmundová (2016) reveals that due to the rise in international travel, a uniting


language became really necessary to manage transportation, save lives as well as

operate the international airplanes and ships; that is why English has been a

worldwide lingua franca in air and sea transportation.

Based on the studies on EFL, it is obvious that English is being more widely

used by non-native speakers than native speakers for the need of communication as

well as science and technology as what Crystal (2003) says in his study that “English

is the medium of a great deal of the world’s knowledge, especially in such areas as

science and technology” (p. 110). The statistics by Walkinshaw (2018) showed that

English is a second language to 375 million speakers and a foreign language to

additional 750 million foreign users. Ramírez (2005) claims that non-native speakers

use other intonation range and variety of contours than native speakers. The

differences between English by native speakers and non-native speakers should be

focused in class in order to meet learners’ communicative purposes.

With a greater number of non-native users of English, language teaching and

learning need to pay attention to ELF in order to have more understanding of ways

which English is spoken by non- native speakers, from which teachers have more

knowledge of teaching English in the classrooms. This is the same as Jenkins (2007)

considers EFL as an independent variety of English which should be considered and

taught; or to put it differently, teachers and students should be provided with ELF

knowledge and exposed to the used of ELF in the classroom.

Obviously, the influence of English in the education field was reported by

Crystal (2003) as follows: since 1960s, English has been a common medium of

instruction tool in higher education in many countries. As a result, the English

language teaching (ELT) major has grown rapidly around the world. In other words,

ELF makes a great contribution to the changes in teaching methodology; that is to

stop focusing on linguistic forms such as pronunciation, morpho-syntactic features

and to priorize non-linguistic forms which affect mutual understanding (Nagy, 2016).

The focus of language teaching and learning is on communication skills as well as

interactive skills.

2.5 Attitudes toward ELF

2.5.1 Definitions of attitudes

Many researches consider investigating teachers’ attitudes the indispensable

aspect in the exploration of the in-depth insights of each topic, especially researches


in the fields of psychology and education. That is why there are a great many

definitions of attitude from different contexts and perspectives (Alhmali, 2007).

First, attitude which is simply defined in Oxford Learner’s Dictionary is the

way people think or feel about something or the way people behave toward someone

or something. Based on the scientific theory of planned behavior, Rokeach (1969, as

cited in Smith, 1981) defines attitudes as the consistent organization of beliefs

toward a certain object or a certain situation to some extent, which lead to the

predisposing respondence in some preferential manner. Or Gardner (1985) has his

own definition of attitudes that the evaluative reactions or opinions about a certain

referent reveals the attitudes of a certain individual. Briefly, “attitude is generally

conceptualized as a learned predisposition to respond in a consistent evaluative

manner” which is “a dimension as pro-con, favorable-unfavorable, positive-negative,

supportive-hostile, or desirable – undersiable” (Allport, 1935; Katz and Scotland,

1959; Rosenberg and Hovland, 1960, as cited in Thomas, 1969, p. 12).

2.5.2 The components of attitudes

In theory, attitudes are psychological phenomenons which may be indirectly

observed or gradually acquired over a period of time and attitude is classified into

three interrelated components; namely, affective, behavioral or cognitive components

(Rosenberg & Hovland, 1960; Katz and Scotland, 1959; Wenden, 1991).

Cognitive component

Based on how a person thinks about the attitude objects, this aspect of

attitudes refers to the beliefs, thoughts of the language learners about the knowledge

as well as their understanding in their learning process. In other words, cognitive

component is the combination of the experiences of attitude objects and the

information in different courses, which are called information and perceptions as

Schiffman and Kanuk (2004) defined. In language learning, cognitive factors include

the connection of the previous knowledge with the new one, the creation of new

knowledge, the check of new knowledge as well as the application of the new

knowledge in different situations.


Affective component

The definition of affective component presented by Eagly and Chaiken

(1998) that “feelings, moods, emotions, and sympathetic nervous system activity

which people have experienced in relation to an attitude object and subsequently

associate with it” (p. 272) are affective factors. In other words, affective component

is related to the emotional experiences and preferences such as the likes or dislikes

toward an object. As the operational mechanism of emotion is simultaneous with

cognitive factor, the evaluation of affective factor is a combination of feelings,

emotions and evaluative judgement on beliefs which are called an integrated model

of attitude and choice (Agarwal & Malhotra, 2005). Regarding to language learning,

Feng and Chen (2009) presented that learning process is an emotional process

influenced by different emotional factors. It means that the inner feelings and

emotions of learners should be taken into consideration (Choy & Troudi, 2006) for

the purpose of bettering their learning process.

Behavioral component

Behavioral component defined by Defleur and Westie (1963) is associated

with individual response or reaction toward attitude object. To put it differently, the

way a person behaves or reacts in particular situations are behavioral aspects of

attitude. Therefore, the student’s participation in the tasks and their actions during

tasks are concerned to attitude object. It means that the behavioral component helps

enhance students to be exposed to the target language and the English environment in

the classroom. According to Kara (2009), positive attitudes lead to positive behaviors

toward language learning, which can encourage the eagerness as well as enthusiasm

of students. And students engage themselves emotionally and feel strived to learn

more and acquire more information and skills for daily life.

On the whole, the affective component refers to the emotions and feelings,

cognitive component is based on perceptions and beliefs whereas the behavioral

component is related to the expression of behavioral intentions. Therefore, attitude

concept should be viewed from the three above dimensions because each of those

dimensions consists different features which are absolutely necessary for students’

language learning. Toward ELF in ELF classroom, statistics analysis of research over

the past years have showed that the majority of teachers preferred using native

speaker norms to features which are frequently associated with ELF. However, ELF


has been considered as an acceptable alternative to non-native speakers in Soruc

(2015) and there should be more research on other participants in a wider variety of

contexts according to Soruc (2015).

2.6 Classroom teaching practices

Richards and Rodgers (2001) stated that “different philosophies at the level of

approach may be reflected in the use of different kinds of activities and in different

uses for particular activity type”. It means that the choice of teaching principles and

practices are based on teachers’ knowledge and attitudes in language teaching and

learning. That is why different contexts lead to the differences in teaching practices

and attitudes of the teachers. Accordingly, there have been a lot of investigation on

classroom teaching practices in different contexts, which lead to the diversity of

definitions of classroom teaching practices suitable for specific settings.

2.6.1 Definitions of classroom teaching practices

Gage (1978) defines teaching practices as “any activity on the part of one

person intended to facilitate learning on the part of another” (p. 14). However, in

order to clarify what teaching practices are, it is better to explain what the two terms

“teaching” and “practice” mean.

Flinders (1989) suggests some areas of teaching as follows:

✓ Communication: the ability of the teacher to initiate and sustain a multitude

of personal interactions with students.

✓ Perceptions: the ability of the teacher to pick up on such things as students’

attitudes, motives, and beliefs, and to adapt a lesson appropriately.

✓ Co-operation: the ability of the teacher to negotiate a collaborative and open

relationship with students.

✓ Appreciation: the ability of the teacher to feel an intrinsic sense of self-worth

from doing a difficult job well.

(p. 24)

Whereas, Brown (1994) defines teaching in a shorter way that teaching is the

facilitation of learning (p. 17). Teaching is not only transforming knowledge but also

enhancing relationship among learners, creating interesting atmosphere for learning,

choosing materials and understanding students’ needs. And Ellis (1985)’s definition


of teaching is that stimulating learning through facilitative instructions, raising

learners’ awareness of language features, motivating learners and reinforcing

learners’ knowledge (p. 74).

Practice in Morris’s (1973) opinion that it is “a customary action or way of

doing something” (as cited in Zain, 2007, p. 16). To put it differently, practice is a set

of actions done regularly in order to achieve something.

Therefore, teaching practices consist of giving feedback, interaction with

students, transforming information, managing the classrooms and setting activities as

well as choosing the materials. Stones and Morris (1977, as cited in Gujjar, 2008, p.

2) mentions three major descriptions in the definition of teaching practice as follows:

the practicing of teaching skills and acquisition of the role of a teacher, the whole

range of experience that students go through in schools, and the practical aspects of

the course as distinct from theoretical studies. Or, Wang, Haertel and Warburg

(1993) state that classroom teaching practices with regards to classroom management

and classroom interactions have certain effects on students’ cognitive competencies.

However, the effectiveness of classroom practice depends on the cultural context and

professional traditions.

To sum up, teaching practices are the way the teacher interacts with learners,

choose the materials, build up good relationship based on confidence, admiration and

motivation, vary in different teaching methods and techniques as well as increase

learners’ interests during the lessons. More importantly, many researches on teaching

practices affirm that teachers’ beliefs or attitudes make a strong impact on teaching

practices at some certain extent (Handal, Bobis, & Grimison, 2001; Lovat & Smith,

1995). In other words, teachers’ lives and behaviors can result in a lot of creativeness

and inventiveness in their classes.

2.6.2 The importance of teaching practices in EFL classrooms

As mentioned above, classroom teaching practices refer to what and how

teachers teach as well as assess students in their classroom in order to develop

students’ communication skills in English as well as build up their confidence in

using English in the international environment. In order to do this, it is absolutely

necessary to investigate the influence of teaching practices in EFL classrooms in

order to depict the importance of teaching practices in EFL classrooms taught.


Generally, Borg (2003) states that the choice of activities during the lessons

have great impact on the students. However, teachers’ decision is dependent on a set

of ideologies that teachers hold about their students as well as pedagogical practices

(Farrell & Bennis, 2013). In other words, various actions by the teachers reflect their

values and beliefs (Verloop et al., 2001), which mainly derived from their own

philosophies of teaching (Andrews, 2003). Besides, teachers’ experience and

language backgrounds also are important factors influencing the choice in

techniques, aids or activities used in EFL classrooms (Ngnidi & Sibaya, 2003;

Marais & Meier, 2004).

Relating to the choice of aids, the study by Nalliveettil and Ali (2013) about

the usefulness of Audio-Visual Aids in ELF classroom in Arabia affirmed that the

combination of textbooks with audio and video as supplementary resources for

classroom language learning activities helped provide motivation and increase

inspiration among students. Lessons taught with the help of technological aids are

viewed as an effective technique which teachers should conduct so that EFL

classrooms are more interesting and inspiring to students because the sounds and

images attached in the learning activities make the teaching-learning process

effective and attractive, which appeal for the interest and attention of students more.

The use of materials in the EFL classroom also plays an important role in

increasing students’ participations in the activities. According to Basturkmen (2001),

authentic texts helped to raise the students’ awareness of language use and promote

more interactions among students. McCarthy (1998) emphasized that “learners

trained to be good observers of data have taken an important step toward facilitating

features of talk” (p. 52). And once they are active observers, they are engaged to be

exposed to contribute their ideas and initiate discussions as well as join the activities

more dependently (Basturkemen, 2001).

The way teachers give feedbacks on the students’ mistakes also make huge

influence on students in their learning. The study about how to correct students’

mistakes showed that almost students felt worried and too sensitive to teachers’

feedback (Kepner, 1991; Semke, 1984; Sheppard, 1992). Therefore, negative

feedback may not totally correct student’s mistakes but reduce their production as

participation in the and feedback should be selective so as not to prevent students’

attempt to communicate activities (Pica, 1996). According to Al-Hasnawi (2016),

when reaching at a certain level, students may have a sense of self-correction


strategy which help them avoid mistakes which might repeatedly appear in similar

communicative situations.

Classroom management is of great importance in building effective EFL

classrooms because teachers with good classroom management skill can create a

positive classroom environment, meet classroom expectations and reinforce

appropriate behavior as well as correct inappropriate behaviors skillfully (Simonsen,

Fairbanks, Briesch, Myers & Sugai, 2008). Classroom management refers the

organization of the physical classroom environment such as floor plan, seating chart

or the daily classroom routines such as daily procedures, homework giving and

checking or the creation of a predictable schedule across days, weeks … All of these

strategies aim at creating a classroom layout, rules and structure in order to reduce

the noise or distractions among students in the classrooms.

Obviously, teaching practices which teachers apply in EFL classrooms

directly impact on the effectiveness of learning activities during the lessons. More

significantly, teachers have a range of teaching practices to select for their EFL

classrooms so as to better their teaching and students’ learning. And teachers are

responsible and accountable for designing and delivering a high quality of language

teaching and learning. Therefore, classroom teaching practices need to be carefully

chosen for the suitability of their settings and objects as well as the level of their

objects.

2.6.3 Teaching practices in the era of ELF

The global expansion of ELF in the world put a big question in language

teaching and learning in the world. That is, whether EFL should be taught in the

same way as English as second language is being taught. In the countries where

English is not their mother tongue and English is mainly used for international

communication of the majority of the population, internal communicative functions

and sociopolitical status in the use of a language receives more supports (Nayar,

1997). Moreover, there are not enough professional and native English teachers to

cover all the English classes (Nayar, 1997), which requires the changes in people’s

and teachers’ attitudes toward in the norm English as a lingua France, so that there

need to be necessary alternatives in classroom teaching practices which are

accessible to English in a non-native way.


ELF classrooms refer to the language ones where English is considered as a

medium instruction or communication tools. Teachers and students have chances to

update knowledge, gain communicative competence, balance accuracy and fluency.

The use of different varieties of English is accepted along with the lesson and the

freedom in the choice of useful English varieties as long as the communicative

purposes are gained and the language learning takes place smoothly. Therefore, it is

absolutely necessary for the pedagogical training as Seidlhofer (2005b) stated,

teachers will need a more comprehensive education which enables them for their

own teaching contexts and to adapt their teaching to the particular requirements of

their learners. Although teachers cannot teach all varieties of English in classrooms,

teachers’ encouragement to their students to explore different English varieties of

English through out-of-class activities should be highly appreciated (Ehrenreich,

2018, p. 37- 48).

Relating to some significant ways in the ELF classrooms, Smit (2010)

proposed that using materials, sharing experience, using audio or visual means, self-

learning, seminars, exploring the value of pair work, groupwork, etc.… are what

teachers should do in ELF classrooms. The purposes of using these kinds of aids are

to facilitate academic communication among students in and out of the county.

However, teachers in a single unified curriculum as Vietnam may encounter some

barriers which prevent the application of ELF in the classrooms (Kuhn, 2011). In

other words, the exam-driven curriculum in most Vietnamese schools nowadays may

be a challenging to teachers in conducting ELF classrooms. Therefore, teachers need

a lot of changes in their attitudes toward ELF in order to be more flexible to choose

teaching methods and teaching strategy for the promotion of students’

communicative skills as well as the stimulation of students’ engagement into English

discussions.

With regard to the structures of the lesson, Jenkins, Cogo and Dewey (2011)

showed the differences in the lesson plan of the EFL classrooms in the era of ELF.

Instead of following the basic structure with pre-teaching part, a while-teaching with

a discussion of “fill in the blanks” exercises and a post-teaching with listening

activities and specially only giving priority on speaking activities if required, ELF

focuses on extensive oral interactions with classroom activities such as group work,

pair work, presentation, and so on in order to increase the incorporation among

students. Additionally, the materials such as coursebooks, curriculum also need to be


designed in an ELF lesson-plan; especially, according to Matsuda and Friedrich

(2011), the publishers need to pay attention to promoting an ELF perspective in

teaching materials. The materials are proposed to have practical examples of how to

incorporate the view that English is the language for international communication

within EFL classrooms (Matsuda & Friedrich, 2011).

To sum up, the era of ELF not only makes a great contribution on the

promotion of English learners’ communicative competence but also leads to great

changes in teaching methods and teaching practices in EFL classrooms.

2.7 Previous research

The field of ELF has undergone dramatic developments since the ELF first

conference was held in 2008. This theme flourished with a growing number of

research and the annual conference series were then held in around Europe and Asian

by scholars at different stages of their careers. This is equivalent with Jenkins’s

(2015) opinion that the exploration of the ELF phenomenon at all linguistic levels, in

a wide range of domains and in different geographical regions. In education, the

developments of ELF create a lot of opportunities for teachers to get access to

practical problems relating to ELF teaching practices (Sifakis, 2014). Therefore,

many numerous studies have been carefully carried out in order to point out what

teachers have to do in the classroom with ELF – aware and attitude perspectives.

For the importance of teachers in teaching English in the ELF perspective,

there is a lot of research in terms of teachers’ perceptions and attitudes toward the

global spread of English and ELF in the world; for example, from English – speaking

countries in the Inner Circle, Outer Circle and non- English-speaking countries of

Expanding Circle. In those research, norms, principles and challenges of teaching

ELF are also mentioned and discussed to find the most appropriate ways for the

implementation in the language classroom in their own contexts.

In the context of Europe, one of the studies on the attitudes of the teachers

toward ELF was done by Soruc in 2015. The purpose of this study is to explore the

practices and perceptions of non-native English - speaking teachers from five -

expanding circle countries including Turkish, Italian, Egyptian, Germany and China.

The questionnaire consisted of forty-four non-native English - speaking teachers, and

ten of whom were later interviewed. Unfortunately, the qualitative and quantitative


data revealed that most of the teachers from those different expanding circle

countries preferred to use native speaker norms rather than features associated with

ELF. Similarly, in the particular context of German, Decke-Cornill (2003)

investigated the attitudes of teachers of English in two different types of schools. The

result of the study showed that teaching proper English was more popular than ELF

features. Another study done in Turkey by Incecay and Akyel (2014) had collected

and analyzed the questionnaire and semi-structured interviews of a hundred Turkish

EFL teachers working at two universities regarding to ELF and its roles. The data

presented that teachers were familiar with ELF though they tended to highly

appreciate native-speaker English as the correct model and all of the teachers said

that they still had tolerant attitudes toward their students’ use of ELF features.

In the context of UAE and Georgia, Tamar and Khalid did a research in 2018

for the purpose of investigating non-native English – speaking teachers’ attitudes and

beliefs toward ELF in two different places; particularly, UAE is the country where

English has the status of ELF and Georgia is the country where English is considered

a foreign language. With 20 teachers each region took part in the online

questionnaire including four sections; that is, demographic characteristics, behavioral

factors, attitudinal factors and questions association with teachers’ practice, opinions

and awareness of ELF. The set of questions including multi-item, close-ended,

specific open – ended and clarification questions helped to prove that ELF was a

crucial topic for both regions and provided future expertise on ELF and some ways

of its incorporation in language courses.

In the context of South-East region, the study on teachers’ attitudes toward

ELF was carried out by a Malaysian researcher named Kaur in 2013 in a Malaysia

university. The purpose of this study was to examine the perceptions of the trainee

teachers toward ELF or non-native speaking English accents compared with native

speaking English accents. Seventy - two participants from a teacher-training course

took part in the survey with a questionnaire adopted from Jenkins (2007). The results

of the study revealed that native English accents were more favorable than to non-

native English accents though they were exposed to ELF in their training curriculum.

The explanation for this negative description on non-native English accents resulted

from the native speaking-centric textbooks and materials, which made those trainee

teachers more familiar to the norm provider of native speaking accent.


In the context of Vietnam, the increasing popularity of English has attracted a

great substantial attention which led to the birth of language governmental policies

for the purpose of developing Vietnamese students’ communicative competence.

However, the development of English in terms of a lingua franca is still a new

perspective toward Vietnamese teachers and learners because of the influence of

native speaking accents existing in all the English materials in Vietnam. The research

of ELF in language teaching and learning in Vietnam mainly focus on the teachers’

awareness or perceptions on World Englishes, global English and ELF as well as

challenges which teachers face with in the implementation of those above aspects in

the classroom.

The study conducted by Tran (2015) aimed at uncovering the perceptions of

teachers of English in Vietnam toward the norm World Englishes. The study called

for the participation of one hundred and fifty - seven teachers at university and

college level into the online questionnaire survey and five of whom were invited to

take part in the semi-structured interviews individually and in group. With a mixed –

method approach, the quantitative and qualitative data presented that Vietnamese

English teachers at the university/college level have a broad range of perceptions

toward English varieties, which resulted in various benefits and challenges for

language teaching and learning. Besides, the research showed that the number of

studies in terms of World Englishes is still limited in Vietnam; therefore, there

should have teacher training courses in order to improve teachers’ knowledge and

awareness of global English, World Englishes and ELF in real life and in modern

society.

Another study which was more closely related to ELF in the context of

Vietnam was carried out by Ngo (2015) in the Hue University. There were twenty-

five teachers and one – hundred students participating in the online questionnaires

and Skype interviews. The purpose of this study was to investigate Vietnamese

teachers and students’ perceptions of ELF and find out the rising concern in the

application of ELF to language classroom in Vietnam. The qualitative and

quantitative data from two main instruments of data collection revealed that

Vietnamese teachers and students’ perceptions of ELF seemed to be complex and

contradictory because there was a conflict between what students longed for and

what teachers and students preferred. Most of the participants understood that there

was a high increase in the spread of English all over the world as well as its


important role in Vietnam. Moreover, all of them knew that having good knowledge

of English and acquiring English communication skills confidently would bring them

a lot of opportunities to their life. However, they expressed their support to language

standardization ideology and native accents.

In relation to the perceptions of teachers toward ELF in Vietnam, another

study was conducted in the context of Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology

(HUTECH) by Ho (2018). In this study, the researcher used questionnaires and semi-

structured interviews in order to examine teachers’ understandings of ELF in terms

of vocabulary, pragmatic, linguistic and its speakers as well as their judgment in

integrating ELF in their EFL classroom. The study was done with participation of

fifty teachers from three departments in HUTECH by a mixed-method approach. The

result from the qualitative and quantitative data presented that teachers’ perceptions

on ELF, advantages and proposed ways of ELF incorporation in ELF classes were

comparatively good. Especially, the majority of those teachers preferred

incorporating ELF through books and other published materials or widely recognized

sources of knowledge such as seminars.

In general, there are a few studies on ELF in the context of Vietnam despite

there have been a lot of changes in the status of English nowadays and governmental

policies highly appreciate the role of English in language teaching and learning.

Furthermore, the studies on ELF in Vietnam mainly referred to teachers and students

at university and college level who were believed to get more access to ELF than any

other educational levels. Besides, most of the research focused on investigating

teachers and students’ perceptions of ELF, its roles and advantages in language

teaching and learning and teachers’ thinking and attitudes toward the incorporation

of ELF in the classroom. More importantly, there has been little research on teachers’

attitudes toward ELF in the classroom to examine whether teachers were ready to

apply ELF in their own teaching environment or not. Obviously, there should be

more studies on teachers’ awareness and attitudes to ELF at different levels of

education in order to have an entire view on ELF in the context of Vietnam.

With all the reasons mentioned above, in the international and national

context, the previous studies lacked the investigation of high school teachers’

attitudes toward ELF and their classroom teaching practices in the era of ELF.

Therefore, this current thesis aims to fill the research gap on examining the teachers’


beliefs, feelings and behaviors toward ELF as well as their teaching practices in their

own classroom.

2.8 Conceptual framework

The objectives of the present study are to investigate high-school teachers’

attitudes toward ELF and teaching practices relating to ELF used in the high-school

classrooms in Ba Ria Vung Tau Province. Based on the previous studies the author

has reviewed so far, this study aimed to present the attitudes toward ELF in three

dimensions (affective, cognitive and behavioural components) (Rokeach,1969, as

cited in Smith, 1971), provide general understanding, including the status of English,

World Englishes, three circles of Katchru and ELF in terms of its definitions and

linguistic features as well as its roles in language teaching and learning. Besides, the

study also aims to explore the teaching practices are used in EFL classrooms in Ba

Ria Vung Tau Province relation to their definitions and important roles. Thanks to it,

classroom teaching practices in the era of ELF are presented for the whole pictures of

ELF in high-school classrooms in Ba Ria Vung Tau Province. The theoretical

framework was relied on the theoretical framework of the previous studies and

literature of teachers’ beliefs, attitudes and knowledge and the ways in which these

belief systems are formed.

The conceptual framework of the present study is presented in Figure 2.6 as

follows:


Figure 2.3 Conceptual framework of the study

2.9 Summary

This chapter provided an overview of the status of English in the global

expansion for communication and the background knowledge of ELF with regarding

to its definitions and linguistic features as well as its roles in language teaching and

learning. Moreover, the exploration of the teaching practices used in EFL classrooms

relation to their definitions and important roles in EFL were mentioned in order to

find out which teaching practices in the era of ELF in high-school settings are

available in Ba Ria Vung Tau Province. Additionally, previous studies on teachers’

perceptions of ELF in the world and in Vietnam was presented. Next was the

conceptual study that was used in this research. The research methodology used in

this study is discussed in chapter three.

Attitudes toward ELF and classroom teaching practices among EFL

high-school teachers.

Teachers attitudes toward ELF Classroom teaching practices among

EFL high-school teachers.

Cognitive

attitudes

Behavioral

attitudes

Affective

attitudes

Knowledge of

classroom teaching

practices

Other teaching

activities in the EFL

classroom

cultural knowledge

pronunciation

four language skills (speaking, listening, writing, reading)

grammar

vocabulary

32 Chapter 3: Methodology

Chapter 3: Methodology

The chapter first provides the research design with general information of the

methods and participants. Then, it continues with the detailed information of research

site, sample and sample procedures, research instruments and data collection

procedures. At the end of this chapter, the data analysis procedures are presented.

3.1 Research design

This thesis investigated the attitudes toward ELF and the application of

classroom teaching practices in the era of ELF among high school teachers,

particularly 11 high schools in Ba Ria Vung Tau Province. The present thesis was

conducted through the employment of the mixed method of qualitative and

quantitative research design. Accordingly, the quantitative data was collected by a

questionnaire survey with 109 teachers of English at 11 high schools in Ba Ria Vung

Tau Province and then the qualitative data was collected through semi-structured

interviews with 20 teachers in order to answer two research questions. According to

Creswell (2012), a mixed methods design was the most chosen one in many studies

because of its higher reliability and validity in SPSS Cronbach’s Alpha indexes or in

real life’s results. Additionally, the questionnaire is a preferable tool to get the

overall viewpoints of the current status on teachers’ attitudes toward ELF and

classroom teaching practices in the era of ELF and the semi-structured interview

helped test their reliability (Cohen, 2007). The mixed methods design of other

researchers in the previous studies usually includes questionnaire, classroom

observation or interview. In this thesis, a questionnaire survey and semi-structured

interviews were employed so as to get the whole depict of the current attitudes of

high school teachers toward ELF and the classroom teaching practices in the era of

ELF.

3.2 Research site

Ba Ria Vung Tau Province was chosen as the research site of this thesis.

There are 11 high schools (including both public and private high schools) in Ba Ria

Chapter 3: Methodology 33

Vung Tau Province where there are more than 109 high- school teachers. Since the

project entitled “Teaching and Learning of Foreign Languages in the National

Education System, 2008-2020” (Decision No. 1400/ QĐ-TTg, 2008), all of high

schools in Ba Ria Vung Tau Province are well-equipped with modern computers

connected with the internet, headphones, loud speakers, projectors and even

interactive boards for the purposes of promoting English teaching and learning in Ba

Ria Vung Tau Province. Moreover, English was mainly used in the ELF classrooms,

especially in skill lessons in order to create the English environment for both teachers

and students to practice communication skills.

In Ba Ria Vung Tau Province, the use of English as a tool for communication

received a great support from the government of this province who hope to increase

the language teaching and learning in English as well as develop Ba Ria Vung Tau

students’ communicative competence. The quality of English teaching and learning

in Ba Ria Vung Tau Province has been considerably upgraded in recent years. Each

school has some well-equipped lab rooms for the purpose of supporting the language

teaching and learning. The materials such as cassette players, pictures and books are

always available in the library. The teachers are active and willing to change

themselves to be more suitable for the language teaching and learning nowadays.

According to the official curriculum, the academic year comprises thirty-

seven weeks including two semesters; namely, Semester 1 with nineteen weeks and

Semester 2 with eighteen weeks. Students at secondary schools have three periods of

English a week. All the lessons have to follow this curriculum distribution strictly.

Secondary students have one oral examination, three fifteen-minute tests, two forty-

five-minute tests and a final exam at the end of each semester, in which a speaking

test is marked as a fifteen-minute test.

3.3 Sample and sampling procedures

The study was conducted at 11 high schools in Ba Ria Vung Tau Province,

Vietnam with the participation of 109 high-school teachers who were purposively

sampled.

At first, five of those teachers did the questionnaires and joined the interview

for the pilot study in order that the researcher checked whether there were any

troubles with the questionnaire and the interview before officially using them for 109


Vietnamese teachers of English of the research. Then, out of 109 participants, 20

teachers of English from 5 high schools were individually invited for the interview

for more explanation.

Relating to the purposive sampling, Creswell (2012) said that this sampling

procedure can make the study reachable and easy to be carried out. The chosen

teachers were defined in three ways. First, the researcher contacted with working

teachers where the researcher works as a teacher of English. Second, the researcher

asked for help from the leaders of each high school for teachers’ availability to send

them printed forms of the questionnaire. After collecting responses in many ways,

high school teachers were asked for their availability for individual semi-structured

interview. Particularly, 109 high school teachers of English were selected based upon

their willingness to answer the survey. Moreover, during the actual collecting data

process, the researcher had a contact with 11 principals of 11 high schools in Ba Ria

Vung Tau Province for their permission to collect the data.

Table 3.1 Demographic information of the participants.

No. Information N=109

F %

1 Gender Male 10 9.2

Female 99 90.8

2 Educational level University 90 82.6

Master 19 17.4

3 Years of working

experience

1-5 years 9 8.3

6-10 years 19 17.4

11-15 years 41 37.6

more than 15

years

40 36.7

4 Travelling abroad

experience

Yes 42 38.5

No 67 61.5

Times of

travelling abroad

Yes 42 38.5

5 No 67 61.5

Note: F: Frequency; %: Percent

The total number of EFL teachers was 109, 10 of them were male making up

for 9.2%; and 99 of them were female, accounting 90.8 %. Teachers in public

schools were 104 teachers making up for 95.4 %. The number of private schools

were 5, accounting for 4.6%. Amongst them, 8.3% of them experienced under 5


years of teaching, 17.4% teachers have experienced under 10 years of teaching,

37.6% teachers having under 15 years of teaching and 36.7% teachers experienced

more than 15 years of teaching. Especially, 19 teachers having Master of Arts

accounting 17.4%, 90 teachers whose educational level were university level, making

up for 82.6%. This table of demographic information of the participants proved the

variety in samples’ characteristics. Besides, the number of teachers going abroad was

42, accounting for 38.5%. More importantly, all of the teachers in Ba Ria Vung Tau

have attended training courses held by the Education and Training Department of Ba

Ria Vung Tau Province. The purpose of those training courses was to equip teachers

with knowledge of global English, new teaching methodology as well as encourage

teachers to confidently change their own ways of teaching.

3.4 Research instruments

This study used the mixed methods design to collect both quantitative and

qualitative data. Thus, both questionnaire and semi-structured interview were

employed for the data collection of this study.

3.4.1 Questionnaire

The first instrument used in this study was the questionnaire. The

questionnaire designed for the teacher participants was a questionnaire survey

including of three parts, namely part I, part II and part III. Part I comprised 6 items

asking about demographic information of participants such as name, age, gender,

educational level, year of teaching experience and times for abroad vacation. Those

are the elementary information which is required in a questionnaire to have an

overall picture of the participants’ demographic information, level in professionals

and experience (Hatch, 2002). There were 24 items in part II which were designed on

the basis of Smit (2010)’s research and were then adapted and checked many times

before the distribution to the participants in order to explore the attitudes of the

teachers toward ELF in terms of vocabulary, pronunciation, four English skills,

grammar. More particularly, part II was designed into three main parts, investigating

the teachers’ attitudes into three components, namely cognitive, affective and

behavioural attitudes. The cognitive component included 8 items from number 1 to 8

examining teachers’ knowledge of ELF, the affective component consisted of 8 other

items from number 9 to 16 investigating teachers’ feeling during the implementation


of ELF, and the behavioural component with 8 items left from number 17 to 24

identifying teachers’ behaviours toward ELF. In order to have full understanding of

teachers’ attitudes toward ELF, all the aspects of the attitudes were put into

consideration in part II. Part III went into the detail investigating teachers’ classroom

teaching practices in the era of ELF. Especially, part III was divided into two main

parts, number 1 to number 10 referred to teachers’ knowledge of ELF in terms of

teaching practices in the classroom, such as vocabulary, pronunciation, speaking,

listening, reading and writing skill, grammar; then number 11 to 16 was used to

explore teachers’ teaching practices in other activities in the classroom. Based on

Jenkin (2009)’s research, 16 items were adapted and checked for the purpose of

testing whether teachers knew how to do the teaching practices in the era of ELF.

Through this part, the teaching practices used in the classroom by the teachers were

explored in different aspects such as materials, experience, learning activities, audio

or visual tools, seminars, etc. A five-point Likert scale was employed for the

questionnaire with the scale ranging from Strongly Disagree to Strongly Agree (See

Appendix A).

3.4.2 Semi-structured interview

Another method for the collection of qualitative data was face-to-face

interview. The responses obtained from a semi-structured interview were confirmed

to be easier to analyse because of its flexible characteristic. The interview of this

thesis consisted of two main questions (See Appendix C); the two main questions

were expanded into details with similar content in order to make personal opinions or

experience clearer and more diverse. Twenty teachers were invited to take part in the

interview individually with sample forms of interview were included (See Appendix

B). This semi-structured interview purposely found out the intensive insight to the

reasons for different participants’ attitudes toward ELF. The interview sheet included

2 main questions respectively represented 2 research questions of the thesis. The first

interview question brought 2 small questions asking a number of English varieties to

examine teachers’ general understanding on ELF, then a small question asked EFL

teachers to make a list of their beliefs, emotions and actions relating to ELF in terms

of vocabulary, pronunciation, speaking, listening, reading, writing, grammar. The

second interview question referred to the practices that teachers used to teach in the

classroom under the influence of ELF. Similarly, the interview required interviewees


to remember and make a list of teaching practices in their classrooms in order to

draw the overall picture of their knowledge of ELF teaching practices in in terms of

vocabulary, pronunciation, speaking, listening, reading, writing, grammar as well as

other teaching activities.

3.5 Data collection procedures.

The quantitative value was collected from the questionnaire survey. In order

to ensure the consistent understanding of the teachers doing the survey, the

questionnaire was designed in English and then translated into Vietnamese.

According to Dornyei and Taguchi (2010), once the respondents use their own

mother tongue to answer the items in the questionnaire, the quality of the data

increases. Then, the questionnaire was printed and directly administered to teachers

from 11 high schools at the conference held by Training and Education Department

of Ba Ria Vung Tau at the beginning of June (from 1st to 21st) in the academic school

year 2019 - 2020. This was the time of the Covid pandemic and all the students and

teachers had to stay at home and study online. At this time, the Training and

Education Department of Ba Ria Vung Tau conducted some training courses on

online teaching techniques for high school teachers in the province.

As for data collection, 109 copies of questionnaire were administered to high

school teachers. The questionnaire was collected at the end of that conference day to

give EFL teachers enough time to consider their answers and make sure that they

were willing to produce trustworthy information. That means, each teacher spent at

least 1 hour completing the questionnaire with 3 sections. The first section for

demographic information, the two next respectively represented two research

questions on teachers’ attitudes in terms of cognitive component, affective

component, and behavioural component as well as classroom teaching practices the

teachers implemented in the era of ELF. Thus, 109 copies of questionnaire were

returned. Based on the previous research and pilot carried out by 3 teachers who

were not involved in the study, the questionnaire was chosen and edited reasonably

and fully for the purpose of this study.

Relating to the qualitative data, Creswell (2012) instructed five steps of

qualitative data collection procedure from the structured interviews. First, the

researcher introduced and explained the participants of the study for sample and


sampling procedure. Second, participants were asked for permission to take part in

the interview before questionnaire was delivered. Third, the researcher collected the

in-depth information relating to teachers’ attitudes toward ELF. Fourth, based on the

variables of the study, the instrument was located as structure interview with

questions. Fifth, the qualitative data was collected through the direct interviews with

participants and prepared questions.

Similarly, the interview was conducted with 22 high school teachers, 11 of

whom were the group leaders of English Department in 11 high schools and 11

teachers left were randomly chosen from those high schools in Ba Ria Vung Tau

Province. They were divided into 11 interview groups in which two teachers from the

same high school participated at the same time. The purpose of the interview was

explained in advance. Each high school teacher took turns to answer the interview

questions. The average time for each interview was 30 minutes. The information

collected from the semi-structured interview was analyzed through the content. In

order to make sure there were no difficulties for the interviewees as well as to get

valid questionnaire achieved, the semi-structured interview questions were first

piloted by 3 high school teachers who were not involved in the study (Dörnyei,

2003). The interview was carried out in Vietnamese and the teachers’ answers were

recorded with the permission of the interviewees for later research.

3.6 Data analysis procedures

According to Dörnyei (2003), the questionnaire instruments and SPSS can

operate the quantitative and qualitative data in “an integrated manner” (p.118);

therefore, the researcher employed these two instruments to collect and analyze the

qualitative and quantitative data for the results of the study. In other words, this study

used a mixed method research for qualitative and quantitative data because of its

three major benefits such as investigating the clear and explanatory relationships

between variables, examining profound investigation of the relationships among

variables as well as exploring the confirmation and the cross validation of the

relationships among variables (Fraenkel, Wallen & Hyun, 2012).

Cohen (2007) affirmed that the quantitative data could be quickly analyzed

in many different ways after being scored with the help of statistical products for the

social services (SPSS) software 20.0. SPSS helped provide the percentages and


frequencies of teachers’ responses to teach item of the questionnaire. Mean score

provided by SPSS was also used to discover EFL teachers’ attitudes toward ELF in

high school level. Relating to the validity and reliability of the quantitative data,

Cronbach’s Alpha was used to testify these two elements. Besides, SPSS also help to

analyze descriptive statistics, i.e., Mean and Standard deviation of the variables. The

scale of mean scores used to analyze quantitative data is displayed as follows.

Table 3.2 Mean scores for analyzing the quantitative data

Mean Levels of Agreement

1.00 - 1.80 Strongly disagree

1.81 - 2.60 Disagree

2.61 - 3.40 Neutral

3.41 - 4.20 Agree

4.21 - 5.00 Strongly agree

With regard to qualitative data, the interviews were recorded with the

permission of the interviewees through mp3 recorder. Then, the content analysis was

applied for processing the data because its technique is widely used in the social

sciences. According to CandelMora (2014), the patterns can be identified for

obtaining insight thoughts of the objects of the study, with a number of codes which

were arranged and simplified helped increase understanding of the material object of

the study.

3.7 Reliability and Validity

The study employed a mixed - methods design in order to provide the

quantitative data from the questionnaire survey and qualitative data from teachers’

personal viewpoints and opinions. All of the quantitative and qualitative data helped

to ensure the maintenance of reliability and validity of the study. Creswell (2012)

stated that statistical outcomes from the questionnaire could be evaluated opposed to

interview’s results; in other words, the mixed method of questionnaires and

interviews could deliver a triangulation.


In this study, the questionnaire was first designed in English and then

reviewed by experts in the field to check its validity. Next, it was translated into

Vietnamese by the researcher and checked by a Vietnamese English language teacher

for the accuracy of the translation. The data collected and put into SPSS in order to

check the Cronbach’s alpha to ensure the reliability of the items because Fraenkel &

Wallen (2009) presented that if the Cronbach’s alpha is greater than .700, this means

the items are reliable. As seen from the Table 3.3, the questionnaire was generally

reliable because mostly Cronbach’s alpha tests for each item were greater than .700.

Though Cronbach’s alpha of the Cognitive components was .675, it was still

acceptable because those adapted questionnaires were testified by another researcher.

Table 3.3 Cronbach’s Alpha indexes of the questionnaire items in average

Reliability Number of

items

Teachers’ attitudes toward ELF

Cognitive components .675 8

Affective components .783 8

Behavioural components .814 8

Teachers’ classroom teaching practices in the

era of ELF

Knowledge of ELF .808 10

Other activities in the EFL classroom .742 6

Relating to the semi-structured interviews, it was firstly designed in English

and reviewed by experts before being translated into English as well as cross-

checked by other teachers for the accuracy of the translation version. Moreover, in

order to ensure the validity and reliability of the semi-structured interview questions,

a pilot interview was also conducted first before being officially carried out for the

collection of qualitative data. The Interviews’ responses were verified by the EFL

teachers’ signature in their answer sheets. Along with that, the recordings of

interview were also stored to prove this interview results’ reliability and validity.


3.8 Pilot Study

The survey instruments (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2009) need piloting to ensure its

effectiveness as well as find out potential problems which may have negative impact

on the quality of the study. Therefore, both questionnaire survey and interview were

conducted with some voluntary participants first at Tran Nguyen Han Highschool.

For the questionnaire, three teachers voluntarily completed the survey first.

The researcher clarified the questionnaire during the pilot process and then collected

completed questionnaire and participants’ feedback on the format, procedures. After

that, the researcher made some changes based on suggestions presented during the

pilot process for the purpose of making the questionnaire more reasonable and useful

for the actual data collecting process.

For the semi-structured interview, two teachers were invited to join in the

interviews. The interviewing questions were raised and the participants took turn to

answer those questions. The researcher clarified the content of the questions by

eliciting the questions as well as giving examples. Then, all the interviewing

questions were changed for assisting the respondents to answer the questions more

quickly and provide more appropriate information for the actual interview process.

3.9 Summary

In chapter 3, the research methodology of the study was clearly presented.

First, it provided the setting design, setting site, sample and sampling procedures as

well as research instruments. Then, data collection procedures and data collection

procedures were interpreted. Chapter 3 ended with information relating to the

reliability and validity of the research instrument as well as the pilot of the study.

Chapter 4: Results and Discussions 43

Chapter 4: Results and Discussions

In this chapter, the results and the discussions of the collected data from the

questionnaire and semi-structured interview were presented. The chapter begins with

the reports on the data analysis of two main issues, namely the attitudes of high

school teachers toward ELF and classroom teaching practices applied in the era of

ELF among high-school teachers in Ba Ria Vung Tau Province. It then focuses on

discussions of the research results relating to previous study results. At the end of the

chapter, a summary is presented to epic the whole chapter.

4.1 Results

This section used both quantitative and qualitative data collected from the

questionnaire and the semi-structured interview.

4.1.1 Teachers’ attitudes toward ELF

As mentioned in Chapter 3, teachers’ attitudes toward ELF were divided into

three components, namely cognitive, affective and behavioral attitudes. In each

aspect, eight sub-variables of the language learning with ELF are cultural knowledge,

pronunciation, vocabulary, four language skills and grammar put into research. This

aimed to find out the profound insights on teachers' attitudes toward ELF in their

own teaching contexts.

Table 4.1: The overall results of teachers’ attitudes toward ELF

Theme Teachers’ attitudes toward ELF N = 109

M SD

1 Cognitive components 4.15 .68

2 Affective components 4.17 .61

3 Behavioural components 4.06 .62

Average 4.13 .64

Table 4.1 illustrates the overall result of teachers’ attitudes toward ELF in

three aspects. The overall mean score of the teachers’ attitudes toward ELF is 4.13

(out of 5). To put it differently, the teachers had positive attitudes toward ELF in

44 Chapter 4: Results and Discussions

English language classes. However, based on the mean scores the teachers’ responses

to each component were not the same. Particularly, the mean score of affective

components is the highest (M=4.17; SD=.61) while the lowest mean score (M=4.06;

SD=.62) belonged to the behavioral components. Compared with the two

components mentioned above, the cognitive components were at the second position

in the table with its result (M=4.15; SD=.68. It can be indicated that teachers

generally not only had good knowledge of ELF and expressed their strong preference

for ELF but also were willing to help their students have good understanding of ELF.

a) Teachers’ attitudes toward ELF in terms of cognitive attitudes

Table 4.2 showed the results of cognitive components, one of the three

aspects of teachers’ attitudes toward ELF. Eight sub-variables relating to language

learning in cognitive components; namely, cultural knowledge, pronunciation,

vocabulary, four language skills and grammar were presented as follows.

Table 4.2: Teachers’ attitudes toward ELF in terms of cognitive attitudes

Teachers’ attitudes toward ELF in terms of cognitive attitudes N = 109

M SD

A1. ELF can help enrich my students’ cultural knowledge of other

countries in the world.

4.78 .41

A2. ELF can help my students be familiar to different English

accents in the world.

4.35 .65

A3. ELF can help enrich my students’ vocabulary in relation to

many aspects in real life.

4.29 .69

A4. The knowledge of ELF can improve my students listening skills

when being exposed to different varieties of English.

4.21 .57

A5. The knowledge of ELF can help my students interact with

others from different cultural backgrounds effectively and

appropriately.

3.94 .74

A6. ELF can improve my students my students’ reading skill

because of the increase in their vocabulary and background

knowledge.

4.15 .70

A7. ELF can help my students use written forms with from different

cultural background effectively and appropriately.

3.93 .84


A8. ELF can help my students to express their ideas freely in terms

of grammar.

3.56 .78

Average 4.15 .68

As can be seen from Table 4.2, the results revealed the attitudes of teachers

toward ELF in terms of cultural knowledge, pronunciation, vocabulary, four

language skills (speaking, listening, reading and writing) and grammar. In particular,

the teachers strongly agreed that there was a considerable increase in students’

cultural knowledge of other countries in the world (item A1: M=4.78; SD=.41). Also,

to other aspects of language learning, the teachers perceived that pronunciation (item

A2: M=4.35; SD=.65), vocabulary (item A3: M=4.29; SD=.69), listening skill (item

A4: M=4.21; SD=.57), speaking skill (item A5: M=3.94; SD=.74); reading skill

(item A6: M=4.15; SD=.70); writing skill (item A7: M=3.93; SD=.84) and grammar

(item A8: M=3.56; SD=.78) could be crucially important to ELF.

In conclusion, it can be noted that ELF in teachers’ beliefs has been perceived

in various aspects in accordance with cultural knowledge, accents, language skills

and grammar. Furthermore, the teachers highly evaluated the teaching ELF in their

classrooms because the student’s cultural knowledge, pronunciation, skills as well as

grammatical knowledge would be more enriched.

Besides the quantitative data analyzed by SPSS, the qualitative data collected

from the interview was also taken into consideration in order to attain thorough

information teachers’ attitudes toward ELF in terms of cognitive attitude. The

qualitative data showed that high school teachers in Ba Ria Vung Tau Province had

good understanding of ELF and its benefits to students’ language learning. They

shared their thoughts in the interviews that:

“With lessons containing EFL, students seemed to know more about different

cultures of different countries in the world” (T3)

“One of the most special things that ELF brought to my students was the

students’ familiarity to different English accents, which was really good for

them in real communication outside the classroom” (T9)

“Thanks to ELF, students were provided more new words relating to different

fields, but they are really useful for students in real life” (T2)


“That my students had chances to listen to recordings from different varieties of

English was a great thing to them because this could make their listening skills

better day by day” (T11)

“Knowledge of cultures provided in ELF lessons helped my students be more

active as well as react more appropriately when interacting with foreign people

from different countries” (T22)

“I think because the topics in reading text in ELF classrooms were more

various, students’ background knowledge and vocabulary were really improved

in a better way” (T16)

“Actually, it was not easy to check whether my students’ writing skill were

better or not; however, I could see that they knew how to write different genres

of writing as well as their using of words in sentences was more reasonable”.

(T9)

“While being encouraged to use the language in view of ELF, my students

dared to express their thoughts without paying much attention to grammar;

however, they still felt worried about making grammatical mistakes” (T15)

Furthermore, the interview data collection revealed that mostly high school

teachers in Ba Ria Vung Tau knew the importance as well as the influence of ELF to

students in their classroom; especially, they appreciated the improvements in

speaking and listening skills (80 %), students’ knowledge of culture (80%) as well as

vocabulary (75%). To reading and writing skills, high school teachers (45%)

expressed that they needed more time to evaluate their students’ skills because those

skills were not easy to be measured.

Generally, the quantitative data from the questionnaire and qualitative data

from semi-structured interview shared the same cognitive attitudes of high school

teachers toward the importance and benefit of ELF in their language classrooms.

b) Teachers’ attitudes toward ELF in terms of affective attitudes

Table 4.3 presents the attitudes of teachers toward ELF in term of affective

attitudes. Similar to cognitive components, affective ones also focus on the students’

knowledge of culture, accents, language skills and grammar in search for teachers’

feelings toward ELF in the language classrooms.


Table 4.3: Teachers’ attitudes toward ELF in terms of affective attitudes

Teachers’ attitudes toward ELF in terms of affective attitudes

N = 109

M SD

A9. I find it interesting to help increase my students’ understanding

of multilingual contexts.

4.31 .60

A10. I find it enjoyable to teach my students non-native accents from

non-native English- speaking countries.

4.15 .66

A11. I find it useful to get my students’ vocabulary in different

aspects of life increased.

4.47 .50

A12. I feel happy to see that my students can hear different accents of

English confidently.

4.28 .65

A13. I feel happy to see that my students’ communication is more

effective and appropriate.

4.56 .60

A14. I feel happy to see that my students can read faster thanks to

their background knowledge and vocabulary

4.38 .52

A15. I find it comfortable to help my students to get accessible to

different varieties of English in written form.

4.04 .62

A16. I don’t feel worried about my students’ grammatical mistakes/

errors.

3.14 .78

Average 4.17 .61

As can be seen from Table 4.3, eight sub-variables were put into research in

order to find out the teachers’ feelings toward ELF in the classrooms. Specially, a

majority of the teachers (item A9: M=4.31; SD=.60) expressed their interest in ELF

because students’ understanding of multilingual contexts could be increased. Next, a

great many teachers (item A10: M=4.15; SD=.66) believed that teaching the

students’ non-native accents from non-native English-speaking countries was

enjoyable. Also, teachers showed their agreements of the increase in student’s

vocabulary (item A11: M=4.47; SD=.50). Similarly, a lot of teachers showed their

happiness to see the development of students’ communication ability (item A13:

M=4.56; SD=.60), listening skill ability (item A12: M=4.28; SD=.65), reading skills

ability (item A14: M=4.38; SD=.52) and writing skills ability (item A15: M=4.04;

SD=.62). However, worries about students’ grammatical mistakes among teachers


got the lowest score (item A16: M=3.14; SD=.78), which means that teachers were

still suspicious of the students’ knowledge of grammar in their classrooms with ELF

ability. To sum up, the results in table 4.3 confirmed that despite worries about

students’ grammatical mistakes, the majority of the teachers felt enjoyable and happy

to use ELF in EFL classrooms.

In order to have more precise evaluation of teachers’ attitudes toward ELF in

terms of affective attitudes, the qualitative data from semi-structured interview was

put in to research. Based on the qualitative data collection, the results were quite

competent with the quantitative data presented above. Here are some positive

comments on different aspects of ELF.

“Thanks to the implementation of ELF in my classroom, the students had a

better understanding of different contexts in the world, which made me and

my students more interested in the lessons, too” (T19)

“I was really happy when my students were really excited when being

exposed to non-native accents and they felt more confident to speak English

in their own way” (T16)

“I had a feeling that I could do something really good for my students; that

was letting my students be exposed to new words relating to real situations

in life; therefore, it was easier for them to learn those new words by heart

and used them in a particular context” (T13)

“I could see that my students actually paid attention in my listening class

because of the varieties of accents created not only interests but also comfort

in listening lessons among students” (T5)

“The greatest thing ever that made me eager was that ELF brought to my

students was the effectiveness in communication among them. My students

knew more about the ways to react in different communicative situations

than before” (T17)

“Students’ reading skills in EFL classrooms was much better thanks to the

increase in their vocabulary and knowledge of culture which ELF brought to

them” (T2)

“I found myself more useful to my students because I was always trying to

find out materials of different varieties of English in written form so that my

students had more chances to get access to ELF in writing skill” (T9)

“Grammar was an obstacle that I had to overcome because it played

important role in getting high marks in exams; however, I also tried not to


think of grammatical mistakes too much in order to encourage my students

to use English more confidently” (T17)

With the results of quantitative and qualitative data, high school teachers

expressed their positive affective attitudes toward the implementation of ELF in their

classrooms. Though the number of teachers who were concerned about grammar in

ELF classrooms (62%) was greater than any other fields such as four language skills,

cultural knowledge and vocabulary, the majority of the interviewees confirmed that

they totally believed in the benefits that ELF brought to their students in terms of

language skills (78%), awareness of cultural backgrounds (89%) and knowledge of

vocabulary in real contexts (82%).

In summary, high school teachers highly evaluated ELF in their classrooms

for the purpose of increasing and developing their students’ knowledge of English as

well as use of English in authentic situations.

c) Teachers’ attitudes toward ELF in terms of behavioral attitudes

The results in Table 4.4 focused on the teachers’ actions or activities carried

out in the language class with ELF by the teachers. Those behavioral attitudes

presented whether the teachers really paid attention to ELF in their classrooms or not

as well as what and how they did in order to explore ELF in their teaching activities.

Table 4.4: Teachers’ attitudes toward ELF in terms of behavioral attitudes

Teachers’ attitudes toward ELF in terms of behavioral attitudes N = 109

M SD

A17. I try to integrate the knowledge of ELF in terms of culture into

the main lesson appropriately.

4.10 .47

A18. I try to introduce different non-native accents from non-native

English-speaking countries to my students.

3.72 .70

A19. I try to introduce new words and their meanings in different

contexts to my students.

4.41 .56

A20. I use different sources of listening materials to get my students

familiar to different non-native accents.

4.11 .72

A21. I try to organize many pair-work or group-work discussions 4.06 .61


relating to life-like situations for my students to practice.

A22. I try to provide my students with different reading texts relating

to many aspects of life in different countries.

4.07 .57

A23. I try to provide my students with different writing styles in

different non-native English-speaking countries.

3.50 .80

A24. I try to show the varieties of English grammar to my students. 4.48 .50

Average 4.06 .62

As can be seen in Table 4.4, teachers generally conducted teaching activities

so as to make use of ELF in their classrooms. The lowest score was item A23 which

provided the students with different writing styles in different non-native English-

speaking countries (M=3.50; SD=.80). Similarly, the introduction of different non-

native accents from non-native English-speaking countries to the students in item 18

received the second lowest score (M=3.72; SD=.70). Teaching activities for speaking

skill (item A21: M=4.06; SD=.61), reading skill (item A22: M=4.07; SD=.57) and

listening skill (item A20: M=4.11; SD=.72) were quite close to each other. Also, the

score presented the integration of the knowledge of ELF in terms of culture into the

main lesson appropriately was nearly the same (item A17: M=4.10; SD=.47). The

highest score was the varieties of English grammar to the students (item A18:

M=4.48; SD=.50). As well, the introduction of new words and their meanings in

different contexts to students gained the second highest score in the table (item A19:

M=4.41; SD=.56). The results in Table 4.4 revealed that the majority of teachers in

the survey confirmed to use those teaching activities in their classrooms as their

supports toward the introduction of ELF.

Relating to the qualitative data collected from the semi-structured interview, it

was noticeable that high school teachers also tried to apply ELF in their classrooms

in different ways. This was shown in some below examples:

“During the lessons, especially getting started ones of each unit, I often

provided my students with more information about cultures of different

countries” (T1)

“While teaching pronunciation, I sometimes introduced different ways of

pronouncing the words of different English-speaking countries in order to

raise students’ interest in the lessons” (T10)


“Explaining new words in different contexts was what I always did in my

classrooms for the purpose of helping students to know how to use the words

more appropriately” (T13)

“To my students, listening was the most difficult language skill; therefore, I

tried to let my students to be exposed to different listening materials so that

they were familiar to different non-native accents” (T19)

“In speaking classes, I often divided students into pairs or groups and their

duty is to discuss together and find out the solutions to the problems which

were designed as their real life” (T20)

“As for me, there were a lot of reading texts containing aspects of life of

different countries, so I often gave them to my students to better their skill as

well as build up their knowledge background” (T15)

“Though finding different writing styles in different non-native English-

speaking countries was not easy, I sometimes tried to provide and analyze the

differences in writings styles to my students” (T8)

“While teaching grammar, I often showed the varieties of English grammar to

my students for the purpose of making a comparison of the use of English

grammar in different countries” (T6)

The results of qualitative data collection showed that high school teachers

were trying to use different ways to implement ELF into their lessons; particularly,

the knowledge of cultures (84%) and non-native accents (81%) of different countries

were two of the most introduced aspects of ELF. High school teachers also paid a lot

of attention to integrate ELF in speaking (78%), listening (86%) and reading (88%)

lessons for the purpose of getting students familiar to English in different non-native

English speaking-countries. To writing skills, some teachers expressed that the

integration of ELF was more difficult than three other skills; however, they also tried

to find writing materials which had different writing styles of non-native English -

speaking countries in order to introduce to their students (67%). More importantly,

the majority of high school teachers said that they always tried to make a comparison

of the use of English grammar in different countries (79%) because their students

were really interested in the varieties of English grammar introduced in grammar

lessons, which made them remember the uses of grammatical structures longer as

well as recall the old lessons more easily.

In conclusion, the quantitative data from the questionnaire and qualitative

data from semi-structured interviews showed the same result that despite some


difficulties in implementing ELF in the classroom, high school teachers in Ba Ria

Vung Tau still tried to introduce ELF to their students in language classrooms by

using different ways at different rate. The results presented that teachers’ attitudes

toward ELF in terms of behavioral attitudes was also positive like cognitive and

affective attitude analyzed in the two previous parts.

4.1.2 Teachers’ classroom teaching practices in Ba Ria Vung Tau Province

a) Teachers’ knowledge of teaching practices in EFL classrooms

As for the teaching practices carried out by the teachers in the language

classroom, the results from the survey in Table 4.5 indicate that teachers’ knowledge

of ELF was quite good and they were trying to integrate ELF into the lesson in their

language classrooms, namely; teaching activities aimed to introduce the existence of

ELF and its roles, the use of ELF in different cultural backgrounds, ELF accents,

vocabulary, ELF in four language skills (speaking/ listening/ reading and writing) as

well as ELF in grammar.

Table 4.5

Knowledge of teaching practices in EFL classrooms

Knowledge of teaching practices in EFL classrooms

N = 109

M SD

B1. I introduce the existence of ELF and its roles in different

countries nowadays to my students.

4.30 .55

B2. I ask my students to play roles of people from different cultural

backgrounds.

3.14 .95

B3. I introduce the differences of ELF accents in different countries

to my students.

3.76 .83

B4. I ask my students to search for the use of vocabulary in different

countries in terms of ELF.

3.16 .86

B5. I let students listen to recordings from non-native speakers in

order to make them more familiar with different accents of English.

3.79 .92

B6. I provide songs / poems composed by Non-native English

speakers.

3.36 1.08

B7. I use “non-native speakers” as language models through audio 2.79 1.06


recordings and video clips from a wide range of ‘non-native’ voices.

B8. I show films or videos containing ELF in spoken form. 4.10 .59

B9. I provide written texts/newspaper articles produced in different

countries in the world for students to read.

3.72 .91

B10. I ask my students to search for varieties of English grammar in

the world.

3.08 .98

Average 3.52 .87

As can be seen in Table 4.5, the highest score is the activity which introduced

the existence of ELF and its roles in different countries (item B1: M=4.30; SD=.55).

The second highest score is films or videos containing ELF in spoken form (item B8:

M=4.10, SD=5.9). The lowest score refers to the use of “non-native speakers” as

language models through audio recordings and video clips from a wide range of

‘non-native’ voices (item B7: M=2.79; SD=1.06). The majority of teachers also

admitted getting students familiar with different accents of English through the use

of recordings from non-native speakers (item B9: M=3.79; Sd=.92). Similarly, the

introduction of the differences of ELF accents in different countries (item B3:

M=3.76; SD=.83); the provision of written texts/newspaper articles produced in

different countries in the world for students to read (item B9: M=3.72; SD=.91) and

the provision of songs / poems composed by Non-native English speakers (item B6:

M=3.36; SD=1.08) received high results. Besides, the results of the idea that students

were asked to play roles of people from different cultural backgrounds and to search

for the use of vocabulary in different countries in terms of ELF were quite close to

each other; namely, item B2: M=3.14; SD=.95 and item B4: M=3.16; SD=.86).

Generally, the results in Table 4.5 showed that teachers could be eager to teach ELF

and they were trying to teach ELF in their classrooms.

Similarly, the qualitative results revealed the in-depth thoughts of high school

teachers toward teaching practices carried out in their classrooms in the era of ELF.

Referring to the existence of ELF and its roles, the number of interviewees

confirming that students in their classrooms were often introduced about ELF and its

important meaning in different countries nowadays took up for 90%. As for them,

providing students with those kinds of information was an important step to change

student’s thinking of ELF and support the use of ELF in the classrooms (excluding

T15, T21). In order to increase students’ understanding of ELF, two thirds of the


respondents created situations in which students were asked to play various roles of

people in different cultural background (excluding T5, T6, T13, T14, T19, T20, T21

and T22). As explained by those who designed those activities, this helped students

to be aware of the differences in cultures of countries in the world. Besides, the

differences of ELF accents in different countries were also often introduced in

language classes according to more than a half of high school teachers interviewed.

This aimed to build up their students’ listening skill as what more than a half of high

school teachers (69%) confirmed in the interviews (excluding T7, T4, T13, T14).

Besides, twelve out of high school teachers (including T1, T2, T3, T4, T9, T10, T11,

T12, T15, T17, T18) revealed that they sometimes provided songs/ poems composed

by non-native English speakers so that their students were more familiar with

different accents of English. Especially, according to 14 high school teachers, non-

native speakers in audio recordings, video clips or films were used as language

models in their classes in order to better their students’ listening and speaking skill.

(excluding T2, T5, T6, T13, T14, T19, T20). Furthermore, about 50% high school

teachers sometimes supplied written texts/ newspaper articles printed in different

countries as well as grammar lessons containing varieties of English to students for

the purpose of getting students to be exposed to the era of ELF as well as building up

their knowledge of ELF. Relating to ELF, in terms of vocabulary, about 16 out of the

respondents presented that their students were often encouraged to search for the use

of vocabulary in different countries, which increased students’ interest and curiosity

among their students (excluding T5, T13, T14, T19, T21).

Here are some opinions shared by the interviewees about the teaching

practices carried out in EFL classrooms.

“To me, the introduction of the existence of ELF and its roles in the world

was necessary because this helped students to know more about the

development of a language at the present times and they were more willing

to use that kind of language in the lessons as well as outside the classrooms”

(T9)

“My students were really eager when being asked to search for information

of different cultural backgrounds and performed in front of their friends”

(T1)

“One of the most curious things to my students was the differences in the

pronunciation of words in different countries, so when I introduced this, they

listened attentively” (T10)


“I spent a lot of time searching for videos, songs from different sources of

English in order that my students could get access to different language

users and compare the differences in those language materials” (T18)

Generally, with the results from the quantitative data and qualitative data, it

was noticeable that high school teachers had relatively high understanding of ELF

and were trying to use a great many teaching practices in their classrooms with a

hope of increasing student’s awareness of ELF as well willingness in the use of ELF

inside and outside the classroom.

b) Other teaching activities in the EFL classrooms

In addition to teaching activities mentioned in Table 4.5, there were other

activities which teachers did in order to integrate ELF in their classrooms. Table 4.6

as follow presents other teaching practices carried out by teachers in their language

classrooms.

Table 4.6

Other activities in the EFL classroom

Other teaching activities in the EFL classroom N = 109

M SD

A11. I invite non-native English speakers from other countries to talk

to students about ELF.

3.43 .87

A12. I ask my students to make dialogues and play roles using ELF

in groups.

3.97 .72

A13. I organize seminars for the students to compare English

varieties.

2.88 .90

A14. I create activities which contain aspects relating to ELF for

students to take part in.

3.70 .97

A15. I ask the students to discover any aspects relating to ELF in the

content of the textbook.

4.06 .64

A16. I introduce pictures or posters used ELF to attract my students’

attention to ELF.

4.20 .70

Average 3.71 .80


The results in Table 4.6 showed that the highest score is that teachers liked to

use pictures or posters of ELF in order to attract students’ attention to ELF (item

B16: M=4.20; SD=.70). The second highest score is that students were asked to

discover any aspects relating to ELF in the content of the textbook (item B15:

M=4.06; SD=.64). Furthermore, the score which students were asked to make

dialogues and play roles using ELF in groups was rather high (item B12: M=3.97;

SD=.72). Also, the scores that teachers created activities which contain aspects

relating to ELF for students to take part in (item B14: M=3.70; SD=.97) and invited

non-native English speakers from other countries to talk to students about ELF (item

B11: M=3.43; SD=.87) were a little lower. However, the lowest score is the

organization of seminars for the students to compare English varieties (item B13:

M=2.88; SD=.90). All of the results in Table 4.6 mean that teachers were making

efforts to teach ELF; however, the choice of different teaching practices was not the

same in different language classrooms.

Compared with the quantitative data, the qualitative results were quite

compatible with what was analyzed above. High school teachers had other teaching

practices in their classrooms with the aim to promote the use of ELF. Here are some

presented in the semi-structured interviews.

“I held English speaking clubs in which non-native English speakers were

invited for their talk about the use of English in the era of ELF. I meant to

provide my students with knowledge of language outside the classroom so

that they were more confident in their speaking skills” (T22)

“After the first lesson of each unit, my students were asked to make their

own dialogues and play roles in groups for the purpose of putting

themselves in their own situation, my students were quite interested in this

activity” (T10)

“The review lesson in each unit was the time for my students to make a

comparison on English varieties; I tried to do this, but actually it was not

easy because we had to search for the use of English in different contexts,

which took a lot of time” (T17)

“I tried to create activities consisting of aspects relating to ELF; however, I

did it not very often because I did have time for this, except from in extra

classes” (T1)


“In the content of the textbook, there are things relating to ELF and

discovering those things was really interesting to both teachers and students”

(T9)

“There were many ways to attract students’ attention to ELF, using pictures

or posters could help my students understand the existence of ELF easily

and quickly” (T3)

The qualitative data collection revealed that high school teachers paid

attention to the introduction of ELF as well as encourage the use of ELF in their

classrooms by other different ways such as inviting non-native English speakers to

talk to students about ELF, asking students to make dialogues and play roles using

ELF in groups, organizing seminars for the students to compare English varieties,

creating activities containing aspects relating to ELF for students to take part in,

asking students to discover any aspects relating to ELF in the content of the textbook

as well as introducing pictures or posters used ELF to attract students’ attention to

ELF. However, they admitted that it was not easy for them to design or create

activities containing ELF in lessons every day because of reasons relating to the time

preparation, content of the lessons, pressure of time and exam, etc.

In general, teachers did a lot of teaching practices relating to ELF in the

classrooms with the aim of introducing ELF to students and encouraging the use of

ELF among them. They also admitted that they had some certain difficulties in doing

this in their classrooms; nevertheless, most of them tried to create or design activities

in relation to ELF so that their students could know about the existence of ELF, get

access to ELF and understand more about the importance and roles of ELF in

language learning in the world as well.

4.2 Discussion

In this section, the discussion about the two research questions were

respectively presented, including teachers’ attitudes toward ELF and classroom

teaching practices in the era of ELF. In terms of teachers’ attitudes, three components

of attitudes consisting of cognitive, affective and behavioral attitude were put into

research in order to depict the whole picture of teachers’ attitudes toward ELF in the

present. From which, the research continued to explore which teaching practices

teachers carried out by the teachers for the promotion of using ELF in the classroom.


As a result, the findings of the research clarified the research questions raised from

the beginning of the paper.

4.2. 1 Teachers’ attitudes toward ELF

Based on the analyzed data from research questionnaire and semi-structured

interview, the overall results presented the findings of this study which revealed that

high school teachers had positive attitudes toward ELF in three attitude components,

including cognitive, affective and behavioral attitudes. In order to elucidate each

attitude component, eight sub variables including the importance of ELF and its role

in, bettering cultural knowledge, vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar and four

language skills of students were put into research. On the ground of the quantitative

and qualitative data, the result of cognitive attitudes showed that high school teachers

had good understanding of the importance and roles of ELF toward students’

language learning. With regard to affective attitudes, high school teachers also

expressed their strong liking and high evaluation to ELF. Additionally, because of

being supportive of the use of ELF in the classroom, high school teachers conducted

some activities for the promotion of ELF among their students relating to eight sub

variables from cultural knowledge, vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar to four

language skills of students.

Compared to a study conducted by Soruc (2015) with the participation of

non-native English - speaking teachers from expanding circle countries, the result

was rather different from the result of this study. That is, the majority of the non-

native teachers preferred to use native speaker forms. The study carried out by

Decke-Cornill (2003) in German also showed the difference in the attitudes toward

ELF that teaching proper English was more popular than ELF features. However,

one of the findings in this study was equivalent with that in the research by Incecay

and Akyel (2014) in Turkey that teachers were familiar with ELF and they still had

tolerant attitudes toward their students’ use of ELF features. However, Incecay and

Akyel (2014) presented that native-speaker English tended to be highly appreciated.

This was not the same as the results of this study which revealed that teachers in

Vietnam not only liked to use ELF but also supported for the use of ELF in the

classrooms with different activities in connection with ELF in the classrooms.

In contrast, the study done by Tammar and Khalid (2018) in UAF and

Georgia had the same interpretation of the result that ELF in teachers’ views played

special part in language learning and received more expertise studies as well as


accompanied in language courses. On the contrary, notwithstanding the same South-

East region, the research in Malaysia by Kaur (2013) presented that training teachers

still favored native English accents than non-native English accents.

When compared to studies in Vietnam where the notion of ELF and the use

of ELF in the classroom was still a new thing to both teachers and learners. That is,

the result of this study is partially similar to what were found out in the research

conducted by Ho (2018) and Ngo (2015). Particularly, ELF with its roles in various

aspects consisting of cultural knowledge, pronunciation, vocabulary system,

language skills and grammar were highly valued in teachers’ cognition. In relation to

teachers’ affections toward ELF, the findings presented that high school teachers

expressed preference toward ELF because of its benefits in language classrooms;

especially, encouraging the use of ELF among students, improving students’

language skills, building up their confidence in language skills as well as putting

students in life-like situations. The results for behavioral attitudes revealed that high

school teacher not only understood about ELF but also tried to implement it in their

classrooms. They also tried to help students explore the use of ELF in language

classrooms for the purpose of encouraging the use of ELF among their students.

However, it was noticeable that there were some differences among the

results of this study and other ones. For example, the study by Ngo (2015) showed

that the participants of the study knew that having good knowledge of English and

acquiring English communication skills confidently would bring them a lot of

opportunities to their life; however, they expressed more support to native accents

and language standardization. However, the study by Ho (2018) seemed to have a

change in teachers’ attitudes toward ELF with the results that teachers had a high

level of understanding of ELF and they also were more favour of integrating ELF

through and other published materials or widely recognized sources of knowledge

such as seminars.

It has been concluded that there was a change in the findings in studies

carried out from 2014 to now in different countries, especially in Vietnam where this

study was conducted. It proved that teachers were more open than before and ready

to accept ELF in the context of their language teaching and learning for the purpose

of developing their students’ language knowledge and skills.

Another aspect relating to ELF that need to be put into consideration was the

teachers’ effort to apply ELF in their language classroom. In the studies done in 2014


and 2015, mostly the teachers expressed their preference to native accents or

language standard and did not take notice of ELF; then in studies in 2017 and 2018,

despite still being more favorable to native language, teachers put up with ELF

features. This partly showed that there was a change in language teaching and

learning in the world. When compared to studies in Vietnam, the results in this study

were slightly different from those in other studies that teachers not only more highly

evaluated the importance and benefits of ELF but also tried to do some actions in

order to implement ELF in the classrooms as well as encourage the use of ELF

among their students.

4.2.2 Teachers’ classroom teaching practices in Ba Ria Vung Tau Province

Besides the big support for the use of ELF in the classrooms, the results of

the second research question also revealed that high school teachers did some

teaching practices in order to promote the use of ELF in the classrooms. To put it

differently, teachers could be eager to teach ELF and they were trying to create and

design activities to teach ELF in their classrooms. According to Seidlhofer (2005a),

teachers could adapt their teaching to the particular requirements of their learners.

Ehrenreich (2018) also stated that notwithstanding teachers could not teach all

varieties of English in classrooms, that they encouraged their students to get access

to ELF and explore the diversity of English in the world should be considered as a

breakthrough in teachers’ perspectives.

Compared to other studies in Vietnam recently, the results of this study were

compatible with what Ho (2018) mentioned in his study that teachers liked

incorporating ELF through books and other published materials or sources of

knowledge such as seminars. However, teachers in this study presented other ways of

integrating ELF in their classrooms besides ones presented in the study by Ho

(2018). It was noticeable that the research conducted by Smit (2010) made those

suggestions for teachers to apply in their ELF classrooms such as using materials,

sharing experience, using audio or visual means, self-learning, seminars, exploring

the value of pair work, groupwork, etc. in order to encourage students to

communicate in English. However, Kuhn (2011) expressed his worries that teachers

in Vietnam may face with difficulties during their implementation of ELF in the

classroom. Truly, high school teachers faced with a great many difficulties in the

execution of ELF in their classrooms; however, they still tried to change their ways


of teaching with the aim of promoting the use of ELF among their students in their

classrooms.

In particular, high school teachers proved to have good knowledge of ELF in

the era of ELF and what they had to do in order for their students to get exposed to

ELF and be more accustomed to ELF in the classroom and outside. More

importantly, teaching practices carried out in the classrooms were related to different

aspect of language learning, such as language skills (speaking, listening, reading,

writing) and language functions (vocabulary, grammar, accents, cultures). This

meant that high school teachers in this study were really concerned about ELF and

how to apply it in the classrooms. The most obvious clue was the introduction of the

existence of ELF and its roles in different countries nowadays, which received a

great of attention among high school teachers.

Relating to teachers’ knowledge of ELF, high school teachers were favor of

the activities that show films or videos containing ELF in spoken form, which was

explained that those kinds of video were always available on the Internet; therefore,

teachers found it not too difficult to search for. This seemed to be new when

compared to the findings in other studies, because the results in previous studies did

not consider ELF as the important area of learning process. Thus, there have been

little research on teaching practices in the era of ELF in the world and in Vietnam.

Besides, high school teachers designed other activities related to the promotion of

ELF in language learning such as role-playing ones, difference-finding ones in ELF

accents, vocabulary-finding activities on ELF. Furthermore, in order to better

students’ language skill in the era of ELF, teachers let their students to be exposed to

different listening recordings, songs, poems, or real contact with foreigners coming

to their classes and even access to written texts/ newspapers printed in different

countries and a variety of grammar use of English in the world.

In connection with activities in the ELF classroom, high school teachers in Ba

Ria Vung Tau Province not only designed the lessons of ELF accompanying the

main lessons but also created activities including aspects in relation to ELF for

students to join. From the list of activities mentioned in the survey, high school

teachers expressed their preference to the use of pictures, posters of ELF and the

discovery of aspects relating to ELF in the content of the lesson among students. The

study done by Ho (2018) only showed that teachers had changing attitudes toward

ELF and integrated ELF through published materials or seminars; whereas this study


presented the findings that teachers were trying to use ELF as indispensable part in

each lesson. The most important thing was on the differences of the structures of the

lesson in the era of ELF (Cogo & Dewey, 2011); they proposed that it was better for

the priority on speaking activities in order to increase the incorporation among

students. Using seminars to give students chances of discussing the varieties of

English accents, vocabulary and make comparison among those features in English

in different countries was one of the popular ways that high school teachers in Ba Ria

Vung Tau conducted. However, the difference was that the range in the application

of ELF in language classrooms were not only information in the cultures, accents,

vocabulary but also knowledge of four language skills and grammar. Because of this,

teachers also talk about the hinderance in their language teaching and learning

process. However, according to the teachers, they were still ready to continue with

the integration of ELF in the classrooms for the reason that this would help their

students build up confidence in using English in the class and in real life.

From the data collected in questionnaire, the participants in this study had

provided two kinds of information; first, high school teachers in Ba Ria Vung Tau

Province had a comparatively good attitudes toward ELF in terms of cognitive,

affective and behavioral attitudes; second, they were making great efforts on

integrating ELF in their classrooms with teaching practices which seemed to be quite

challenging in their context of teaching. Additionally, teaching practices conducted

by the teachers in language classrooms revealed that teachers not only paid attention

to ELF but also tried to promote the use of ELF among their students despite

obstacles which prevented them from designing or creating activities in association

with ELF.

4.3 Summary

This chapter provided the discussion and analysis of the data collected from

the questionnaire and semi-structured interview. First, the findings from the

quantitative data were reported; then, the qualitative data analysis were accompanied

to evaluate the quantitative results in order to find out whether there were any

similarities and differences between two research methods. After the findings of the

two research questions were collected, the discussion of them were presented and

compared with those in the previous studies in terms of teachers’ attitudes toward

ELF and teaching practices carried out in the language class in the era of ELF.

Chapter 5: Conclusion and Recommendations 63

Chapter 5: Conclusion and

Recommendations

In this chapter, conclusions are drawn from the findings and the pedagogical

implications for teachers and stakeholders. Then, some limitations of the study and

recommendations for further research are presented to give an overall picture of the

current study as well as for future research associated with the focus of this study.

5.1 Summary of the main findings of the thesis

The study at first raised two research questions relating to teachers’ attitudes

toward ELF in the classrooms and teaching practices used for the promotion of ELF

in the future. The findings of the study casted light on the two research questions

with detailed information, including the teachers’ attitudes toward ELF in terms of

cultural knowledge, vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar and four language skills as

well as teaching practices used to enhance the use of ELF in those eight aspects.

With respect to cognitive, affective and behavioral attitudes, the findings of

this study divulged that high school teachers had positive attitudes toward ELF in the

EFL classroom. In each particular aspect of attitudes, the study focused on eight sub-

variables relating to language learning such as cultural knowledge, pronunciation,

vocabulary, four language skills and grammar. Based on the qualitative and

quantitative data, the study presented the findings for each aspect in particular and in

general. Regarding to cognitive attitudes, the finding showed that high school

teachers had good understanding of ELF, its importance and benefits in their EFL

classrooms. As to affective attitudes, high school teachers expressed their strong

predilection on the use of ELF for the increase in their students’ knowledge of

English and ability of using English in authentic contexts. In the matter of behavioral

attitudes, it was noticeable that high school teachers were trying to implement ELF in

their classrooms by using different ways at different rate; in other words, they had an

optimistic view on ELF in EFL classrooms. Obviously, the study depicted the whole

picture of teachers’ attitudes toward the application of ELF in the classroom with

relatively constructive results which helped encourage the use of ELF in EFL

classrooms in Ba Ria Vung Tau Province.

64 Chapter 5: Conclusion and Recommendations

In connection with teaching practices for the development of ELF in the

classrooms, the findings of the study revealed that high school teachers were willing

to apply different teaching ways to develop students’ awareness of ELF and

encourage the use of ELF in and outside the classrooms. Additionally, a variety of

teaching practices which high school teachers carried out in their EFL classrooms

comprised inviting non-native English speakers to talk to students about ELF, asking

students to make dialogues and play roles using ELF in groups, organizing seminars

for the students to compare English varieties, creating activities containing aspects

relating to ELF for students to take part in, asking students to discover any aspects

relating to ELF in the content of the textbook, and introducing pictures or posters

used ELF as well. Nevertheless, high school teachers found uneasy to create

activities relating to ELF because of preparation time limit and scarce of source of

materials. Notwithstanding that, teachers still tried their best to introduce the

existence of ELF and help their students be accessible to the use of ELF in language

learning.

In conclusion, high school teachers in Ba Ria Vung Tau Province had a clear

understanding of ELF, its fundamental roles in language learning as well as took a

diversity of actions to implement ELF in their classroom for the purpose of providing

knowledge of ELF as well as raising students’ awareness of ELF in the EFL

classrooms. Thanks to this, there was an increase in student’s cultural knowledge,

better pronunciation, grammar and four English skills.

5.2 Pedagogical implications

In reality, there has been little research on ELF and the use of ELF in EFL

classrooms in Vietnam, so ELF is still a new norm to almost language teachers,

especially at secondary and high school level. Moreover, in most of the research on

ELF, the results presented the preference on standard English to ELF, which is

totally different from the result of this study. However, in order to introduce the

existence of ELF in language teaching and learning and carry out teaching practices

for the promotion of ELF in the classroom, high school teachers faced with some

difficulties relating to time and materials as presented in the interviews. Therefore,

some pedagogical implications are introduced as follows.


Teachers’ positive attitudes toward ELF

Apparently, once high school teachers have good knowledge of ELF and

positive attitudes toward ELF, they are always willing to conduct a wide range of

teaching strategies in order to introduce ELF to their students. In other words, high

school teachers need to be skilful in applying different teaching practices relating to

ELF so as to trigger students’ eagerness and interests. This will help students acquire

the knowledge of ELF actively and apply it into their authentic situations effectively

and efficiently. Additionally, teachers should spend more time on searching for

learning materials related to ELF in different aspects such as culture, pronunciation,

vocabulary, grammar and four language skills. Sharing knowledge of ELF and the

materials with their colleagues is also a good way that teachers should do in order to

boost the use of ELF among teachers.

More training for high school teachers

It is noticeable that teachers play a variety of roles in a language classroom

such as instructor, facilitator, supervisor and monitor, so they make great

contributions to the changes of and development of students’ language learning. This

means high school teachers should be supplied with more training courses relating to

ELF and teaching materials such as recordings, videos, textbooks, etc. Once teachers

are provided with valuable teaching and learning materials in relation to ELF, they

will be more creative and positive to carry out different other activities in the

classrooms. Clearly, it is really important to make sure that teachers have good

knowledge and adequate skills in order to carry out teaching activities in relation to

ELF in the classroom.

The support from the stakeholders

During the application of ELF in the classrooms, high school faced with some

difficulties which may hinder the promotion of ELF in the future. Thus, the support

from the principals and administrators of Ba Ria Vung Tau Provinces are great of

importance to high school teachers. The stakeholders should encourage teachers to

apply ELF in their classrooms and be creative in teaching practices for the promotion

of ELF. Besides, there should be seminars or workshops for teachers to share and

learn experiences from experts, experienced teachers and colleagues, which help

raise the spirit and strength for teachers who are trying to implement teaching

activities in respect to ELF.


5.3 Limitations

The study makes a certain contribution to the changes in language teaching

and learning at high school level in Ba Ria Vung Tau Province. However, it may

contain some limitations that need considering in later research.

First of all, though the study applied the mixed methods design comprising

questionnaire and semi-structured interview, it will be better if the researcher makes

some observations in the EFL classrooms so as to compare and contrast the results of

the study. In the real EFL classrooms, it may help the researcher to triangulate with

what was collected in the questionnaire surveys and semi-structured interviews.

Another shortcoming of this study is that the number of participants should be

expanded in high school students in some high schools instead of only high school

teachers in Ba Ria Vung Tau Provinces. This may help the researcher explore more

about the use of ELF in students’ attitudes. Last but not least, during the semi-

structured interviews of this study, the interviewees presented some challenges in the

implementation of ELF in the EFL classrooms; however, because of the time limit,

the researcher could not investigate this aspect into details.

5.4 Recommendation for the further research

From the discussion mentioned above, there are a number of recommendations

for further research as follows.

First, the future research should study students’ attitudes toward the use of

ELF in the classrooms for the whole generalization of ELF in language teaching and

learning. Next, it is necessary to make some observations in the real EFL classrooms

where teachers are applying ELF in language teaching. This aims to not only

compare with the findings in the mixed-methods research, including questionnaire

and semi-structured interviews and but also provides the in-depth information for

bettering the use of ELF in the future. Finally, high school teachers found some

obstacles which hinder them from the execution of ELF in the real classrooms; thus,

there should be research on challenges in the implantation of ELF and suggestions to

this problem in authentic contexts of teaching, especially in Ba Ria Vung Tau

Province so that high school teachers are more confident to teach ELF in their

classrooms.


References

Agarwal, J. & Malhotra, N.K. (2005). An integrated model of attitude and affect.

Journal of Business Research, 58(4), 483–493.

Alhmali, J. (2007). Student attitudes in the context of the curriculum in Libyan

education in middle and high schools. PhD Thesis, University of Glasgow

Al-Hasnawi, S. B. (2016). English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) in relation to teacher

cognition in international universities. In N. Tsantila, J. Mandalios & M.

Ilkos (Eds.), ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives (pp. 300-

307). Athens: Deree-TheAmerican College of Greece.

Allport, G.W. (1935). Attitudes. In C. Murchison, (Eds.). Handbook of social

psychology. Worchester, MA: Clark University Press, 798–844.

Andrews, S. (2003). Just like instant noodles: L2 teachers and their beliefs about

teaching pedagogy. Teachers and Teaching: Theory and Practice, 9(4), 351-

372. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1354060032000097253

Barros, R. Q. D. (2009). Expanding the tomato controversy: An exploratory study of

the perception of Standard British and American English in Portugal. English

Today. 99, 35-40.

Basturkmen, H. (2010). Developing Courses in English for Specific Purposes.

Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave McMillan.

Berns, M. (2008). World Englishes, English as a lingua franca, and intelligibility.

27(3,4), 327–334.

Bjorkman, B. (2011a). English as a lingua franca in higher education:

Implications for EAP. Iberica, 22, 79–100.

Bjorkman, B. (2011b). Pragmatic strategies in English as an academic

lingua franca: Ways of achieving communicative effectiveness.

Journal of Pragmatics, 43(4), 950- 964. Retrieved from:https://doi.org

Borg, S. (2003). Teacher cognition in language teaching: A review of research on

what Language teachers think, know, believe, and do. Language Teaching,

36(2), 81- 109.

Breiteneder, A. (2005). The naturalness of English as a European lingua franca: The

case of the “third person –s”. Vienna English Working Papers, 14(2), 3–26.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1354060032000097253


Brown, H. D. (1994). Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to

Language Pedagogy. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Regents.

Bresnahan, M. J., Ohashi, R., Nebashi, R., Liu, W.Y., & Shearman, S. M. (2001).

Attitudinal and affective response toward accented English. Language and

Communication, 12, 1-15.

Cargile, A. C. & Giles, H. (1998). Language attitudes towards varieties of English:

An American-Japanese context. Journal of Applied Communication

Research, 26, 338-356.

Cohen, L. (2007). Research Methods in Education (the 6th Eds.), 122-127.

USA and Canada: Routledge.

Cogo, A. & Dewey, M. (2011). Analyzing English as a Lingua Franca: A corpus-

driven investigation. London: Continuum.

Cogo, A., & Dewey, M. (2006). Efficiency in ELF communication: From pragmatic

motives to lexico-grammatical innovation. Nordic Journal of English Studies,

5(2), 59-93.

Cogo, A., & Dewey, M. (2012). Analyzing English as a lingua franca: A corpus

driven investigation. London: Continuum International Publishing.

Creswell, J. W. (2012). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and

evaluating quantitative and qualitative research (the 4th Eds.). Boston,

MA: Pearson.

Crystal, D. (1997). English as a global language. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press.

Crystal, D. (2002). Language Death. Cambridge University Press.

Crystal, D. (2003). English as a Global Language (Second edition).

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Crystal, D. (2012). A global language. In P. Seargeant & J. Swann (Eds.), English in

the world. History, diversity, change, (pp. 151-177). Abingdon/Milton

Keynes: Routledge/The Open University.

Decke-Cornill, H. (2003). We would have to invent the language we are supposed to

teach: The issue of English as a lingua franca in language education in

Germany. In M. Byram, & P. Grundy (Eds.), Context and culture in language

teaching (pp. 59-71). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.

Defleur, M.L. & Westie, F.R. (1963). Attitude as a scientific concept. Social Forces,

42, 17–31.


Decision No. 1400/QĐ-Ttg (2008). Teaching and Learning of English in the National

Education System in Period 2008-2020. Hanoi, Vietnam. Decision No. 2080/

QĐ-Ttg (2017). Teaching and Learning Foreign Languages in the National

Education System, Period 2017-2025”.

https://thuvienphapluat.vn/vanban/giao-duc/Quyet-dinh-2080-QD-TTg-2017-

bo-sung-De-an-day-hoc-ngoai-ngutrong-he-thong-giao-duc-quoc-dan-

370658.aspx

Dörnyei, Z. (2003). Questionnaires in second language research: Construction,

administration, and processing. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Dornyei, Z., & Taguchi, T. (2010). Questionnaires in Second Language

Research: Construction, Administration, and Processing; 2nd Ed.

New York: Routledge.

Duong, M. T. (2015). A Portfolio-based Learner Autonomy Development

Model in an EFL Writing Course. (Doctoral dissertation).

Eagly, A. H., & Chaiken, S. C. (1998). Attitude structure and function. In D. T.

Gilbert, S. T. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), The handbook of social

psychology, 1, 269–322, New York: McGraw-Hill.

Ehrenreich, S. (2018). Communities of practice and English as a lingua franca. In

W. B. &. M. D. Edited by Jennifer Jenkins (Ed.), The Routledge

Handbook of English as a Lingua Franca (Vol. 1, pp. 37- 48). New

York: Routledge.

Encyclopedia Britannica. Lingua franca, [online]. Available from:

http://www.britannica.com/topic/lingua-franca.

Farrell, T. S. C., & Bennis, K. (2013). Reflecting on ESL Teacher Beliefs and

Classroom Practices: A Case Study. International Journal of

Educational Research, 44(2), 163-176. Retrieved from

http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0033688213488463

Feng, Y. & Chen, X. M. (2009). An Introduction to Resource Entomology.

Science Press: Beijing.

Chen XM, Feng Y (2009) An Introduction to Resource Entomology. Science

Press, Beijing.

Flege, J. E. & Fletcher, K. L. (1991). Talker and listener effects on degree of

perceived foreign accent. Acoustical Society of America, 91(1). 370-390.

Flinders, D. J. (1989). Does the "Art of Teaching" Have a Future? Educational

http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0033688213488463


Leadership, 46(8), 16-20.

Fraenkel, J. R., & Wallen, N. E. (2009). How to Design and Evaluate Research in

Education (7th Eds.). (M. Ryan, Eds.) New York: Mcgraw-Hill.

Fraenkel, J. R., Wallen, N. E., & Hyun, H. H. (2012). How to desIgn and

evaluate research In educatIon (8th ed.). New York: Mc Graw HIll.

Harmer, J. (1985). The practice of English language teaching. London

Longman.

Hatch, J. A. (2002). Doing qualitative research in education settings. The

United States of America: State University of New York Press.

Ho, P. Y. (2018). Teachers’ perceptions on English as a lingua franca. Master

Dissertation. Hutech University.

Indecay, G. & Akyel, A. S. (2014). Turkish EFL teachers’ perceptions of

English as a lingua franca. Turkish Online Journal of Qualitative

Inquiry, 5(1), 1-12.

Jain, V. (2014). 3D Model of Attitude. International Journal of Advanced

Research in Management and Social Sciences, 3(3), 1-13. Sultanate of

Oman.

Jenkins, J. (2000). The phonology of English as an international language:

new models, new norms, new goals. Oxford, GB. Oxford University

Press, 266, Oxford Applied Linguistics.

Jenkins, J. (2007). English as a lingua franca: Attitude and identity. Oxford: Oxford

University Press.

Jenkins, J. (2009). English as a Lingua Franca: Interpretations and attitudes. World

Englishes, 28(2), 200-207.

Jenkins, J. (2011). Accommodating (to) ELF in the international university.

Journal of Pragmatics, 43(4), 926- 936. Retrieved from:

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2010.05.011

Jenkins, J. (2015). Repositioning English and multilingualism in English as a

lingua franca. Englishes in Practice, 2, 49-85. doi:

http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/eip-2015- 0003

Jenkins, J., Cogo, A. & Dewey, M. (2011). Review of developments in

research into English as a lingua franca. Language Teaching, 44(3).

281–315.

Gage, N. L. 1978. The Scientific Basis of the Art of Teaching. New York: Teachers

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2010.05.011


College Press.

Gardner, R. C. (1985). Social Psychology and Second Language Learning: The Role

of Attitudes and Motivation. London: Edward Arnold

Graddol, D. (1997). The future of English? London: The British Council.

Graddol, D. (2012). Field notes. Pearl River Delta study. March 2012.

Gujjar, A. A. (2008) Teaching Practice: Concept, Stages, Objectives & Suggestions.

An internet article. Retrieved from www.eslteachersboard.com.

Handal, B., Bobis, J., & Grimison, L. (2001). Teachers' Mathematical Beliefs and

Practices in Teaching and Learning Thematically. In J. Bobis, B. Perry &

M. Mitchelmore (Eds.), Numeracy and Beyond. Proceedings of the Twenty-

Fourth Annual Conference of the Mathematics Education Research Group

Journal of Psychology of Australasia. Inc (pp. 265-272), Sydney: MERGA.

Jean, E. C. & Chern, C. L. (2017). Pre-service English teachers’ attitudes towards

English as a lingua franca. Teaching and Teacher Education, 66, 137 – 146.

Retrieved from: DOI: 10.1016/j.tate.2017.04.007

Kachru, B. B. (1983). The Indianization of English: The English language in India.

New Delhi: Oxford University Press.

Kachru, B. B. (1985). Standards, codification and sociolinguistic realism: the English

language in the outer circle in R. Quirk and H. G. Widdowson (Eds.). English

in the World: Teaching

Kachru, B. B. (1986). The Alchemy of English. Oxford: Pergamon Press.

Kachru, B. B. (1986). The Alchemy of English: The Spread Functions and Models of

Non- native Englishes. Oxford: Pergamon

Kachru, B. B (1992). Models for non-native Englishes. In B.B. Kachru (Ed.), The

Other Tongue: English across Cultures (pp. 49-74). Urbana: University of

Illinois Press

Kachru, B. B., & Nelson, C. (1996). World Englishes. In S. L. McKay & N. H.

Hornberger (Eds.), Sociolinguistics and language teaching (pp. 71-102).

Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

Kachru, B. B, Kachru, Y., & Nelson, C. L. (2009). The Handbook of World

Englishes. Malden, MA; Ox-ford: Blackwell Pub.

Kara, A. (2009). The Effect of a Learning Theories Unit on Students’ Attitudes

Toward Learning. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 34(3).

Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.14221/ajte.2009v34n3.5

http://www.eslteachersboard.com/

https://www.researchgate.net/deref/http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1016%2Fj.tate.2017.04.007

http://dx.doi.org/10.14221/ajte.2009v34n3.5


Katz, D. & Stotland, E. (1959). A preliminary statement to a theory of attitude

structure and change. In S. Koch (Eds.), Psychology: A study of a science:

Vol. 3 Formulations of the person and the social context (pp. 423-475). New

York: McGraw-Hill.

Kaur, P. (2013). Attitudes toward English as a lingua franca. Procedia-Social and

Behavioral Sciences, 118, 214-221.

Kirkpatrick, A. (2007). World Englishes: Implications for International

Communication and English Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press

Kirkpatrick, A. (2011). English as an Asian lingua franca and the multilingual model

of ELT. Language Teaching, 44(2), 212-224.

Kirkpatrick, A. (2012a). English in ASEAN: Implications for regional

multilingualism. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development,

33(4), 331-344. Retrieved from doi: 10.1080/01434632.2012.661433

Kirkpatrick, A. (2012b). Teaching English as a lingua franca in ASEAN:

Maintaining linguistic and cultural diversity. Paper presented at the Cultural

and Linguistic Diversity in ASEAN, Bangkok. Retrieved from

http://www.ilac.dusit.ac.th/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/AndyKirkpatrick.pdf

Kirkpatrick, A. (2014). English in Southeast Asia: Pedagogical and policy

implications. World Englishes, 33(4), 426-438. Retrieved from doi:

10.1111/weng.12105

Kepner, C. G. (1991). An experiment in the relationship of types of written feedback

to the development of second language writing skills. Modern Language

Journal, 75, 305-313.

Kuhn, C. (2011). Foreign Language Teaching in Asia and Beyond, 4, 232- 254.

Boston: Deutsche Nationalbibliothek.

Ladegaard, Hans J. (1998). National stereotypes and language attitudes: the

perception of British, American and Australian language and culture in

Denmark. Language & Communication, 18, 251- 274.

Lovat, T. J. & Smith, D. L. (1995) Curriculum: Action on reflection revisited.

Wentworth Falls: Social Science Press.

Marais, P. & Meier, C, (2004). Hear our voices: student teacher’s experience during

practical teaching. Africa Education Review, 1, 220-233.

McCarthy, M. (1998). Spoken language and applied linguistics. Cambridge:

http://www.ilac.dusit.ac.th/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/AndyKirkpatrick.pdf


Cambridge University Press

Matsuda, A & Friedrich, P. (2011). English as an international language: A

curriculum blueprint. World Englishes, 30(3), 332–344.

Meerleer, M. D (2012). Beliefs and attitudes towards English as a lingua franca:

native and non-native pronunciation. Master dissertation. Ghent University.

Mobärg, M. (1999). School goes to Hollywood: Attitudes towards British and

American English among Swedish school students. In Carita Paradis (ed.),

Recent trends in the pronunciation of English. Social, regional and

attitudinal aspects, Lund: Almqvist & Wiksell International, 49-70.

Mollin, S. (2006). English as a lingua franca: A new variety in the new Expanding

Circle. Nordic Journal of English Studies, 5(2).

Morris, J. H. (1973). Protection in programming languages. Communications of the

ACM. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1145/361932.361937

Nagy, Tünde. (2016). English as a Lingua Franca and its implications for Teaching

English as a Foreign Language. A University ApientiAe, philologic, 8(2),

155–166.

Nalliveettil, G. M & Ali, O. H. A. (2013). A studyd on the usefulness of Audio-

Visual Aids in EFL classroom: Implications for Effective Instruction. International

Journal of Higher Education, 2(3), 86-92.

Nayar, P.B. (1997). ESL and EFL dichotomy: Language politics or pragmatics?

TESOL Quarterly 31 (1), 9-37

Ngidi, D. P. & Sibaya, P. T. (2003). Student teacher anxieties related to practice

teaching. South African Journal of Education, 23(1), 18-22.

Norrbom, L. (2008). It hasn’t come here yet – The Influence of American English on

Students in Vocational High School Programmes in Rural Areas of Sweden.

(Master thesis). Stockholm University.

Ngo, P. L. H. (2015). An investigation into Vietnamese Teachers’ and

Students’ perception of English as a lingua franca. (Ph.D). University

of Southampton.

Phan, H. L. N. (2016). English as an International Language (EIL) in

Vietnam: A study of Vietnamese ELT teachers’ reflections. Ph.D

Dissertation. Monash University.

Pica, T. (1996). Second Language Learning Through Interaction: Multiple

https://doi.org/10.1145/361932.361937


Perspectives. 12 (1), Retrieved from

https://repository.upenn.edu/wpel/vol12/iss1/1

Schiffman, L.G. & Kanuk, L.L. (2004). Consumer Behaviour (eighth edition).

Upper Saddle River. NY: Pearson Education.

Rajadurai, J. (2005). Revisiting the Concentric Circles: Conceptual and

Sociolinguistic Considerations. Asian EFL Journal, 7(4).

Ramírez, V. D, M. (2005). The nature and patterning of native and non-native

intonation in the expression of certainty and uncertainty: pragmatic effects.

Journal of Pragmatics, 37(12), 2086–2115.

Rosenberg, M. & Hovland, C. (1960). Cognitive, affective, and behavioral

components of attitudes. In: M. Rosenberg, C. Hovland, W. McGuire, R.

Abelson, & J. Brehm, (Eds.), Attitude organization and change: an analysis

of consistency among attitude components (pp. 1-15). Yale University Press,

New Haven.

Schiffman, L. G. & Kanuk, L. L. (2004). Consumer behavior, 8th International

edition. Prentice Hall.

Seidlhofer, B. (2001). Closing a conceptual gap: the case for a description of

English as a lingua franca”. International Journal of Applied

Linguistics, 11, 133-158.

Seidlhofer, B. (2004). Research Perspectives on Teaching English as a Lingua

Franca. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 24(1), 209-239.

Seidlhofer, B. (2005a). English as a lingua franca. In Hornby, A. S. (Eds.).

Oxford avdanced learner’s dictionary of current English (seventh

edition). Oxford: Oxford University Press, 92.

Seidlhofer, B. (2005b). Key concepts in ELT: English as a lingua franca. ELT

Journal, 59(4), 239- 241. Retrieved from: https://elt.oup.com

Seidlhofer, B. (2005). English as a lingua franca. ELT Journal, 58(4).

Seidlhofer, B. (2011). Understanding ELF. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Semke, H. D. (1984). Effects of the red pen. Foreign Language Annals, 17(3), 195-

202. Retrieved from Doi:10.1111/j.1944-9720.1984.tb01727.x

Sheppard, K. (1992). Two feedback types: Do they make a difference? RELC

Journal, 23(1), 103-110.

Sifakis, N. C. (2014). ELF awareness as an opportunity for change: A transformative

https://repository.upenn.edu/wpel/vol12/iss1/1

https://elt.oup.com/


perspective for ESOL teacher education. Journal of English as a Lingua

Franca, 3(2), 317- 335.

Sjöstedt, Jimmy & Monika Vranic. 2007. ‘Marks’ or ‘grades’? –an investigation

concerningattitudes towards British English and American English among

students and teachers in three Swedish upper-secondary schools. Unpublished

student thesis. Malmö University.

Simonsen, B., Fairbanks, S., Briesch, A.,Myers, D., & Sugai, G. (2008). Evidence-

based practices in classroom management: Considerations for research to

practice Education and Treatment of Children, 31, 351–380.

Smit, U. (2010). English as a lingua franca in higher education a

longitudinal study of classroom discourse. (pp. 221- 252). Berlin;

New York: De Gruyter Mouton.

Smith, L. E. (1981). English as an International Language. Gaikokugo Kyoiku Kiyo.

Nagoya Gakuin University, 3, 27-32.

Soruc, A. (2015). Non-native teachers’ attitudes towards English as a Lingua

Franca. H. U. Journal of Education, 30(1): 239-251.

Spooncer, F. (1992). Behavioural studies for marketing and business.

Leckhampton, UK: Stanley Thornes.

Stones E., & Morris, S. (1972). Teaching practice problems and perspectives: A

reappraisal of the practical professional element in teacher preparation.

Washington DC: Taylor & Francis.

Tamar, M. & Khalid, A. H. (2018). Teachers’ Attitudes toward ELF (English as

Lingua Franca) in the UAE and Georgia. Journal of Education in Black Sea

Region, 3(2), 10-19. Retrieved from: DOI: 10.31578/jebs.v3i2.134

Tavernier, J. (2007). Attitudes towards native and non-native accents of English: A

sociolinguistic study in Flemish secondary school education. Unpublished

Master Thesis. Ghent University.

The Hutchinson Encyclopedia. (1999). Oxford: Helicon Publishing, 1204, 254-348.

The New Encyclopaedia Britannica. (1992). Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 7.

Thomas, E. K. (1969). Activity Learning. Review of Educational Research, 39(4),

509-522.

Tonkin, H. (2003). Language and Society. Issues in Global Education.

American Forum for Global Education, 7(2), 2-4. Retrieved from:

https://orgs.tigweb.org/the-american-forum-for-global-education


Tran, Q. T. (2015). An Intercultural Communicative Language Teaching

Model for EFL Learners. Published Dissertation Thesis.

Van den Berg, H. et al. (2006). The impact of affective and cognitive focus on

attitude formation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 42,

373–379.

Verloop, N., Van, D. J., & Meijer, P. (2001). Teacher knowledge and the

knowledge of teaching. International Journal of Educational Research,

35, 441-461. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0883-0355(02)00003-4

Vu, Thi Hong Van. (2015). English as a Lingua Franca in the Vietnamese

Hotel Industry: Communicative Strategies and Their Implications for

Vocational Education. Curtin University. Retrieved from:

https://espace.curtin.edu.au

Wang, M. C., Haertel, G. D., & Walberg, H. J. (1993). Toward a knowledge base for

school learning. Review of Educational Research, 63(3), 249-294.

Walkinshaw, I. (2018). English-medium instruction in Vietnam: Issues of

English language proficiency and a way forward.

Seameo retract TESOL conference, 6-32. Retrieved from:

http://www.vnseameo.org/conference- on-tesol

White, R. V. (1997). Going round in circles: English as an International Language,

and cross-cultural capability. Cross-Cultural Capability Conference ’97.

Leeds Metropolitan University.

Zang, W. & Hu, G. (2008). Second language learners’ attitudes towards English

varieties. Language awareness, 17(4). 342-347

Wenden, A. (1991). Learner Strategies for Learner Autonomy. Cambridge: Prentice

Hall International.

Zain, M. D. (2007). Teaching of Grammar : Teachers’ beliefs, instructional contexts

and practices. Ph.D Dissertation. Retrieved from:

http://eprints.usm.my/29416/1/Teaching_of_grammar.pdf

Zikmundová, E. (2016). English as a lingua franca: theory and practical implications.

Retrieved from: http://dspace5.zcu.cz/handle/11025/22874.

https://espace.curtin.edu.au/

http://www.vnseameo.org/conference-

http://eprints.usm.my/29416/1/Teaching_of_grammar.pdf

http://dspace5.zcu.cz/handle/11025/22874

Appendices 77

Appendices

APPENDIX A

APPENFIX A1. TEACHERS’ QUESTIONNAIRE (English Version)

This questionnaire was designed for a study named “Teachers’ attitudes toward

English as a lingua franca (ELF) and classroom teaching practices applied in

the era of ELF among high-school teachers in Ba Ria Vung Tau Province”.

It aimed to explore the attitudes of high-school teachers about ELF (ELF) and

classroom teaching practices in the era of ELF. We highly appreciate it if you

could spend your time answering following questions. Your responses will

greatly contribute to the success of this paper. Your replies will be only used for

survey purposes.

Thank you very much for your cooperation.

PART 1: GENERAL INFORMATION

1. Gender: Male - Female:

2. Educational level: University - Master:

3. School’s name: ……………………………………………………

4. Working experience as an English teacher:

1- 5 years 6 – 10 years 11- 15 years over 15 years

5. Have you ever traveled abroad? Yes No

6. If yes, how many times? 1- 3 4 – 6 more than 7

PART 2: TEACHERS’ ATTITUDES TOWARD ELF

Directions: Please put a tick (✓) and rate yourself honestly based on the given statements using

the following scale:

1 = Strongly disagree 2 = Disagree 3 = Not sure 4 = Agree 5 = Strongly agree

No. Statements 1 2 3 4 5

78 Appendices

Cognitive component

1. ELF can help enrich my students’ cultural knowledge of other countries

in the world.

2. ELF can help my students be familiar to different English accents in the

world.

3. ELF can help enrich my students’ vocabulary in relation to many

aspects in real life.

4. The knowledge of ELF can improve my students listening skills when

being exposed to different varieties of English.

5. The knowledge of ELF can help my students interact with others from

different cultural backgrounds effectively and appropriately.

6. ELF can improve my students my students’ reading skill because of the

increase in their vocabulary and background knowledge.

7. ELF can help my students use written forms with from different

cultural background effectively and appropriately.

8. ELF can help my students to express their ideas freely in terms of

grammar.

Affective component

9. I find it interesting to help increase my students’ understanding of

multilingual contexts.

10. I find it enjoyable to teach my students non-native accents from non-

native English- speaking countries.

11. I find it useful to get my students’ vocabulary in different aspects of

life increased.

12. I feel happy to see that my students can hear different accents of

English confidently.

13. I feel happy to see that my students’ communication is more effective

and appropriate.

14. I feel happy to see that my students can read faster thanks to their

background knowledge and vocabulary.

15. I find it comfortable to help my students to get accessible to different

varieties of English in written form.

16. I don’t feel worried about my students’ grammatical mistakes/ errors.

Appendices 79

Behavioral component

17. I try to integrate the knowledge of ELF in terms of culture into the

main lesson appropriately.

18. I try to introduce different non-native accents from non-native English-

speaking countries to my students.

19. I try to introduce new words and their meanings in different contexts to

my students.

20. I use different sources of listening materials to get my students familiar

to different non-native accents.

21. I try to organize many pair-work or group-work discussions relating to

life-like situations for my students to practice.

22. I try to provide my students with different reading texts relating to

many aspects of life in different countries.

23. I try to provide my students with different writing styles in different

non-native English-speaking countries.

24. I try to show the varieties of English grammar to my students.

PART 3: TEACHERS’ CLASSROOM TEACHING PRACTICES IN THE

ERA OF ELF

Directions: Please put a tick (✓) and rate yourself honestly based on the given

statements using the following scale:

1 = Strongly disagree 2 = Disagree 3 = Not sure 4 = Agree 5 = Strongly agree

No. Statements 1 2 3 4 5

Knowledge of ELF

1. I introduce the existence of ELF and its roles in different countries

nowadays to my students.

2. I ask my students to play roles of people from different cultural

backgrounds.

3. I introduce the differences of ELF accents in different countries to

my students.

4. I ask my students to search for the use of vocabulary in different

countries in terms of ELF.

80 Appendices

5. I let students listen to recordings from non-native speakers in order

to make them more familiar with different accents of English.

6. I provide songs / poems composed by Non-native English speakers.

7. I use “non-native speakers” as language models through audio

recordings and video clips from a wide range of ‘non-native’ voices.

8. I show films or videos containing ELF in spoken form.

9. I provide written texts/newspaper articles produced in different

countries in the world for students to read.

10. I ask my students to search for varieties of English grammar in the

world.

Other activities

11. I invite non-native English speakers from other countries to talk to

students about ELF.

12. I ask my students to make dialogues and play roles using ELF in

groups.

13. I organize seminars for the students to compare English varieties.

14. I create activities which contain aspects relating to ELF for students

to take part in.

15. I ask the students to discover any aspects relating to ELF in the

content of the textbook.

16. I introduce pictures or posters used ELF to attract my students’

attention to ELF.

THANK YOU FOR YOUR COOPERATION!

Appendices 81

APPENDIX A2. QUESTIONNAIRE (Vietnamese version)

BẢNG CÂU HỎI KHẢO SÁT

Xin kính chào Quý Thầy Cô Giáo,

Bảng câu hỏi này được thiết kế phục vụ đề tài nghiên cứu “Thái độ của Giáo

viên Trung học phổ thông trong Thành phố Vũng Tàu với khái niệm Tiếng Anh

là ngôn ngữ chung và việc giảng dạy Tiếng Anh trong kỉ nguyên Tiếng Anh là

ngôn ngữ chung” nên rất cần sự giúp đỡ của Quý Thầy Cô. Rất mong Quý Thầy Cô

dành một chút thời gian quý báu để trả lời các câu hỏi khảo sát dưới đây. Tôi xin cam

đoan những nội dung trả lời của Quý Thầy Cô sẽ được giữ bí mật tuyệt đối và thông

tin này chỉ được sử dụng với mục đích nghiên cứu của đề tài luận văn này.

Xin chân thành cảm ơn sự hỗ trợ của Quý Thầy Cô!

PHẦN 1: THÔNG TIN CHUNG

1. Giới tính: Nam: - Nữ:

2. Trình độ: Đại học: - Cao học:

3. Đơn vị công tác: ………………………………………………………..

4. Kinh nghiệm giảng dạy Tiếng Anh:

1 đến 5 năm 6 đến 10 năm 11 đến 15 năm trên 15 năm

5. Thầy (Cô) đã bao giờ đi nước ngoài chưa? Có - Chưa

6. Nếu có, Thầy Cô đã đi nước ngoài bao nhiêu lần rồi?

1- 3 4 – 6 more than 7

PHẦN 2: THÁI ĐỘ CỦA GIÁO VIÊN VỚI KHÁI NIỆM TIẾNG ANH LÀ

NGÔN NGỮ CHUNG (ELF: ELF)

Xin Quý Thầy Cô vui lòng trả lời các câu hỏi sau bằng cách đánh dấu () vào ô theo

thang điểm sau đây:

1 = Hoàn toàn không đồng ý

2 = Không đồng ý

3 = Không chắc chắn

4 = Đồng ý

5 = Hoàn toàn đồng ý

82 Appendices

TT Câu hỏi khảo sát 1 2 3 4 5

Thành phần nhận thức

1. Tiếng Anh là ngôn ngữ chung có thể giúp học sinh của tôi tăng thêm kiến thức

văn hóa về các quốc gia khác trên thế giới.

2. Tiếng Anh là ngôn ngữ chung có thể giúp học sinh của tôi làm quen với các

giọng tiếng Anh khác nhau trên thế giới.

3. Tiếng Anh là ngôn ngữ chung có thể giúp học sinh của tôi tăng thêm vốn từ

vựng liên quan đến nhiều khía cạnh trong cuộc sống.

4. Kiến thức về Tiếng Anh là ngôn ngữ chung có thể cải thiện kỹ năng nghe của

học sinh vì học sinh có thể tiếp xúc với nhiều loại tiếng Anh khác nhau.

5. Kiến thức về Tiếng Anh là ngôn ngữ chung có thể giúp học sinh của tôi tương

tác với những người đến từ các nền văn hóa khác nhau một cách hiệu quả và

phù hợp.

6. Tiếng Anh là ngôn ngữ chung có thể cải thiện kĩ năng đọc của học sinh vì sự

gia tăng vốn từ vựng và kiến thức nền tảng.

7. Tiếng Anh là ngôn ngữ chung có thể giúp học sinh của tôi sử dụng các hình

thức bằng văn bản với các nền văn hóa khác nhau một cách hiệu quả và phù

hợp.

8. Tiếng Anh là ngôn ngữ chung có thể giúp học sinh của tôi thể hiện ý tưởng

của mình một cách thoải mái, không lo lắng về ngữ pháp.

Thành phần cảm xúc

9. Tôi thấy thật thú vị khi giúp học sinh của tôi tăng thêm sự hiểu biết về bối

cảnh đa ngôn ngữ.

10. Tôi thấy thú vị khi dạy cho học sinh của mình những giọng không phải là

tiếng mẹ đẻ từ các quốc gia không nói tiếng Anh.

11. Tôi thấy rất hữu ích khi giúp học sinh của tôi tăng thêm vốn từ vựng về các

khía cạnh khác nhau trong cuộc sống.

12. Tôi cảm thấy hạnh phúc khi học sinh của tôi có thể nghe được các loại giọng

tiếng Anh khác nhau một cách tự tin.

13. Tôi cảm thấy hạnh phúc khi học sinh của tôi giao tiếp hiệu quả và phù hợp

hơn.

14. Tôi cảm thấy hạnh phúc khi thấy học sinh của mình có thể đọc nhanh hơn nhờ

Appendices 83

kiến thức nền và từ vựng.

15. Tôi thấy thoải mái khi giúp học sinh của mình tiếp cận được với nhiều loại

tiếng Anh khác nhau ở dạng viết.

16. Tôi không có cảm giác lo lắng nhiều về khả năng ngữ pháp của học sinh.

Thành phần hành vi

17.

Tôi cố gắng tích hợp kiến thức về Tiếng Anh là ngôn ngữ chung ở khía cạnh

văn hóa vào bài học chính một cách thích hợp.

18. Tôi cố gắng giới thiệu các giọng không phải tiếng mẹ đẻ khác nhau từ các

quốc gia không nói tiếng Anh cho các học sinh của tôi.

19. Tôi cố gắng giới thiệu những từ mới và ý nghĩa của chúng trong các ngữ cảnh

khác nhau cho các học sinh của tôi.

20. Tôi sử dụng các nguồn tài liệu nghe khác nhau để giúp học sinh của mình làm

quen với các giọng không bản địa khác nhau.

21. Tôi cố gắng tổ chức nhiều cuộc thảo luận theo cặp hoặc theo nhóm liên quan

đến các tình huống giống như cuộc sống để học sinh của tôi thực hành.

22. Tôi cố gắng cung cấp cho học sinh của mình những văn bản đọc khác nhau

liên quan đến nhiều khía cạnh của cuộc sống ở các quốc gia khác nhau.

23. Tôi cố gắng cung cấp cho học sinh của mình các phong cách viết khác nhau ở

các quốc gia không nói tiếng Anh khác.

24. Tôi cố gắng chỉ ra các loại ngữ pháp tiếng Anh cho học sinh của mình.

PHẦN 3: VIỆC GIẢNG DẠY TIẾNG ANH CỦA GIÁO VIÊN TRONG KỈ

NGUYÊN TIẾNG ANH LÀ NGÔN NGỮ CHUNG

Xin Quý Thầy Cô vui lòng trả lời các câu hỏi sau bằng cách đánh dấu () vào ô theo

thang điểm sau đây:

1 = Hoàn toàn không đồng ý

2 = Không đồng ý

3 = Không chắc chắn

4 = Đồng ý

5 = Hoàn toàn đồng ý

84 Appendices

TT Câu hỏi khảo sát 1 2 3 4 5

Kiến thức của Tiếng Anh là ngôn ngữ chung

1. Tôi giới thiệu cho học sinh của tôi sự tồn tại của Tiếng Anh là ngôn ngữ

chung và vai trò của nó ở các quốc gia khác nhau hiện nay.

2. Tôi yêu cầu học sinh của tôi đóng vai của những người từ các nền văn hóa

khác nhau.

3. Tôi giới thiệu sự khác biệt trong phát âm Tiếng Anh là ngôn ngữ chung ở

các quốc gia khác nhau cho các học sinh của tôi.

4. Tôi yêu cầu học sinh của mình tìm kiếm cách sử dụng từ vựng ở các quốc

gia khác nhau về Tiếng Anh là ngôn ngữ chung.

5. Tôi cho học sinh nghe các bản ghi âm từ những người không phải người

bản ngữ để làm cho họ quen thuộc hơn với các giọng tiếng Anh khác

nhau.

6. Tôi cung cấp các bài hát / bài thơ được sáng tác bởi những người nói tiếng

Anh không phải là người bản xứ.

7. Tôi nhờ những người không phải là người bản ngữ làm mẫu nhờ vào các

bản ghi âm và video clip từ nhiều giọng nói khác nhau của người bản xứ.

8. Tôi chiếu phim hoặc video có chứa Tiếng Anh là ngôn ngữ chung ở dạng

nói.

9. Tôi cung cấp các văn bản / bài báo được viết ở các nước khác nhau trên

thế giới để học sinh đọc.

10 Tôi yêu cầu học sinh của tôi tìm kiếm các loại hình ngữ pháp tiếng Anh

trên thế giới.

Các hoạt động khác

11. Tôi mời những người nói tiếng Anh không phải là người bản xứ từ các

quốc gia khác đến nói chuyện với học sinh về Tiếng Anh là ngôn ngữ

chung.

12. Tôi yêu cầu học sinh của mình thực hiện các cuộc đối thoại và đóng vai

bằng Tiếng Anh là ngôn ngữ chung theo nhóm.

13. Tôi tổ chức hội thảo cho các học sinh để so sánh các loại tiếng Anh.

14. Tôi tạo các hoạt động có chứa các khía cạnh liên quan đến Tiếng Anh là

ngôn ngữ chung để học sinh tham gia.

15. Tôi yêu cầu học sinh khám phá bất kỳ khía cạnh nào liên quan đến Tiếng

Anh là ngôn ngữ chung trong nội dung của sách giáo khoa.

16. Tôi giới thiệu hình ảnh hoặc áp phích được sử dụng Tiếng Anh là ngôn

ngữ chung để thu hút sự chú ý của học sinh của mình đến Tiếng Anh là

ngôn ngữ chung.

XIN CHÂN THÀNH CẢM ƠN QUÝ THẦY CÔ!

Appendices 85

APPENDIX B

APPENDIX B1 - INTERVIEW PROTOCAL (English version)

Guideline for Group Interview

Date: ____________________ Location: __________________

Time to start: _____________ Time to finish: ______________

Introduction

Thank you for your voluntary participation in this interview that is expected to

last between twenty minutes and thirty minutes. You will answer some questions

during the interview, and you may wish to stop the interview at any time.

This interview aims to understand teachers’ attitudes toward ELF and their

classroom teaching practices in the era of ELF. This interview does not aim to

evaluate your knowledge or English level of proficiency.

With your permission, the interview will be audio-recorded. All the

information you share in the recording is treated confidentially and anonymously. If

you were not clear about the topic, it would be good to ask questions.

Questions A: Interviewee’s background information:

Name: ________________________________________________________

Age: ________________________________________________________

Educational level: ______________________________________________

Years of teaching experience: _____________________________________

Numbers of times to go abroad: ____________________________________

Which countries: ________________________________________________

Brief information about English in those countries (feelings/ special things

about English):

____________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________

Questions B:

I. Teachers’ attitudes toward ELF:

1) In your opinion, is the use of ELF in the language classroom important for

high school students?

86 Appendices

2) In what ways does ELF help students in their learning?

3) Do you feel worried about that students’ knowledge of grammar may be

affected in the classroom with ELF? If yes, how can you improve this?

4) Do you think that your lessons with ELF are useful for students in their

language learning process? Why? Or Why not?

II. Classroom teaching practice in the EFL classroom:

1) How difficult is it when you teach ELF in your classroom?

2) What teaching practices do you think are the most difficult to carry out in

the ELF classrooms?

3) Which classroom teaching practices attract students’ attention most? Why?

4) Do you feel any progress in your students’ knowledge of English and its

culture after a long time they are taught ELF?

Appendices 87

APPENDIX B2. INTERVIEW (Vietnamese version)

GIỚI THIỆU

Cảm ơn Thầy Cô đã tham gia cuộc phỏng vấn này. Cuộc phỏng vấn có thời lượng từ

10-15 phút. Thầy/ Cô sẽ trả lời một số câu hỏi trong cuộc phỏng vấn, và Thầy/ Cô có

thể dừng cuộc phỏng vấn bất cứ lúc nào Thầy/ Cô muốn.

Mục đích của cuộc phỏng vấn này là để hiểu thái độ của Thầy/ Cô đối với việc sử

dụng Tiếng Anh như là một ngôn ngữ chung.

Cuộc phỏng vấn này không nhằm mục đích đánh giá kiến thức cũng như sự hiểu biết

về Tiếng Anh là ngôn ngữ chung. Ngoài ra, cuộc phỏng vấn này sẽ được ghi âm với

sự đồng ý của Thầy/ Cô. Tất cả thông tin Thầy/ Cô chia sẻ chỉ được sử dụng cho

nghiên cứu này. Trước khi cuộc phỏng vấn diễn ra, Thầy/ Cô có câu hỏi nào không?

Nếu không, chúng ta bắt đầu.

CÂU HỎI

A) Thông tin của Thầy/ Cô được phỏng vấn

Tên Thầy Cô: ________________________________________

Chuyên ngành: ________________________________________

Thầy Cô giảng dạy Tiếng Anh được bao lâu: ______________________

Số lần Thầy Cô đi nước ngoài: __________________________

Thầy Cô đã đi đến nước nào: ____________________________________________

Tóm tắt ngắn gọn về tiếng Anh ở những đất nước mà Thầy Cô đã đến (cảm giác và

những điều đặc biệt về tiếng Anh mà Thầy Cô có)

____________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________

B) Câu hỏi phỏng vấn

I. Thái độ của Giáo viên đối với Tiếng Anh như là ngôn ngữ chung:

1) Theo Thầy Cô, việc sử dụng tiếng Anh như một ngôn ngữ chung trong lớp học

ngoại ngữ có quan trọng đối với học sinh trung học không?

2) Việc sử dụng tiếng Anh như ngôn ngữ chung giúp việc học tập tiếng Anh của học

sinh như thế nào?

3) Thầy Cô có cảm thấy lo lắng về việc kiến thức ngữ pháp của học sinh có thể bị

ảnh hưởng trong lớp học với tiếng Anh như một ngôn ngữ không? Nếu có, Thầy Cô

có thể cải thiện điều này bằng cách nào?

88 Appendices

4) Thầy Cô có nghĩ rằng các bài học của Thầy Cô với tiếng Anh như một ngôn ngữ

chung có ích cho học sinh trong quá trình học ngôn ngữ của họ không? Tại sao?

Hoặc Tại sao không?

II. Việc thực hành giảng dạy trong các lớp học lấy tiếng Anh là một ngôn ngữ

chung

1) Khó khăn như thế nào khi Thầy Cô dạy tiếng Anh như một ngôn ngữ chung trong

lớp học?

2) Thầy Cô nghĩ thực hành giảng dạy nào khó thực hiện nhất trong các lớp học lấy

tiếng Anh làm ngôn ngữ chung?

3) Hoạt động giảng dạy nào lấy tiếng Anh làm ngôn ngữ chung thu hút sự chú ý của

học sinh nhất? Tại sao?

4) Thầy Cô có cảm thấy sự tiến bộ nào trong kiến thức tiếng Anh và văn hóa của học

sinh sau một thời gian dài các bạn học sinh được dạy tiếng Anh như một ngôn ngữ

chung không?

Appendices 89

APPENDIX B3

A SAMPLE OF INTERVIEW TRASCRIPTS (English version)

The interview transcript with 7 high school teachers.

Q: Question T: Teacher

Question 2

Q2 In what ways does ELF help students in their learning?

T2 “Thanks to ELF, students were provided more new words relating to different

fields, but they are really useful for students in real life”.

T3 “With lessons containing EFL, students seemed to know more about different

cultures of different countries in the world”.

T9 “One of the most special things that ELF brought to my students was the

students’ familiarity to different English accents, which was really good for

them in real communication outside the classroom”.

T11 “That my students had chances to listen to recordings from different varieties of

English was a great thing to them because this could make their listening skills

better day by day”.

T15 While being encouraged to use the language in view of ELF, my students dared

to express their thoughts without paying much attention to grammar; however,

they still felt worried about making grammatical mistakes.

T16 I think because the topics in reading text in ELF classrooms were more various,

students’ background knowledge and vocabulary were really improved in a

better way.

T22 Knowledge of cultures provided in ELF lessons helped my students be more

active as well as react more appropriately when interacting with foreign people

from different countries.

90 Appendices

APPENDIX B4

A SAMPLE OF INTERVIEW TRASCRIPTS (Vietnamese version)

Bảng ghi cuộc phỏng vấn với 7 giáo viên

Q: Câu hỏi T: Giáo viên

Câu hỏi

Q2 Việc sử dụng tiếng Anh như ngôn ngữ chung giúp việc học tập tiếng Anh

của học sinh như thế nào?

T2 Nhờ lớp học lấy tiếng Anh làm ngôn ngữ chung, học sinh đã được cung

cấp thêm nhiều từ mới liên quan đến các lĩnh vực khác nhau, và những từ

mới đó thực sự hữu ích cho học sinh trong cuộc sống thực tế.

T3 Với các bài học lấy tiếng Anh làm ngôn ngữ chung, học sinh dường như

biết thêm về các nền văn hóa khác nhau của các quốc gia khác nhau trên

thế giới.

T9 Một trong những điều đặc biệt nhất mà lớp học lấy tiếng Anh làm ngôn

ngữ chung đã giúp cho học sinh của tôi làm quen với các giọng tiếng

Anh khác nhau, điều này thực sự tốt cho các em trong giao tiếp thực tế

bên ngoài lớp học.

T11 Việc học sinh của tôi có cơ hội nghe các bản ghi âm từ nhiều loại tiếng

Anh khác nhau là một điều tuyệt vời đối với các em vì điều này có thể

giúp kỹ năng nghe của học sinh tốt hơn từng ngày.

T15 Trong khi được khuyến khích sử dụng ngôn ngữ theo quan điểm của việc

lấy tiếng Anh làm ngôn ngữ chung, học sinh của tôi đã dám bày tỏ suy

nghĩ của mình mà không cần chú ý nhiều đến ngữ pháp; tuy nhiên, các

em học sinh vẫn cảm thấy lo lắng về việc mắc lỗi ngữ pháp.

T16 Tôi nghĩ vì các chủ đề trong bài đọc trong lớp học lấy tiếng Anh làm

ngôn ngữ chung đa dạng hơn, nên kiến thức nền tảng và vốn từ vựng của

học sinh đã thực sự được cải thiện theo cách tốt hơn.

T22 Kiến thức về các nền văn hóa được cung cấp trong các bài học theo quan

điểm lấy tiếng Anh làm ngôn ngữ chung đã giúp học sinh của tôi năng

động hơn cũng như phản ứng phù hợp hơn khi tiếp xúc với người nước

ngoài đến từ các quốc gia khác nhau.

ministry of education and training baria-vungtau …

Documents