more than its sound: the political, economic, and social

Rhode Island CollegeDigital Commons @ RIC

Honors Projects Overview Honors Projects

2017

More Than Its Sound: The Political, Economic, andSocial Reasons Behind the Saxophone's Exclusionfrom the Symphony OrchestraKyle BeaudoinRhode Island College, [email protected]

Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.ric.edu/honors_projects

Part of the Other Music Commons

This Honors is brought to you for free and open access by the Honors Projects at Digital Commons @ RIC. It has been accepted for inclusion inHonors Projects Overview by an authorized administrator of Digital Commons @ RIC. For more information, please [email protected].

Recommended CitationBeaudoin, Kyle, "More Than Its Sound: The Political, Economic, and Social Reasons Behind the Saxophone's Exclusion from theSymphony Orchestra" (2017). Honors Projects Overview. 131.https://digitalcommons.ric.edu/honors_projects/131

https://digitalcommons.ric.edu?utm_source=digitalcommons.ric.edu%2Fhonors_projects%2F131&utm_medium=PDF&utm_campaign=PDFCoverPages

https://digitalcommons.ric.edu/honors_projects?utm_source=digitalcommons.ric.edu%2Fhonors_projects%2F131&utm_medium=PDF&utm_campaign=PDFCoverPages

https://digitalcommons.ric.edu/honorsprojects?utm_source=digitalcommons.ric.edu%2Fhonors_projects%2F131&utm_medium=PDF&utm_campaign=PDFCoverPages

https://digitalcommons.ric.edu/honors_projects?utm_source=digitalcommons.ric.edu%2Fhonors_projects%2F131&utm_medium=PDF&utm_campaign=PDFCoverPages

http://network.bepress.com/hgg/discipline/524?utm_source=digitalcommons.ric.edu%2Fhonors_projects%2F131&utm_medium=PDF&utm_campaign=PDFCoverPages

https://digitalcommons.ric.edu/honors_projects/131?utm_source=digitalcommons.ric.edu%2Fhonors_projects%2F131&utm_medium=PDF&utm_campaign=PDFCoverPages

mailto:[email protected]

i

MORETHANITSSOUND:

THEPOLITICAL,ECONOMIC,ANDSOCIALREASONS

BEHINDTHESAXOPHONE'SEXCLUSION

FROMTHESYMPHONYORCHESTRA

KyleBeaudoin

AnHonorsProjectSubmittedinPartialFulfillment

forHonorsin

TheDepartmentofMusic,Theatre,andDance

TheSchoolofArtsandSciences

RhodeIslandCollege

2017

ii

ABSTRACT Thepurposeofthisprojectistouncoverthereasonswhythesaxophonewas

notintegratedintotheorchestra.Throughanexaminationofpolitical,economic,

andculturalaccountsofParisduringthenineteenthcentury,thispaperattemptsto

examinetheeffectsonthesaxophone’sreception.Duringthenineteenthcentury,

Frenchcomposershadavehementfascinationwithtimbreandthemanipulationof

itseffectsasanewaestheticdimensioninmusic;theperfectenvironmentforan

entirelynewtimbretobeaddedtoensembles,letaloneintroduced.Themultitude

ofacclaimthatthesaxophonereceivedfromprominentcomposers,critics,and

othernoteworthymusicalfiguresuponitsarrivaltotheFrenchcapitaldoesnotadd

upwiththeultimatedismissalitreceivedbytheorchestraasininstitution.

Therefore,becauseoftheexcessiveamountofcommendations—manythat

explicitlysaythesaxophonecouldbe,orisdestinedtobethenewestexpressivetool

inthesymphonyorchestra—theinstrument’stimbremustnotbetheultimate

reasonforitsquickdismissal.Thispaperconsultsgeneralhistoriceventsand

individualaccountsfrommusiccritics,musicians,composers,instrumentmakers,

andmilitaryleadersinattempttodeterminewhythesaxophonewasnotaddedto

orchestralforcesaroundthetimeitwasinvented.

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Iwouldliketoacknowledgetheorganizationsandpeoplethatweremost

helpfulinmakingthisprojectpossible.FirstIwouldliketothanktheAnneandBob

DeStefanoUndergraduateResearchProgramforfundingasignificantportionofmy

researchtriptotheBibliothèquenationaledeFranceinParis.Iwouldalsoliketo

thankProfessorIanGreitzerandthehonorscommitteeoftheDepartmentofMusic,

Theatre,andDanceforapprovingmyrequesttoundertakethisproject.Iwouldalso

liketoacknowledgemygoodfriend,BeckyCressmanforaccompanyingmeonmy

researchtripandmanagingtokeepherselfoccupiedfortheseeminglyinterminable

timewhileIwasworkingthearchives.IwouldalsoliketoacknowledgeDr.Eric

Gargrave.Ithasbeenthreeyearssincewelastsharedeachother’spresence,buthis

influenceonmehasnotevenfadedmarginally.Hemaynotbedirectlyinvolvedin

thisproject;however,Ifeelcompelledtoincludehim,forhewastheprofessorwho

motivatedmetoraisemyworkethicandalwaysremaincurious.

Lastofall,butcertainlynotleastofall,Iwouldliketothankmyfriendand

mentor,Dr.SamBreeneforthecopiousamountofhelphehasgivenme.Itwashe

whoencouragedmetoembarkonthisacademicjourney.Hissupportwastheprime

facilitatorthatmetamorphosedwhatstartedoutasadullmusichistorytermpaper

intotheprojectbeforeyou.Withouthisprompts,Iwouldnothaveattempted

archivalresearchinaforeigncountry,norwouldIhaveunderstoodthelogistics

behindmusicologicalresearchandwritingtotheextentthatIcurrentlydo.Hehas

generouslygivenuphoursofhistimetoassistmewithnotonlythisproject,but

alsowithunderstandingthefieldofmusicology.Hishelpistrulyineffable,towhichI

willforeverremainindebted.

iv

TABLEOFCONTENTS

ABSTRACT...............................................................................................................................................II

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS......................................................................................................................III

I.INTRODUCTION...................................................................................................................................1

II.THEFAMILYANDEARLYLIFEOFADOLPHESAX...................................................................3

III.1830S:SHIFTINGPOLITICSANDTHERISEOFMILITARYMUSIC....................................8

IV.1840S:POLITICS,ECONOMICS,ANDAESTHETICSCOLLIDE...........................................14

"HURRYANDFINISHYOURNEWFAMILYOFINSTRUMENTS!"........................................................................14THEFRENCHMILITARY'SNEWEST"WEAPON"ANDARISTOCRATICFAVORITE.......................................17CENTURIESOFLOCALTRADITIONAGITATEDBYAINTERLOPINGFOREIGNER..........................................24"CLEVERCOMPOSERSWILLHEREAFTERDERIVEWONDROUSEFFECTSFROMSAXOPHONES".................37

V.1850S:IMPERIALINSTRUMENTORWORKINGMAN'SVOICE?THESAXOPHONE'S

PARADOXICALIDENTITIES..............................................................................................................47

"FIGHTERSLIVELONGERTHANOTHERS"..........................................................................................................48FLUCTUATINGFINANCES:SAX'SUNCOMPROMISINGPERSONALITYANDPATENTPARANOIA................52THEEMERGENCEOFANUNDERPRIVILEGEDVOICE........................................................................................59STIFLEDBOURGEOISATTEMPTSATCLAIMINGTHESAXOPHONE?..............................................................68

VI.1860S:OLDNEWS.........................................................................................................................77

VII.1870S:THEORCHESTRAATLAST.........................................................................................85

THECOLLAPSEOFANEMPIREANDTHEDEMISEOFANINSTRUMENT........................................................86OUTOFBUSINESS...................................................................................................................................................94“THEONLYVICTORIES,WHICHLEAVENOREGRET,ARETHOSETHATAREGAINEDOVERIGNORANCE”95

VIII.1880-1894:THEPHOENIXINSTRUMENT:DEATHOFTHEINVENTOR,

REINCARNATIONOFTHESAXOPHONE......................................................................................102

PUBLICPLEAS:FROMTYCOONTOBEGGAR....................................................................................................103

IX.CONCLUSION.................................................................................................................................109

BIBLIOGRAPHY..................................................................................................................................113

v

FIGURES

2.1…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………6

3.1…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………19

4.1…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………28

4.2…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………29

5.1…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………50

5.2…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………51

5.3…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………53

5.4…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………57

5.5…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………57

5.6…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………58

5.7…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………61

5.8…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………63

5.9…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………65

5.10………………………………………………………………………………………………………………68

6.1…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………84

7.1…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………91

7.2…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………93

7.3…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………97

7.4…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………98

7.5…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………99

8.1………………………………………………………………………………………………………………106

8.2………………………………………………………………………………………………………………107

8.3………………………………………………………………………………………………………………108

8.4………………………………………………………………………………………………………………109

1

I.Introduction

Nootherinstrumentholdsapositionmoresalientinthesenseofcultural

symbolismthanthesaxophone.Frommerelytheworditselfoneimaginesaprofuse

amountofspecificimages,locations,andsounds.Atmospherescontaininghazy,

smoke-filledtints,boisterouscrowds,andcorybanticdancingaretypicallyconjured

bytheword,"saxophone."ThebrothelsofStoryvilleinNewOrleans,theGreenMill

ofChicago,andthefamousHarlemCottonClub;intheselegendaryplaceswherethe

bartapsranuntildawn,sodidtherebelliousgroansofthesaxophone.Outofthe

arrayofpossibleconnotationstiedtothesaxophone,none,however,arerelatedto

classical1music.Theleastlikelyimageisasaxophonistamidthewoodwindssection

encompassedbystringsinasymphonyorchestra,thelastplaceonewouldimagine

theinstrumentisintheconcerthall,andthelastsoundstocometomindwouldbe

themellifluoustonesinwhichtheinstrument'sinventorhadenvisionedforhis

legacy-establishinginnovation.

WithitsinventionduringtheRomanticerainthenineteenthcentury,priorto

theauthorityitassumedasthechoicetoolofexpressionintheculturalphenomena

andmusicalrevolutionoftheJazzAge,onecouldreasonablyinferthatthe

saxophonewasalsoaninfluentialagentintheevolvingaestheticsoftheRomantic

period.Unfortunately,thatwasnotthecase;thesaxophonehadaLilliputian

impressiononthemainstreammusicpracticesduringthatcentury.Itsadvocates

declaredtheinstrumentasaposterchildofthewoodwindfamily,butthemusical

communityignoreditasanabandonedorphan.Bornintowhatappearedtobethe

primeconditionsforasuccessfulintegrationintothesymphonyorchestra,thestory

ofthesaxophoneprovedquitetheoppositeasonetingedwithtravail,sectarian

prejudice,calumny,polarization,andcausticirony.

Composersoftheearlynineteenthcentury,inspiredbythegapingholesthat

BeethovenhadsmashedintothewallsoftheClassicalera’sausterefortressof

1HereIusethetermasahypernymforEuropeanmusicaltraditionsinthepredominantensemblesoftheClassical,Romantic,andtwentieth-centuryperiods.

2

aesthetics,hadgerminatedtheseeminglyprimeconditionsinwhichthesaxophone

shouldhavethrivedbydepartingfromtherestraint,objectivity,andmeticulous

proceduresoftheClassicalerawiththeirownmusicalideas.Drivenbynew

aestheticsofinteriority,composerssoughttocreateindividualstylesthroughform

adaptations,newgenres,harmonicprogressionsnotpreviouslyacceptedorheard,

extendedandcolorfulchordsonorities,texturemodifications,prolongedmelodies,

andphrasing,amongmanyothers.Romanticeracomposerswereliberalenoughto

vastlydepartfromthepreviouslydefinedClassicalmodelsthroughanarrayof

drasticalterations,sowhywasthatliberalitynotinclusivetowardsthenewly

inventedinstrumentinitsevolvingaestheticswithinthecontextoforchestral

instrumentation?

AmongtheexpandingdeviationfromtheClassicalperiod’scharacteristicsof

music,Romanticcomposershadanincreasinginterestintimbre,particularly

Frenchcomposers.UnveiledinFranceduringthemid-nineteenthcentury,thenovel

timbreofthesaxophonewasanepoch-makingsubjectofinterestamongthetimbre-

obsessedmusicalculture.Inasocietythatemphasizedtimbretotheextentthat

dozensoftreatisesonthesubjectwerepublished,itisonlyreasonabletopresume

thatFrenchcomposerswouldhaveseizedtheopportunitytoaddthenewfangled

timbreofthesaxophonetothewindcolorpalateoftheorchestra.Whyisitthatthe

symphonyorchestracontinuedtosteadilyexpandtheinstrumentationforitswinds

sectionsincethelateBaroqueera,butrenouncedtheproposalmadetoincludethe

saxophone?Thoughitmaybepresumedthatthereasonforrejectinganewly

createdinstrumentfromanalreadyestablishedensembleisduetoitstimbre,that

wasnotthecase;thereasonsbehindthesaxophone’srejectionfromtheorchestra

wereonesofindustrializedeconomicmonopolyandpoliticalassociation,which

resultedinstigmatizingsocialimplications.

3

II.ThefamilyandearlylifeofAdolpheSax ThelegacyoftheBelgianinstrumentmaker,AdolpheSax,iswellknown;

however,whatisnotwellknownishowhisearlychildhoodaffectedhiscareer

practices.ByprovidingthecontextofSax'soriginsandearlymusicalstudies,the

reasonsforthesaxophone'sexclusionfromthesymphonyorchestrawillbeclarified

subsequentlybesideasummaryofSax'searlylife.Intheprocessitwillbehelpfulto

examinethestartofSax'scareersincethetechnologyofthesaxophoneistiedwith

hisownpersonalsuccess.

SixtymilessouthofBrussels,Belgium,laythehumbletownofDinant.The

smalltowniswellknownforitsextensivehistoryofmetalworkcraftsmanshipsince

theMiddleAges,mostnotablyforitsproductionofdinanderie,atypeoflate

medievalbrassusedforanassortmentofdomesticitems.Amongthenumerous

dinanderiecraftsmenofDinantwasthedistinguishedCharles-JosephSax(1790–

1865),aninstrumentmaker.Inhisadolescence,Charles-Josephwasanapprentice

toacarpenter,whichqualifiedhimtobecomeacabinet-makerandseveralyears

laterhewashiredasametalcraftsmantoconstructpartsforspinningmachineryat

alocalfactory.DuringhisemploymentatthefactoryhemarriedMarie-Joseph

Massonin1813.November6ofthefollowingyearwouldsupplythemwiththefirst

ofelevenchildren,Antoine-JosephSax,betterknownbyhismoniker,Adolphe.Due

toeffectsfromthefalloftheFirstFrenchEmpirein1815,thenewfamilywasforced

torelocateaftertheDinantfactoryclosed.

Charles-Joseph,hiswife,andone-year-oldAdolphemovedtoBrusselswhere

theelderSaxsoughttocombinehiscarpentryandblacksmithingskillswithhis

belovedhobbyofplayingtheserpentbyestablishingasmallinstrumentshop.Itis

nearlyunbelievable,consideringtheprominentlegaciesinmusicalinstrument

developmentsfrombothCharles-Josephandhissonthathehadneverservedan

apprenticeshiptotheinstrument-makingtradebeforeventuringintothevocation;

hisonlyqualificationwashisexperienceasaninstrumentalist.Charles-Joseph's

aspirationofforginghismusicalhobbywithhisprofessionalabilitiesresultedinan

4

intense,continuous,andpassionateinvestigationoftheacousticsofwind

instruments,animperativequalitythathewouldpassontohisson.

Withhisfinemanualdexterityandingenuity,hewassoonablemasterthe

lawsconcerningthebore,toneholeplacement,andothervariouselementsof

serpentmaking.WithinafewyearsCharles-Josephhadearnedalocalreputationas

aproducerofgreatqualityserpentsandflutes,whichexpandedlatertoclarinets,

bassoons,andbrassinstruments.Hisvarietyofwoodwindinstrumentsquickly

attractednoticeandgainedhimamedalattheIndustrialExhibitionof1820,andthe

titleofmusical-instrumentmakertothecourtoftheNetherlands,uncannily

foreshadowingthecareerofAdolphe.

Adolphe'schildhoodwasoneofcalamities.AccordingtoOscarComettant,

Sax’sfirstbiographer,herepeatedlyenduredanunbelievablearrayofgrievous

accidents.Asatoddlerhefelldownthreeflightsofstairs,crackinghisheadagainst

thestonefloorandwasbelievedtobedead.Attheageofthree,heswallowed

vitrioledwater,whichhemistookformilkandlaterasewingpin.Intheremaining

yearsofhischildhood,hewasseriouslyburnedinagunpowderexplosion,fellonto

thesideofahotcastironfryingpan,andescapedasphyxiationthreetimesbyhis

removalfromroomswherevarnisheditemswerelaidouttodryduringhisnaps.

Andlaterhewashitontheheadbyacobblestonewhileplayingnearahouseunder

construction,andfellintoariversomeyearsafter.TheaberrantchildhoodofSax

waswellknownbytheDinantlocals,whocommonlyreferredtohimas"littleSax,

theghost."2"He'sachildcondemnedtomisfortune;hewon'tlive,"3hismotheronce

asserted.Whileheundoubtedlylivedthroughhisaccident-pronechildhood,the

portionofhismother'sstatementregardingmisfortunewouldprovetobetrue,as

misfortunewasapersistentanddefiningthemethroughoutSax'slife.

Asidefromhisjuvenileaccidents,Adolphewasgivenaverycomprehensive

musicaleducationfromchildhoodduetotheinclinationsofhisfather’sprofession

andhobbies.In1828hewasacceptedasaflutisttotheRoyalSchoolofMusic,the

2AlbertRémy,"AdolpheSax",VilledeDinant.January28,2017.http://www.dinant.be/en/inheritance/adolphe-sax/.3Ibid.

5

precursortotheConservatoireRoyaldeBruxelles,whichwasestablishedfouryears

laterin1832.Duringhistrainingthereheprovedtobeagenuinevirtuosoinhis

fluteandclarinetstudies;heexhibitedskillssoextraordinarythatavisitingGerman

composer,JosephKüffner,dedicatedaclarinetduoforSaxtoperformin1834.4

Ifnotfortheancientpatrilinealconventionsthatclassifiedthemajorityofcraft

families,whichwasstillprevalentduringthenineteenthcentury,Saxmayhavehad

acareersimilartothoseofFranzLisztorNiccolòPaganini.

Followinghisfather,Adolpheandhisyoungerbrothersbegancareersas

instrumentcraftsmenunderthefamily’sworkshop.Sax'sfirstexperiments

concernedthedeficienciesoftheinstrumentinwhichheexcelled,theclarinet.At

thetenderageoffifteenhisfirstinnovationswereshownattheConcoursIndustriel

deBruxellesof1830,whichcontainedtwoflutesandaclarinetfashionedfrom

ivory;5however,theywerelistedunderCharles-Joseph'snameintheofficial

catalogue,asit’slikelythathisfatherhadasubstantialinvolvementinconstructing

them.ThefirsttimeAdolphe'snamewasmentionedinanexhibitionwasthe1835

ConcoursIndustrieldeBruxelles,inwhichthecataloguedescribeda“boxwood

clarinetwith24keys,inventedandperfectedbySaxfils".6Thismodifiedclarinet

attractedconsiderableapprovalforthetwenty-year-oldinventor.

Sax'sfollowingyearswerededicatedtoimprovingthebassclarinet.Withthe

knowledgeofhisfather’sself-taughtcomprehensiononacoustictheory,he

producedanimprovedmodelwithalargerbore,adjustedthelocationsofthetone

holes,addedclosedcupkeys,andaddedaspeakerkeytoaidsoundproductionin

thehighregister.Patentedin1838,hisnewlymodifiedbassclarinetwasreceived

withsubstantialsuccess,establishinghisreputationasaninstrumentmakerinboth

BrusselsandParis.Hisenhancedversionprovokedenthusiasminsignificant4StephenCottrell,TheSaxophone(London:YaleUniversityPress,2012),12.5Thoughthisinstrumentholdsthestampof"C.Sax",ithasbeenattributedashisfirstexperimentwiththeclarinet.Adolphe'snameisnotlistedbesidethisinstrumentorthetwoflutesinthe1830cataloguebecausehewasstillanapprenticeinhisfather'sshop,workingunderCharles-Joseph'sname.OscarComettant,Historied'uninventeuraudix-neuvièsiècle:AdolpheSax,sesouvragesetseslutes.(Paris,Pagnerre,1860),6.Seefigure2.1.6MalouHaine,AdolpheSax(1814-1894):savie,sonœuvreetsesinstrumentsdemusique.(Brussels,Editionsdel'UniversitédeBruxelles,1980),quotedinCottrell,13.

6

Parisianfigures,suchasFrançoisHabeneck,theconductoroftheParisOpéra

orchestra.WhenHabeneckvisitedBrusselstheyounginventor'sworkhad

impressedhimtothedegreethathereferredtoallotherclarinetsas"barbarian

instruments".7ButarecurrentthemeinSax'scareerhadappearedfromthisearly

stageasaninventor,namelythatpraisewasalwaysequivalentlypairedwith

opposition.ThebassclarinetsoloistattheLaGrandeHarmonieinBrusselsrefused

touseSax'snewinstrumentdespitethepraiseitreceivedfromprominent

musicians,ontheaccountthatithadcomefrom"thatweedylittlepupil,Sax".8Sax

respondedtothebassclarinetist'sinsultwith"playyourclarinet,thenandIshall

playmine."9Thistenaciousresponseexhibitedaqualityofhisthatwouldbe

responsibleforenablingcountlessopportunitiesthroughouthiscareer,butwould

alsobepartiallyresponsibleforobstructingthesaxophone'sopportunitytobecome

apermanentmemberoftheorchestra.

7AlbertRémy,"AdolpheSax",VilledeDinant.January28,2017.http://www.dinant.be/en/inheritance/adolphe-sax/.8Ibid.9Ibid.

Figure2.1:Anivoryclarinet;fifteen-year-oldAdolphe’sfirstexhibitionexperiment.Displayedatthe1830ConcoursIndustrieldeBruxelles.

7

ItwasinBrusselsduringtheyearsofexperimentationwiththebassclarinet

thatSaxdevelopedhisiconicinstrument.Handwrittennotesandpublishedletters

inLaBelgiquemusicalefromCharles-Josephprovidedocumentationthatthe

saxophonewasinventedin1838,nearlyadecadebeforeitspatentwasestablished,

whileSaxwasstillworkinginhisfather'sshop10.Aspirationsoffixingtheintonation

andtimbraldiscrepanciesofthebassclarinetwereprovokedfromhisexperiencein

playingtheinstrumenthimself.ThoughlaterSaxclaimstheideaofthesaxophone

wasinspiredbythetimbraldisparitybetweenthestringsandwindsinthe

symphonyorchestra,scholarscanonlyspeculateonwhetherthesaxophonewas

initiallyaresultofafailedbassclarinetmodification,oranindependentproject.

Perhapscomparabletohischildhooddefinedbyaccidents,thesaxophonewastoo,

anaccident.Thepossibilityofthesaxophonecomingintoexistenceasanattemptat

solvingtheissuesofthebassclarinetcorrespondswithCharles-Joseph'sstatements,

whichassertthatthesaxophonewasinventedin1838,theveryyearthatAdolphe

patentedhisnewbassclarinet.Thisconjecture,however,isunlikely,asSaxwould

haveknowntheacousticdifferencesbetweencylindricalandparabolicconesdueto

thetraininghereceivedinhisfather'sworkshop.Itisfarmoreprobablethatthe

saxophonecameintoexistencethroughanindependentpursuitthatoccurred

simultaneouslybesidehisbassclarinetproject.Sax'sbolddeclarationsstatethathe

inventedthesaxophonetocreateatimbrebetweenthoseoftheoverpowering

brasswindsandtheimperceptiblewoodwinds;onethatcouldeasilyapproachthe

stringsintheorchestrawithoutconsumingorgreatlycontrastingwiththevoice-like

delicacyofthesection.Hisknowledgeofacousticaltimbreimbalanceswaslater

validatedbythesuccesshisreorganizationforFrenchmilitarybandsreceived,

10MauriceHamel,NotescomplémentairessurAdolpheSax(ArchivesofH.etA.Selmer,Paris,1925),quotedinCottrell,42.

8

suggestingthattheideabehindtheinstrumentwasnotinitiallygeneratedbya

flawedbassclarinetrenovationattemptasfarmoreprobable.

PerhapsthetimbreofthelateRenaissanceinstrument,theserpent,that

captivatedhisfatherfromaveryyoungageduringhistimeasanamateurmusician

intheDinantSociétéd’HarmoniealsoenthralledyoungAdolphetotheextentthatit

servedasthesourceofinspirationbehindtheideaofthesaxophone.Theoldchurch

ensembleinstrumentiscomprisedofawoodenS-shapedbody—similartothatof

thesaxophone,withfingerholes,afewkeys,andabrasswindcupmouthpiece.Asa

descendentofthebasscornetto,thecombinationofawoodenbodywithfinger

holesandabrasswindcupmouthpieceproducesanamalgamofamellowandsoft

woodwindtimbreandastridentandpenetratingbrasswindstimbreandwas

admiredbecauseofitsinimitableabilitytoblendwithhumanvoices;thevery

principleswhichSaxsoughtafterinhisinvention.

Regardlessofthereasonbehinditsinvention,thesaxophonecertainly

transformedthedevelopmentofwesternmusic,onlynotinthedirectionthatSax

hadanticipated.TheremainderofSax'slifewouldbeconsumedbyeffortsaimedto

establishthesaxophone'spermanentresidenceintheorchestraandother

ensembles,andasalegitimateinstrument.Ifitweren'tforhispoliticalconnections

duringoneofthemostpoliticallyinsecureperiodsinFrance'shistory,his

monopolizationovertheParisianinstrumentmanufacturingcommerce,andthe

socialstigmatizationsheaccruedfromvariousformsofslander,thesaxophonemay

havebecomemorethananoccasionalvisitortothesymphonyorchestra.Despite

theearlysuccessesinBelgium,asinglecityappearedtoofferfarmoreeconomic

opportunitiesthanhisentirehomecountry:Paris.

III.1830s:ShiftingPoliticsandtheRiseofMilitaryMusic BeforeSaxturnedtheParisianmusicalcommunityonitsheadwithhis

arrivalin1842,thecapitalhadenduredamultitudeofpoliticalinsurgenciesand

economicfluctuationsinthefirstthreedecadesofthenineteenthcentury.

ThroughoutthecenturyFrance'spoliticalclimatewasakintoNor’easterstorm,but

9

thefirstseveraldecadeswereparticularlyhazardous,asthe1789Revolution

essentiallyleftthenation"withoutsupplies"forthesucceedingstorms.Tossedto

andfrobetweenrepublics,empires,andmonarchiestherapidlyharsh"winds"of

nineteenthcenturyFrenchpoliticalclimatewouldultimatelydeterminethe

saxophone'sfatebeforethecenturyended.

InattemptstoevincethemilieuofFrenchpoliticsinwhichthesaxophone

wouldbefirstintroducedareviewofFrance'spoliticalturbulencefromtheFrench

Revolutionuntilthe1830swillhelpestablishasenseofhowthefrequencyof

monumentalchangesfromthefirstthreedecadesofthenineteenthcenturyhad

affectedthepoliticalclimate,economics,andthenation'scultureofthesucceeding

decades.

TheRevolutionof1789ledtotheestablishmentoftheFirstRepublic,a

short-livedfoundingthatwouldsuccumbtoNapoléonI'scoupd'étatin1799.During

thelasttenyearsoftheeighteenthcenturyFrancehadriditselfofthefeudalist

AncienRégime,butbeganthenineteenthcenturywithasimilarautocracycloaked

withthelibertiesoftheNapoléonicCode.Crownedemperorin1804,NapoléonI's

imperialconquestsandreformedmoderateideasdidnotlastevenadecade.Afailed

invasionofRussiaforcedNapoléontoabdicateinexiletotheremoteislandofElba,

offthecoastoftheItalianpeninsulain1814.

DuringNapoléon'sexile,theBourbonmonarchywasrestoredwithKing

LouisXVIIIin1814.ThereignofLouisXVIIIwasdifferentthantheabsolute

monarchyofLouisXVI,whichledtohisexecutionduringtherevolution.Instead,

LouisXVIIIwasessentiallyatitularkingwhoruledunderaconstitutionalmonarchy

inwhichhesharedauthoritywithaconstitutionallyorganizedgovernment.His

reignwasbrieflyinterruptedbyanambitiousNapoléonwhoescapedexileandled

1,500mentoParistorecapturehisauthority.11Itwasduringthisperiodcalled

Cent-Jours(HundredDays)thattheNapoléonicwarsandFirstFrenchEmpirewould

endthroughtheWaterloocampaignof1815.Napoléon'sultimatefatewouldbeyet

11JonathanFenby,France:AModernHistoryfromtheRevolutiontotheWarwithTerror,(NewYork:St.Martin'sPress,2016),41.

10

anotherexiletotheisolatedislandofSt.HelenainthesouthAtlanticOceanandKing

LouisXVIIIwouldreturntopowerwithintheyear.

Childless,LouisXVIII'sdeathin1824handedthethronetohisbrother

CharlesX.CharlesX,anultraroyalistewhovaluedprotectingtheinterestsofthe

aristocraticlandownersandclergycreatedright-wingpoliciesenforcedthrougha

draconianrulingtomanipulatetheFrenchconstitutiontosuittheirinterests.Still

enlightenedbytheideasestablishedbytherevolutionseveraloppositiongroups

wererevivedandforcedCharlesXtoabdicateinthe1830RévolutiondeJuillet(July

Revolution).Louis-Philippeducd’Orléans,lieutenantgeneralofthekingdomatthe

time,wasthenaskedbylegislaturetoacceptthecrownandhebecamethekingon

August8,1830.Louis-Philippe'sreignwouldbethelongestandmoststablethat

Francewouldseesincetherevolution.

TherapidchangesoftherulingclassinFrancecorrespondedtoitsstationary

andfallingeconomy.PriortotheRevolutionof1789,thefirstandsecondestates,

madeupofwealthynoblesandclergymen,werenottaxedandthethirdestate,or

"commoners"boreanenormoustaxationburden.Naturally,increasedspendingby

kings,thewealthiestclassesbeingtax-exempt,andtheworkingclassesbeingoverly

taxedledtoaneconomiccollapse.Thedemandforgoodsplummetedandthe

majorityofartisans,farmers,andmerchantswerewithoutwork.Harvestswere

poorandfoodwastooexpensiveforthethirdestatetopurchase.Breadriots

frequentlyoccurredandwereeventakentoVersaillesinmarchesdemandingthat

thepeoplebefed.Followingtherevolution,theFrencheconomywastoremainpoor

andthenation'sdebthighduringtheNapoléonicEra.

Thedefeatof1815thatcostNapoléonhisauthorityalsocostthenationa

significantportionofitswealth.Napoléonpaidforhisexpensiveseriesofwars

throughavarietyofshoddymeanssuchaslowpayratesforsoldiers,taxation

increases,aninsecurecurrencyreform;healsosoldLouisianatotheUnitedStates,

soldlandsthatwereformallyownedbytheCatholicChurch,andcollected

requisitionsoncountriesunderhiscontrol.Whilehiscontinuousmilitary

campaignsstimulatedatemporaryeconomicgrowthbytheproductionofweapons

andotherequipment,constructionoffortifications,andthemaintenanceofthe

11

massivearmies,itwasanephemeraleconomiclift.TheFrencheconomicsystem

provedtobefragileandnotself-sufficientafterthecessationofmanyindustries

thatreliedonBritishtradehadgreatlydamagedtheeconomy,merelydueto

Napoléon'sembargoagainstBritishtradeinresponsetotheBritishnavalblockade

ofFrenchcoastsin1806.12ItwasonlyunderKingLouis-Philippe'sreignthatthe

economywouldstabilizeforaperiodlongenoughtoprovideafecundenvironment

forFrance'smiddleandworkingclassesthroughpublicencouragementandacts

thatbenefittedaspiringmerchants.

AfterthefalloftheFirstFrenchEmpire,anincreasedconcernof

internationalstandingformed.Napoléon'sFrancehadusedtheclassicmediumof

imperialexpansiontogaininternationalhegemony,buthisfallenempireleftthe

subsequentregimeseconomicallydrainedanddrasticallyinsecurepolitically.

SucceedingFrenchleadersfocusedonreconstructingandalteringtheirnation's

government(eithertotailortothearistocracy'sorthecitizens'desires)andfixing

theireconomieswhiletheconcernregardinginternationalinfluencemanifestitself

inwaysotherthanmilitarypower.Ratherthanseizingterritoriesviamilitaryforce,

France,aswellasotherEuropeannations,soughttoseizenationalstylesofart.

Musicwasthemostadaptableformofarttobrandnationally,asitsaesthetics

variedgreatlyacrossthecontinentwhereasvisualartsdidnotyieldsuchdiversity.

Nationalisminmusicflourishedduetotwoprincipalideasofthenineteenth

century,theRomanticmovement'sexaltationofemotionandidentityandthe

enlightenedliberalbeliefsthatalegitimatestatemustbebasedona"people"rather

thanamonarch,God,ordynasty.

Thedirectassociationbetweenthetwoideaswaswelldefinedinthis

context,asthemilitaryheldastrongculturalrepresentationofthenationandby

extensionitscitizens,especiallyvisibleduringthetimeoftheFirstFrenchEmpire.

Thus,musicplayedbytherepresentativesofthecollectivepeopleofanationeasily

combinedtheRomanticstressonidentitywithcivicnationalism.Francewasnot

aloneinitseffortstoprovideavehiclefornationalistmusictoassertadegreeof

12Ibid,57.

12

internationalidentityandauthorityonart.England,Prussia,Spain,theUnited

Netherlands,Russia,andtheAustrianempireallpursuedenhancedversionsoftheir

previousmilitarybandstoaidnationalidentityandproclaimsuperiorityoverthe

culturesoftheirneighboringcountries.

Duringthe1820sand1830s,thesurroundingnationscontinuedtoenhance

theirmilitarybandsconsiderablythroughanexpansionofinstrumentationand

increaseddisciplinewhileFrance'smilitarybandsremainedstagnant.Itappeared

thatFrenchmilitarybandsweredefeatedwithNapoléonatWaterloo.Thesuperior

conditionofthemilitarybandsoftheGermanicstateswasparticularlyexcruciating

forFrance.Germanicmilitarybandshadmadeadvancementssincethelate

seventeenth-centurywhentheyseizedvariousauxiliarypercussioninstruments

fromtheOttomanEmpire'sjanissarybandsduringtheirresistancetothelast

Ottomaninvasion.Inthecenturywhennationsformed,anationalidentitywasa

pressingambition,andatatimewhenPrussianandAustrianmilitarybandswere

internationallyknownfortheirexcellence,itisn'thardtoimaginethatmostFrench

citizenshadsharedtheconcernthattheirmilitarybandsreflectedthefrenetic

periodthattheirnationwasexperiencing.Thesubjectwasclearlyaconcernamong

citizensasnumerouslocalnewspapersandperiodicalsfrequentlyobservedthe

patheticstateofFrenchmilitarybandsincomparisonwiththeirGermanic

competitors.Onecandiscerntheseverityofthecontrastconcerningmilitarymusic

betweenthenationsthroughanarticlefromL'Illustration,whichcomments,

"WhoeverheardanAustrianorPrussianbandsurelybrokeintolaughterupon

hearingaFrenchregimentalband."13

Inefforttodealwiththeembarrassingproblem,KingLouis-Philippecalled

foraninstitutionthatwouldspecificallytrainmilitarymusicians.Erectedin1836

theGymnasedeMusiqueMilitairebegantoaddressthepoorconditionshaunting

FrenchregimentalbandsundertheinstructionofitsdirectorFredericBerr.The

establishmentoftheGymnasewasthecommencementofaperiodofreformin

Frenchmilitarymusic,aperiodthatwouldreachitsculminationandreverse

13MichaelSegell,TheDevil'sHorn:TheStoryoftheSaxophone,FromNoisyNoveltytoKingofCool(NewYork:Farrar,StrausandGiroux,2005),17.

13

nationaleminencebetweenEuropeanmilitaryensembleswithinthedecadedueto

theradicalrestructuringbytheyoungBelgian.

AtthetimeSaxarrivedinParisin1842Francewasinafairlysecureperiod

economicallyandpoliticallyduetoKingLouis-Philippe'spolicies,whichrestored

theinternationalrelationsthatNapoléon'sreignhadpreviouslyimpaired.King

Louis-Philippe'spoliciesfavoredthebourgeoisieoverthearistocracy,whichgreatly

allowedentrepreneursandtraderstoflourishasthemanydevelopmentsin

manufacturing,transportation,technology,andsciencecontinuedintothefirsthalf

ofthenineteenthcentury,makingParis,inparticular,awealthycity.Inturn,the

accumulatedwealthinParisstimulatedmoremusicalpatronagefromthe

bourgeoisie,whichgavecomposersandmusiciansampleopportunitiesfor

employmentinsalons,concerthalls,ormusicschools.

Asacitythathadhadanextensivehistoryandreputationincraftingmusical

instrumentssincetheseventeenthcentury,Parisreaffirmeditselfastheprincipal

instrument-producingcenterinEuropethankstothefertileeconomicsetting

providedbyKingLouis-Philippe'sbourgeoissupportaccompaniedbyindustrial

expansioninthe1830s.Beforepermanentlysettlingthere,Saxtraveledtothe

instrument-producingcapitalin1839tostrategicallypromotehisnewbassclarinet,

buthealsousedtheoccasiontobecomeacquaintedwiththewell-knownmusicians

andcomposersthatwerereapingthenewfoundmusicalpatronageofferedbythe

city,suchasHectorBerlioz,Jean-GeorgesKastner,GiacomoMeyerbeer,and

FromentalHalévy.Hisredesignedbassclarinetdeliveredaprestigetohisnamein

Paris,whichdrewnoticetotheradarofLouis-Philippe'saide-de-camp,General

Marie-ThéodoreGueilly,ComtedeRumigny,whowouldlatertraveltoBrusselsto

seekSax'sassistancewiththereformationofFrenchregimentalbands.Generalde

Rumigny'sofferwouldhaveappearedtoSaxastheopportunityofalifetimeanda

one-shotdeal,howeverinrevisitingtheaffairthroughadiachroniclensitprovedto

betragicallyironic,the"Brutus"ofSax'slife;whathebelievedtobeabeneficialand

amicableaffiliationwasreallythesourceofhisinstrument'sgrievousfatein

Europeanartmusic.Inshort,Sax'sacceptancetotheaide-de-camp'sofferwasthe

loneeventthatalmostexclusivelyinstigatedthehostilitytowardsthesaxophoneby

14

musicians,composers,instrumentmanufacturers,attachedpermanentconnotations

totheinstrument,andultimatelycauseditsrejectionfrombecomingapermanent

memberofthesymphonyorchestra.

IV.1840s:Politics,Economics,andAestheticsCollide

"Hurryandfinishyournewfamilyofinstruments!" The1840smarkedaprofoundtransformationinParisianmusicallifedueto

theyoungBelgian'sarrival.ThehumiliatingstateofFrenchmilitarymusic

experiencedareformationthatinstigatedhostileoppositionandimpelledbeliefsof

conspiracy.Thecenturies-oldtraditionofinstrumentartisanfamiliesbecame

endangeredbytheburgeoningeconomicthreatofSax'smanufacturingprocessand

provokednearlyalltheinstrumentmakerstoretortwithunscrupulousbehaviors

andslanderousaccusations.Thepagesofthecity'smusicalperiodicalswere

dominatedbyanunremittinginfatuationwiththenoveltimbreofthesaxophone.

Sax'stenacityresultedinanearlyunifiedreactionofunprecedentedopposition

withintheParisianmusicalcommunity.

Whilehissignatureinventionwasconsistentlymetwithpraiseforits

inimitablybeautifultimbreandfrequentlyreceivedendorsementsfromParis'most

respectedcomposers,itwasneverpermanentlyacceptedintotheforemost

instrumentalensembleinthenineteenthcentury.Thisleadsonetobelievethe

culturaldecisionwasnotamatteroftimbralcolorappropriatefortheorchestra,but

theassociationstheinstrumenthadaccumulatedthroughthecommotionits

inventorhadtriggeredfortheParisianmusicalcommunity.Thiscommotionwas

inevitablyassociatedwiththeauthoritiesoftheFrenchmilitaryandtheKing.

Sax'sdecisiontoleaveBrusselsforPariswasstimulatedbyseveralevents.

Thejuryforthe1841ConcoursIndustrieldeBruxellesawardedhimwithasilver

medalforhisbassclarinet,clarinet,and“abasssaxophoneinbrass14”—thefirst

recordeduseofthewordsaxophone—,onaccountthattheybelievedhewastoo

14Saxactuallypresentedhissaxophonebehindacurtain,asnottodiscloseitandavoidtheriskofplagiarism.StephenCottrell,TheSaxophone(London:YaleUniversityPress,2012),14.

15

youngforgoldbecauseiftheybestowedhimwiththehighestaward,theyclaimed

hewouldhavenothingtoworktowardsonsubsequentoccasions.Dissatisfiedwith

thejury'sreasoning,Saxrespondedbysaying,“ifI’mtooyoungforthegoldmedal,

thenIamtoooldforthesilver."15Feelingslightedbytheexhibitionjury,Saxmade

planstomovetotheinstrumentproducingcapital,wherehehadanemergent

reputationduetohisbassclarinet,withhopesforbetterrecognition.

Hisrelocationplansweredefinitewhenthehigh-rankingFrencharmy

officialandKingLouis-Philippe'saide-de-camp,Lieutenant-GeneralMarie-Théodore

Gueilly,ComtedeRumignytraveledtoBrusselsin1842withthepropositionofa

lucrativeofferinvolvingFrenchmilitarybands.Aspartoftheattemptstomake

France'smilitarybandssurpassthoseofPrussia,theKinghadsentdeRumigny

acrossEuropeinsearchforinventorsofnewandenhancedinstrumentsthatcould

beaddedtoregimentalensembles.AfterhearingSax'sinstruments,deRumignywas

convincedthathisinstrumentswereimperativetoraisingtheconditionsofFrench

militarymusic.GeneraldeRumignyreturnedtoParisandexpressedinterestinthe

younginventor'sworkswhileSaxtookabrieftriptoBerlintostudyGerman

methodsofinstrumentmanufacturing,possiblyasamaneuvertodiscoverthe

clandestineprocessbehindthepreciseintonationandqualityofPrussianmilitary

bandinstruments.His1842BerlintripwouldlatertriggeraccusationsthatSax

copiedthesaxophonefromprototypesinBerlinmadebyinstrumentmaker

WilhelmWieprecht,thePrussianmilitarybandorchestratorandpurveyor.

UponreturningfromBerlin,SaxsetoffforPariswithonlythirtyfrancstohis

namein1842.16Withinoneyearhehadmanagedsetupahumbleshoponrue

Neuve-Saint-Georgeswiththesupportofmanydistinguishedadvocatesfromthe

Parisianmusicalcommunity.Thefirstrecognizedcomposerwithwhomhebecame

acquaintedwithwasFromentalHalévy;themostsignificant,butnotbecauseofany

authorityonFrenchmusicalconventions,orhisusageofthesaxophonein

compositions,butbecauseheintroducedhimtohislifetimefriendandmostardent

15GeorgesKastner,Manuelgénéraldemusiquemilitaire(Paris:F.Didot,1848)235.16AlbertRémy,"AdolpheSax",VilledeDinant.January28,2017.http://www.dinant.be/en/inheritance/adolphe-sax/.

16

supporter,HectorBerlioz.Sax'sfirstmusicalconnectionwasthecomposer

FromentalHalévywhointroducedhimtoBerliozin1842.WhileHalévywasn't

nearlyasinfluentialasBerlioz,hedidexpresseagersentimentsforthesaxophone:

"Hurryandfinishyournewfamilyofinstruments(saxophones)andcomeand

succortothepoorcomposersthatarelookingforsomethingnewandtothepublic

thatisdemandingit,ifnottotheworlditself."17ThroughcontactwithHalévy,Sax

metwiththewell-establishedBerliozinJune1842inagatheringthatlastedseveral

hourswherehedetailedhisinventionsandtheirintendedmusicalrolesinvarious

ensembles.Berlioz'sresponsetoSax'sillustrativeideasspawnedanunceasing

interestinSaxandhisinventionsfromtheParisianpress,whichresultedinafertile

beginningforhisbusiness.

Inhisearliestpublishedarticlefrom12June1842,intheJournaldesDébats,

Berliozarticulatedcopiouseulogiestotheyounginventor.Onthesaxophone,he

said:

"Itssoundisofsuchrarequalitythat,tomyknowledge,thereisnotabassinstrumentinuse

nowadaysthatcouldbecomparedtothesaxophone.Itisfull,soft,vibrating,extremelypowerful,and

easytolowerinintensity.AsfarasIamconcerned,Ifinditverysuperiortothelowertonesofthe

ophicleide,inaccuracyaswellasinthestabilityofthesound.Butthecharacterofitstoneis

absolutelynew,anddoesnotresembleanyofthetimbresheardupuntilnowinourorchestraswith

thesoleexceptionofthebassclarinet'slowerEandF.Owingtoitsreed,itcanincreaseordiminish

theintensityofitssounds.Thenotesofthehighercompassvibratesointensivelythattheymaybe

appliedwithsuccesstomelodicexpression.Itsprincipalmeritinmyviewisthevariedbeautyofits

accent,sometimesserious,sometimescalm,sometimesimpassioned,dreamyormelancholic,or

vague,liketheweakenedechoofanecho,liketheindistinctplaintiffmoansofthebreezeinthe

woodsand,evenbetter,likethemysteriousvibrationsofabell,longafterithasbeenstruck;there

doesnotexistanothermusicalinstrumentthatIknowofthatpossessesthisstrangeresonance,

whichissituatedattheedgeofsilence."18

ToSax,Berlioz'slionizationwasthebeginningoftherecognitionhefelthedidnot

receiveinBelgium.However,despitethefrequentexaltationsthesaxophone

receivedfromvariousinfluentialcomposers,Saxwastoexperienceresilient

17Ibid.18HectorBerliozquotedinRichardIngham,TheCambridgeCompaniontotheSaxophone(UnitedKingdom:CambridgeUniversityPress,1998),4.

17

opposition,notonlyfromhiscommercialcompetitors,butalsofromcomposerand

musicians,allofwhichwasadirectreactiontohispoliticalemployment.

TheFrenchMilitary'sNewest"Weapon"andAristocraticFavorite Tounderstandhowthesaxophone'simagedevelopedasanincongruous

mavericktosinceitsintroductioninthemusicalworld,onemustfirstunderstand

thecontextinwhichitwasinitiallyemployed,asitwasfromthepolitical

connotationsthatthelitigationsandcalumnygrew,allcombinedcontributingtothe

failedattemptsofaddingittothesymphonyorchestra.

GiventheearlysupportfromBerliozandothercomposersit'slikelythatSax

believedtherewouldbenodifficultyintegratingthesaxophoneintotheorchestra.

Thereforein1844—oneyearafterheopenedhisrueNeuve-Saint-Georgesshop—

hisfocusmayhaveshiftedtowardsconstructingindustrialsuccesswhenhe

acceptedtheaide-de-camp'sofferofmilitaryemployment.Recognitioninthe

instrument-producingcapitalhadalreadybeengoingquitewellatthistimeandSax

wouldhaveperceivedGeneraldeRumigny'sofferasawaytosecureafooting

withinthefiercepecuniarycompetitionininstrumentmanufacturing.Hewould

haveunderstoodthattherewasasubstantialprospectivemarketforwind

instrumentsofferedbyaFrenchmilitaryseekingtocounterthesplendorof

Prussia'sensemblesandbyreorganizingbandsaroundhisinstruments,hewould

receivenearcontinuousprofits.Furthermore,theinstrumentwhichheusedtoform

thefoundationoftheproposedbandinstrumentationwasalreadypatented,the

saxhornin1843,givingSaxthesoleopportunitytosupplyinstrumentstothe

Frenchmilitary.

Althoughmilitaryensemblesassimilatedthesaxophonemorereadilythan

anyotherinstitution,theprospectofusingitwasoriginallyopposed.Having

GeneraldeRumigny'sadvocacywasnotsufficienttoorderSax'srevisionsof

regimentalbands,sincehedidnotholdapositioninthemusicsector.Saxandhis

formidablealliedLieutenanthadtoovercomeoppositionfrommilitaryband

authoritiessincepracticallynoonedirectlyconnectedtothemusicsector—

18

musicians,instrumentmakers,conductors,instructors—favoredtheproposition

reformsoftheyoungBelgian,whomtheyconsideredanopportunisticinterloper.

TheprocessofreformbeganwitharequestfromGeneraldeRumigny

instructingSaxtosendletterstothetopFrenchauthoritiesconcerningthematter.

SaxwroteletterstoGeneraldeRumigny,MarshalSoult,theMinisterofWar,and

KingLouis-Philippehimself,sketchinghisproposedreorganization19ofFrench

militarybands,suggestingthattheadditionofhissaxhorns,andpistonvalvebugles

wouldgreatlyimprovetheneglectedcondition.Thekingwasalreadyfamiliarwith

Sax'sworkbecausehevisitedhisstandattheIndustrialExhibitionearlierin184420,

butMarshalSoultadjuredademonstrationofthepurposedinstrumentation.Soult's

requesttooktheformofacomparisonbetweenthirty-twomusiciansrepresenting

theestablishedmilitarybandinstrumentationandanine-piecebandexclusively

playingSax'sinstruments21.Sax'sinstrumentsweresuperiortotheestablished

instrumentation,despitetheinequalityinnumber.TheMinisterofWarthen

orderedaspecialcommittee,headedbydeRumigny,toexamineSax'sinstruments

andreformplansbeforetakingfurtheractionbeginninginearly1845.

However,ratherthanameredemonstrationofSax'ssuggested

instrumentation,obstructionfromMicheleCarafa,thedirectoroftheGymnasede

MusiqueMilitaire,ledtoanothercomparisonbetweenSax'sinstrumentationand

Carafa's.CarafacontendedthatSax'splanswerefartooradicalandthetraditional

instrumentationonlyneededanadjustedbalanceinnumberpersectiontocompete

withothernations'bands.Forpurposesofappearingtobefair,(afterall,Generalde

Rumignywastheheadofthecommittee)thecommitteearrangedapublic

competitionbetweentheproposedinstrumentationsattheChampsdeMars,which

tookplaceon22April1845.CarafapresentedarebalancedtraditionalFrench

militaryensemblewhileSax'sinstrumentationwasslightlyalteredfromhisoriginal

19Seefigure3.1.ItislikelythatSaxdidnotincludesaxophonesinhisfirstproposedre-orchestrationplanbecauseheeitherfelttheinstrumenthadnotbeensufficientlydevelopedfordisplay,orhedidnotwanttojeopardizehispatentapplicationbyallowingcompetitorstoseeit,asitwasnotyettopatented.GivenSax'sbellicosetemperregardinghispatentslateron,thelatterisfarmorelikelytobethereason.20StephenCottrell,TheSaxophone(London:YaleUniversityPress,2012),19.21GeorgesKastner,Manuelgénéraldemusiquemilitaire(Paris:F.Didot,1848)253.

19

proposal;hereplacedtheophicleideswithtwoindeterminatesaxophones.Saxmust

havegenuinelyconsideredtheoddstobegreatlyinfavorofCarafabecause,inan

out-of-characteract,hedecidedtotaketheriskofdisplayinghisunpatented

signatureinstrumentinapublicevent.22However,attheeventsevenofSax's

musicians—includingthetwosaxophonists—failedtoarrive,havingbeenbribedby

CarafaandSax'sotheropponents.23

Figure3.1:Sax’sinitialproposedre-orchestrationforFrenchmilitarybands(1845)

IEbPiccolo 2BbBaritoneSaxhorns 2BbOphicleides

1EbClarinet 2Bbfour-valveSaxhorns 1SnareDrum

6BbClarinets 4EbContrabassSaxhorns 1BassDrum

6three-valveTrumpets

(Sax’sinvention)

2three-valveCornets 1TenorDrum

2EbSaxhorns 2Valvetrombones(Sax’s

invention)

2PairsofCymbals

4BbSaxhorns 2Trombones 1Triangle

4BbTenorSaxhorns

Evenwithoutthesaxophonesanestimatedcrowdof20,000,whichconsisted

ofjournalists,militaryofficers,musicians,andthegeneralpublic,voicedtheir

opinionthatSax'sorchestrationwassuperiortoCarafa's.Thepressannounced

Sax'svictoryasavictoryforFrance.JournalistsofL’Illustrationdeclared,“wehave

therighttohopethatourbravearmywillnowbeabletodefyitsrivalsinconcerts

22Regardingnote17,thisuncharacteristicdisplayofpre-patentedsaxophonescontradictsmybeliefthatSax'sreasonfornotoriginallyprovidingsaxophonesinhisbandreorganizationwasoutoffearofpotentialcompetitorsseeingit,notduetothesaxophone'sstateofdevelopmentatthattimein1844.However,evidenceconfirmsthatthesaxophonewasindeedsufficientlydevelopedenoughforcriticalperformances,asinFebruary1844SaxperformedthesaxophoneinanarrangementofBerlioz'sChantsacréforhisinstrumentsinhisshopsalonforanaudienceconsistingofelitemusicalfigures,suchasMeyerbeer,Berlioz,andHabeneck.Saxwouldnothaveshownaninstrumentthathethoughtwasundevelopedinanywaytosuchaninfluentialaudience.SeeComettant(1860)formoreinformationregardingthesalonperformance.23GeorgesKastner,Manuelgénéraldemusiquemilitaire(Paris:F.Didot,1848)265.

20

asinbattle24."ThedegreeofdistinctionattributedtoSax'sinstrumentationwasso

pronouncedthatjournalistsusedvociferouscomparisonssuchas,"aStradivarius

violincomparedwithaviolinfromthevillage,aglassofgenerousBordeauxnextto

anadulteratedbeveragemadeinSuresne,thatisthedifferencewhichexists

betweentheoldmusicandthatproposedbyM.Sax."25Afterthepublic'sexpressed

approvalforSax,thecommitteeagreedonanegotiatedarrangementbetweenSax's

radicalplansandthetraditionalensembleinstrumentationbyretainingtheoboes

andbassoons,butincludingallofSax'sinstruments,includingthesaxophonesthat

didnotshowattheevent.TheythenputforththeproposaltotheMinistryofWar,

whichaccepteditwithanamendment;theoboesandbassoonswereomittedjustas

Saxhadsuggested26.TheremodeledFrenchmilitarybandinstrumentationwas

officiallyannouncedtothepublicintheRevueetgazettemusicaledeParison17

August1845:"Byministerialdecision,theinstrumentsofMr.AdolpheSaxhavejust

beenadoptedforthemusicofthearmy."27

Furthermore,withtheMinistryofWar'sordertoreorganizeFrench

regimentalbandsaroundSax'sinstruments,certainnecessaryamendmentsto

militaryinstitutionshadtobemade.Sincehisinstrumentswereentirelynew,

nobodyexceptSaxhimselfandhisfewemployedmusiciansknewthelogisticsof

playingthesaxophoneandsaxhorn,whichpromptedtheGymnasedeMusique

MilitairetorequirenewstaffpositionstotrainsoldiersonSax'sinstruments.In

1846Jean-François-BarthélémyCokkenbecamethefirstprofessorofsaxophone

andJean-BaptisteArbanthefirstprofessorofsaxhorn,markinganofficial

acceptanceoftheinstruments,despitetheopposition.

Periodicals,suchastheRevueandL'Illustration,frequentlypublishedarticles

regardingSax'sparticipationinpoliticaleventsanddescribedtheacclaimedusage

24L'Illustration,(17June,1845),quotedinStephenCottrell,TheSaxophone,(London:YaleUniversityPress,2012),21.25LeonKrutzer,LaQuotidienne,(11May1845),1,quotedinStephenCottrell,TheSaxophone,(London:YaleUniversityPress,2012),21.26FrederickHemke,TheEarlyHistoryoftheSaxophone,(Madison,WI:UniversityofWisconsin,1975),203.27Unlessotherwisenoted,alltranslationsareminerelatedtothissourceinparticular.RevueetgazettemusicaledeParis,14,no.33,(17August1845),272.

21

ofhisinstrumentsbymilitaryinstitutions.Severalexamplescanbeobserved

beginningaboutseveralmonthspriortoMinistryofWar'sofficialverdictonSax's

instruments,forinstance,theRevue'sMarch2reportingontheKing'ssatisfaction

withSax'sinstruments:

"Mr.Sax,havingperformedduringtheselastdaysseveralmusicalpieceswiththenewbrass

instrumentsofhisinvention,infrontoftheMinisterofWar,andthelatterhavingbroughtbacktothe

kingkeensatisfactionthatthisconcerthadbroughthim,HisMajestywishedtoheartheminhisturn;

consequently,Mr.SaxwassummonedSundaytothecastlewithhisorchestra,andheplayedthere

threepiecesinthepresenceofthekingandofalltheroyalfamily:instrumentsandinstrumentalists

obtainedanequalsuccess.Mr.Sax,bythedesireoftheking,hasalsoplayedseveralofhisother

instruments."28

Infact,SaxdidnotonlyhavethesupportfromtheFrenchregimeofLouis-Philippe

andthemilitary,buthadalsoaccumulatedseveralroyalpatronsfromvarious

regionsofFranceandseveralEuropeancountrieswithinhisfirstthreeyearsof

livinginParis.AseriesofarticlesfromtheRevuedocumentthepatronagehe

accumulatedfromregionsofFranceotherthanthecapitalandabroad.An1844

articlerevealsthatSax'sdisplayconcerts,whichfocusedonsaxhorns,attracted"an

elitepublicgoingtotheGallery-Adelaïdeconcerthalltohearthem",and"beforehis

departure,Mr.SaxwascalledtoWindsor...",where"HisRoyalHighnessPrince

Albert...afterhavinghighlycongratulatedhimonhisdoubletalentofinstrument

makerandperformer,madenumerous[instrument]ordersfromSax."29Several

monthslaternewspresentedintheRevueannounced,"HisRoyalHighnessPrince

Albertdeclaredhimselfapatronofthisskillfulandcleverinstrumentmaker."30

SaxfurtheredhisroyalnetworkinEnglandbycaptivatingtheQueeninMay

1845,aswellasthePrinceofSaxony-Weimar,who,duringatriptoParisattendeda

salonconcertinhisshopandexpressed,"greattestimonialsatisfaction,[for]a

performanceofhisnewinstruments."31RoyalfamiliesdidnotonlyprovideSaxwith

28RevueetgazettemusicaledeParis,14,no.9,(2March1845),70.29RevueetgazettemusicaledeParis,13,no.46(17November1844),385.30Ibid,14,no.3(3January1845),22.

31"HerMajestytheQueenofEngland,duringhervisittotheDukeofBuckingham,askedagaintoheartheinstrumentsofMr.Ad.Sax."RevueetgazettemusicaledeParis,14,no.21(21May1845),174.

22

generouspatronagesandopensupport,butsomealsopresentedhimwithhonorary

royaltitles,suchasGuillaumeIIofHolland'sissuemarkingSaxaroyalknightofthe

CouronnedeChêne.32Suchtitles,patronages,andvocalizedsupportwouldhave

indefinitelyimpactedtheParisianpublic'sopinionofSax,andbyextensionthe

saxophone.

Sax'salignmentwithanarrayofaristocraticfigures,especiallyinthelocation

thathadvehementlyexpressedtheirresentmentagainstnobilityaboutahalf-

centuryearliernegativelyimpactedtheuseofthesaxophoneinthesymphony

orchestra.RoyalfigureshadevenstatedtheirbeliefsthatSax'sinstrumentswould

cause"arevolutioninmilitaryandorchestralmusic."33However,unlikethe

previouscenturies,wherethetastesofprinces,dukes,counts,doges,andkings

guidedmusicalaestheticsthroughcommissionedworksoftheircourtcomposers

andkapellmeisters,inthenineteenthcentury,thearistocracynolongerhadsuchan

influenceonmusicalconventions.Insteadtheexpandingbourgeoisobtainedan

amassedinfluenceontheoutputofcomposers.Inaddition,theRomanticnotionof

self-conceptionitselfopposedtheolderculturalconventionsofcatering

compositionsfortheinterestsofaristocraticrulers;initsplace,composerstookan

introvertedstance,composingsolelyforthemselveswithanemphasison

imaginationandindividualfreedomfromsocialconventionsandpoliticalrestraints.

Principalexamplesofdenunciationtowardsthemusicalheritageoftheroyalpatron

systemcanbeseenfromleadingRomanticcomposersasearlyas1805when

Beethovenmockedthearistocraticdanceoftheminuetbyusingascherzoinanun-

danceabletempointhethirdmovementofhisSymphonyNo.3.

Byassociationwitharistocracy—evenastheynolongerheldacrucial

influenceonmusicasinpreviouscenturies—Sax'sexchangeswouldhaveappeared

assymbolictotheformersystemofmusicalcultivation,butinsteadofcomposing

worksforroyalinstitutions,Saxinventedinstruments.Althoughhedidnotinvent

thesaxophoneforspecificusageinFrenchmilitarybands,thefirstusageofitbeing

inmilitaryensemblesandtheadmirationexpressedbyofficialswould'vemadeit32RevueetgazettemusicaledeParis,14,no.37,(14September1845),303.33RevueetgazettemusicaledeParis,13,no.22,(2June1844),195.

23

appearthatSaxwascateringtotheroyalregimejustaskapellmeisterscateredto

theirpatronsbefore.TheParisianpublicwouldhaveperceivedaristocratic

advocacyforSaxandthesaxophoneasanefforttoreclaimtheslightestinfluenceon

musicalproduction.Withanemphasisontheimportantculturalinfluencethe

growingbourgeoisiehadmidwaythroughthenineteenthcenturyandthe

introvertedRomanticphilosophiesoftheself,itislikelythatcomposerswere

defianttowardsanyproclamationsorsuggestionsmadebythoseinpower,

thereforeencouragingtherejectionofusingofSax'sendorsed"noble"instruments.

PublicationswouldhavealsopresentedanimageofSaxentwinedwiththe

militarytothegeneralpublic.Sincethefirstinstitutionalizedensemblesthat

employedthesaxophonewerethoseoftheFrenchmilitarytheinstrumentwould

haveaccruedaninseparableconnotationwithregimentalbands.AccordingtoEmily

I.Dolan,theconnotationsthatinstrumentsheldpriortotheirusagewithinthe

orchestradictatedtheirfunctionswithintheensemble.34Shecontinuesby

mentioningthatthetrumpet'stimbrebecameassociatedwithimagesofroyaltyand

war,duetotheinstrument'sroleinthosesettings,thetrombonehadaparallelwith

thechurch,andthehornbecamesymbolicofnobilityandforesthuntingscenes.35

Forinstance,thetrumpetsduetotheirrepresentationofsuchsettingsalmost

alwaysemployedfanfaresandbattlecries,suchasinGeorgeFridericHandel's

WaterMusic,HWV348-350andAaronCopland'sFanfarefortheCommonMan.

Similarlythehornsbecamevehiclesforhuntingcallsandsymbolizingnoble

intrusions,e.g.thetreatmentgiventohornsasearlyasJ.S.Bach'sfirstBrandenburg

ConcertoandlaterinJohannesBrahms'sHornTrioinEbMajor,Op.40.Bythetime

GustavMahlerwrotehisThirdSymphonyin1896thehornhadapermanently

distinctfunctionasanaristocraticsymbol.

Iftheculturalassociationsofinstrumentsdidprescribetheirmusical

functionswithintheorchestra,thenthetrumpetsandhornshadalreadyacquired

theconnotationsofmilitarymusicandaristocracyfarbeforetheinventionofthe

34EmilyI.Dolan,“TheWorkoftheOrchestrainHaydn'sCreation,”19thCenturyMusic34,no.12010:21.35Ibid,22.

24

saxophone.Evenifcomposersduringthenineteenthcenturyhadnotpromoted

interiority,theorchestraleftnoroomfortheimagesthatthesaxophoneconjuredby

itssocialfunctioninFrenchculture,norcouldtheyoverrideconnotationsdeveloped

intheMiddleAges;thus,promotingrejectionontwolevels,oneculturalandone

aesthetically.Composerswouldhaverejectedusingtheinstrumentduetothe

promotionsitreceivedfromtheveryinstitutionsthatwerecondemnedbythe

middleclassesattheturnofthecentury,whichduringSax'slifeheldasignificant

amountofinfluenceinmusicproduction,andtheorchestrahadalreadycontained

instrumentsthatpromotedwhatthesaxophonecametorepresentinthenineteenth

century,leavingitonlytofunctionasarepresentationofexoticismintimbre.

CenturiesofLocalTraditionAgitatedbyaInterlopingForeigner Instrumentalconnotation'saside,Sax'sbusinessdidnotonlyprofit

substantiallyfromthereorganizationofFrenchmilitarybands,theeconomic

dynamicsleadingintothemiddleofthenineteenthcentury,whichaffectedEurope

initsentirety,greatlycontributedtoSax'ssuccess,butalsoindirectlycontributedto

thesaxophone'srejectionintheorchestra.

Theincreasingindustrialization,technologicaldevelopment,andurban

expansionthatenvelopedtheeconomyofnineteenthcenturyFranceledto

bourgeoisprosperity,resultingintheabilitytospendtheirextraincomeon

leisurelyitems.Itaddition,thetechnologicaldevelopmentsallowedforarapid

expansioninmarketsbecauseinventionssuchasthesteam-drivenenginemadethe

constructionofproductsandbuildingseasierandlesstimeconsuming.

Furthermore,transportationofmaterialsanddistributionofproductswerealso

vastlyexpandedandhastenedwiththesteamlocomotive.BeforeandduringSax's

arrivalinParis,asignificantgrowthoffactoriesandrailroadsoccurredinthe

capital,whichinturndisplayedaccumulatedwealthinitsdealings,especiallywhat

itwasrecognizedfor:theinstrument-makingindustry.

Acitythatwasoncerecognizedforitsinimitablequalityofmusical

instrumentsmadebytheartisanfamiliesofcentury-oldinstrumentguildshadbeen

transformedbythemid-nineteenthcenturyintoacitywhereinstrumentswere

25

manufacturedandsoldinlargequantitiesastradablecommodities.Thecity's

distinguishedpastintheprofessionwasnurturedbytheindustrialrevolution,

evidentinthenumberofmusicalinstrumentexhibitorsinFrenchexhibitions

throughouttheyearsshowingatotalof72in1827,109in1834,and243in1855.36

Paris'richheritageinthemusicalinstrumentcraftwassoextensivethatbrassand

woodwindpatentsinthecityaloneoutnumberedallothertypesofpatents,withthe

exceptionofthepiano,from1840to1870.

However,notallParisianinstrumentmakerssubscribedtothewaysfostered

bytheindustrialrevolution.Manymanufacturers—particularlythosewhowere

partofthepriorguildfamilies,maintainedtraditionalapproachesandhadonly

smallormedium-sizedenterprises.Manywerenotwillingorabletomakethe

capitalinvestmentsnecessarytoexpandtheircompanies.Theyounginstrument

makerdidnotattempttobuildareputationthroughfamilytiesandtraditions;

insteadheestablishedhisbusinessin1843withthenewcapitalistphilosophythat

camewiththeindustrialrevolution.Investorsfundedentrepreneurswhomthey

believedtoappearedfertile,inexchangetheentrepreneurofferedofshareswithin

hiscompanyandifsuccessful,bothpartieswouldreceivegenerousprofitslateron.

InDecemberof1842Saxmanagedtoraise40,000francsfromtenshareholders,

eachcontributing4,000francs.37

Ashiscompanyproductionsdrasticallyexpandedthroughthemilitaryband

contractheprovedtobeanattractiveproposalforpotentialinvestors.Sax's

distinctionalsoquicklyattractedinvestorsabroad.Forinstance,theFrench-born

magnate,OskarEduardBénazet,thesonofacasinoownerinBaden-Baden,Prussia,

asmallspatownjustoutsidetheborderofFrance.AfterSaxandhisemployed

musiciansplayedaconcertsetupbyBerlioz,thejournalistsoftheRevuereport:"We

saidthatthedirectorateauxdeBaden,Mr.Bénazetwholikestoencouragearts

everywhere,havingrecognizedthesuperiorityofMr.Sax’sinstruments,isaboutto

becomeoneoftheprincipalsupportersofthisyoungandskillfulartist."38

36StephenCottrell,TheSaxophone(London:YaleUniversityPress,2012),94.37Ibid,22.38RevueetgazettemusicaledeParis,13,no.21,(26May1844),186.

26

Bénazetinvested300,000francsintooneentrepreneur'sgallopingtrackinthe

nearbytownofIffezheim,makingitlikelythatthearticle'sphrase,"principal

supporter,"indicatessometypeoffinancialsupport.Withanincreasingamountof

investorsfocusedonSax,otherinstrumentmanufacturerswouldhavefoundit

difficulttoexpandtheirbusinessestocompetewithSax'sgrowingenterprise.

Additionally,thosewhowerenotinterestedinvestinginSax'sbusinessprobably

turnedtootherlarge-scaleoperations,asthesmall-scaleinstrumentmakers

wouldn'thaveseemednearlyasprofitable,addingtothedifficultyofexpansionfor

traditionalmakers.

Sax'spresenceandincreasingsuccessintensifiedthevigorouscommercial

atmosphere,whichcharacterizedtheParisianinstrumentindustrywhereprofits

andreputationswereatstake.Withinthefirstyearofestablishinghisshophewas

alreadyexportinginstrumentstoEngland,Holland,andGermany.Andhealsohad

establishedthesupportofleadingoperabuffacomposer,GioachinoRossini,who

begantoadvocatefortheadoptionofhisinstrumentsbytheConservatoryin

Bologna.39Hisbusinesswasablemonopolizetheindustry,notonlybecauseofhis

utilizationofcapitalistinvestmentstrategies,butalsoduetothewaysinwhichhe

foundedhismanufacturingprocess.Byusingtheassemblymethodsthatresulted

fromtheindustrialrevolution,Saxbroketheproductionprocessintosmallunitsof

specializedcraftsmen.Eachunitwasresponsibleforproducingonlyonecomponent

ofthefinishedinstrument,whichwasfullyassembledatalaterstagebyanother

unit.Saxgreatlybenefitedfromthisdivisionoflaborbecausetheproductionof

windinstruments,andthesaxophone,inparticular,requiredanarrayofdiverse

skills,diverseskillsthatwouldhaverarelybeenpresentcollectivelybyindividuals.

Inthismannerhewasabletohireemployeeswhopossessedskillsonlyinmelding

brass,otherswhowereonlyabletocuttoneholes,thosewhocouldonlyassemble

thekeyspringsandfixpads,andthosewhocouldcreatemouthpiececasts.Inthis

methodofemployingsmallunitsofcraftsmen,Saxwasabletokeeplaborcostslow

andproduceinstrumentsatexpeditedratescomparedtotraditionalartisan

39AdolpheDoulcetdePontécoulant,LaFrancemusicale,(9June1844),121.

27

methods.Anotherwayhekeptlaborcostslowwasthroughhisusageofprisonlabor

fromtheinmatesoftheCentrededétentiondeMelun,justsoutheastofParis.40

Inadditiontohisdividedmanufacturingprocesshewasoneofthefew

Parisianinstrumentmanufacturerswhoinvestedearlyintheestablishmentofhis

businessinsteamdrivingmachines.41Thesemachinesgreatlyadvancedthe

engineeringproceduresofmusicalinstruments.Priortotheassistanceofsteam

machines,thebodyofbrassinstrumentsrequiredstrenuoushandcutting,beating,

andshaping,butthesupportofsuchamachineallowedthebrasstobemechanically

cutandwrought.Itwassuchasignificantcontributiontoinstrumentbuildingthat

notonlyhistorians,butcontemporariestoo,observedthegroundbreaking

combinationoftechnologyandinstrumentproductionintroducedbySax.Areview

oftheExhibitionofProductsin1849notonlyacknowledgestheimprovementSax's

manufacturingprocesshadontheindustrybutalsosummarizesthebedlamfeltby

instrumentmanufacturerscausedbySax:

"Theconstructionofbrassinstrumentstookalargestepsincelastexposureandthismay-

beingtheonlypartofinstrument-makingthatisinprogress...UntilhecametosettleinParis,the

brassinstrumentmanufacturersloungedinagentlecalm,alwaysmaneuveringfromtheoldroutine

andonoldprinciples.Whywouldtheybeworried?...BarelyMr.Ad.SaxhadsetfootonFrenchsoil

whenheexperiencedwhatitcosts,tormentlearnedfromtheirapathy,withnewideascamenumb

competitors."42

Sax'stechnologicallyadvancedmethodsofproductionwererevolutionaryand

causedhiscompetitorstodivergefromtheirtraditionalmethodsinordertoremain

inbusiness.Theambitiousinterloper'spresenceagitatedthecenturies-old

traditionsofinstrumentmaking,whichwouldhavenegativelyaffectedthe

saxophone'sacceptanceintheParisianmusicalcommunity.Forcenturies,therich

Parisianheritageofinstrumentmakershasbeeninterwovenwithitsprominent

musicians.Theseprominentfamiliesformed"dynasties"withintheParisianmusical

community,asdescribedbyCecilaHopkinsPorter:"Inthiswaytheyexpanded

musicaldynastiesofbothmenandwomenmembers,networksreinforcedbythe

40StephenCottrell,TheSaxophone(London:YaleUniversityPress,2012),96.41ToseetheextentthatSax'sproductionreliedonthesemachines,seeFigure4.1and4.2.42RevueetgazettemusicaledeParis,18,no.32,(5August1849),240-241.

28

inclusionofpowerfulfriendsandcolleaguesincomposing,performance,instrument

building,musicengraving,andpublishing."43Accordingtotheexhibitionarticle,

instrumentmakersinthenineteenthcenturyhadcontinuedtheiroldroutineand

workedonoldprinciples;didtheseprinciplesincludethenetworkingaspectso

valuedbythesepersuasivefamilies?

Figure4.1:ThisengravingdepictsSax’sassemblyprocess.Intheforegroundandtotheleftaresetsof

workers,eachresponsibleforadifferentstageofassembly,andsteam-drivenenginesareseen

behindthem.

43CecliaHopkinsPorter,FiveLivesinMusic:WomenPerformers,Composers,andImpresariosfromtheBaroquetothePresent,(Chicago,IL:UniversityofIllinoisPress,2012),44.

29

Figure4.2:“Maker of wind instruments by M. Adolphe Sax—Interior view of the workshops.”

Sax’smanufacturingprocessreliedheavilyonsteam-drivenengines,asobservedontherightwall.

Thesesteam-powereddevicestransformedenergyfromburningcoalintoheat,becomingsteam.The

steamexpandedintoapistoncylinder,pressuringittorise,whichthentransferredtheenergy

throughacrankshaftandwheelcreatingusingrotarymotiontoproducepowerandforce.These

machinesmadethetaskssuchasbrasscuttingandshaping,soldering,andengravingeasierthrough

theassistanceoftorque.

It'slikelythatthetraditionthatgaveinstrumentmakersauthorityinParis'

musicalcircleremainedintactthroughthepoliticalandeconomicplightsleading

intothenineteenthcentury,asPorterexplains,“Inthesecondhalfofthe

seventeenthcentury,infact,aboutfivehundredParisianinstrumentalists—role

modelstoyoungergenerations[emphasisadded]—wereinterrelatedinthese

families'circles,forgingvirtual"monopolies"throughblood,marriage,and

professionalassociations."44Whileitseemsfivehundredinstrumentalistsmaynot

beaverylargenumberinacitythatcontainedroughly600,000residentsin1700,45

itdemonstrateshowexpansivetheinstrumentcraftfamilieswere,thushowmuch

influencetheycouldhaveexertedonlocalmusicalpractices.Porter'sstatementalso

44Ibid,45.45"VilledeParis:Population&Densityfrom1600,"WendellCoxConsultancy,accessedMarch8,2017,http://www.demographia.com/dm-par90.htm.

30

explainsthattheseinterconnectedinstrumentalistsseveredasrolemodelsfor

youngermembersofcraftfamilies,consequentlypromotingthecontinuationofthe

networkingtraditionbetweenmusiciansandinstrumentalfamilyartisans.

Connectionsbetweeninstrumentmanufacturersandinstrumentalists

duringSax'slifetimerequirefurtherinvestigation,althoughitisevidentthatseveral

ofhiscompetitorswerealsoperformersfortheParisOpérawhereSaxworkedasa

conductorfortheonstagebanda.46SinceSaxexperiencedhostileoppositionfrompit

musicianswhencomposerscalledforhisinstruments,itislikelyhisdisturbanceon

theinfluenceoftheParisianmusical"dynasties"wouldhaveresultedinmusical

alienation;contributingtotherejectionofthesaxophoneintheorchestra.

PerhapsthemostobviousreasonthatSaxwasabletodominatethe

instrumentmanufacturingindustrysoearlyinhiscareerwashisalignmentwiththe

Frenchmilitary.Hisreorganizationplansformilitaryensembleswerebuiltaround

hispatentedinstruments,47permittingonlyhisbusinesstoproducethem.Asthe

solemanufacturerforsuchaconsiderableportionregimentalbandinstrumentshe

wasabletosecureprofitsbymanufacturingthousandsofnewinstrumentseach

yearforthemilitaryalone.Also,thehighdegreesofdamageinstrumentsobtained

inmilitaryactivitieswouldallowSaxtosupplyreplacementsasneeded.Hissecured

contractwiththemilitaryallowedhimtouseprofitsforcompanyexpansion,further

promotinghisinstrumentsandendangeringcompetingmanufacturers.His

attainmentofthemilitarycontractalsotookprofitsfrominstrumentmakerswho

weresupplyingtheFrenchregimentalbandsbeforetheinstatementofSax'sre-

orchestration.

AkintotheFrenchmilitary'simplementationofSax'sinstruments,Belgium

alsoemployedSax'sinstrumentsinitsmilitaryensembles,providingprofitsforSax

andfurtherconnotationsforhisinstrumentsaspoliticalutilities.Aroundthesame

timethatFrancewasdebatingbandreform,KingLeopoldIhadaskedBelgian

militaryconductorandcomposer,ValentinBendertoreform1eRégimentdes

46IgnaceDeKeyser,"AdolpheSaxandtheParisOpéra,"BrassScholarshipinReview:TheHistoricBrassSociety,6,(1999):135.47Seefigure3.1forreference.

31

Guides,amilitarybandthataccompaniedtheroyalfamilyastheytraveledabroad.48

Militarycontractsandtheadoptionofhisinstrumentsbypoliticalinstitutionswere

notlimitedtothenationofFrance;Belgium,England,andRussiawouldalso

contributetohissignificantupsurgesofaffluence.

Despitethefertileenvironmentprovidedby"theKingoftheFrench",

traditionalworkersbecamemarginalizedandrespondedwithattemptstoprotect

theirrightsthroughvariousorganizationsandscrupulousactions.Sax'sspecial

protectionprovidedbythemilitaryandhisroyalpatronsinfuriatedcompetitors

withlongstandingreputations,whodidnottakekindlytoayoungforeigner

beginningtodominatetheirindustry.Initiallycompetitorsrespondedbyclaiming

thesaxophonewas"builtonafalsetheory,""invalid,"andhad"nofuture,"49atthe

1844exhibitionwhereheunveiledit.Otherstookfurtheractionbywayoffalse

accusations,lawsuits,counterfeiting,andshopraids.

Themaincourseofactiontakenbyendangeredcompetinginstrument

makerswasfilinglawsuitsagainsthispatentsinattemptstodiscredithimasthe

inventorofhisinstruments.Thetwopatentshehadreceivedbeforethesaxophone

werealsovictimsoffalseaccusations.Hisfamilyofsaxhorns,patentedin1843and

hisfamilyofsaxotrombas,patentedin1845,werethesubjectofdisputebeforethe

saxophone'spatent.Lawsuitsweremadeonthebasisthatsaxhornsmerely

consistedofanextensionofexistingbrasstechnology,claimingthatSax's

homogeneousfamilycouldnotbepronouncedashisinvention,andsimilar

accusationsweremadeforsaxotrombas.

Thetrendinlitigationwasmostpopularforthesaxophone,however.AsSax

wasapplyingforthesaxophonepatentin1845hefacedcontentiouseffortsto

preventhimfromreceivingit.Theapplicationwasopposedonanumberofgrounds

includingaccusationsthatSaxhadnotinventeditbutinsteadstoleitfromother

inventors,claimsthatitwasnotanoriginalinventionbutwasacombinationof

previousinstruments,andevenfarcicalassertionsthatitwasnotmusical.Themost

48RevueetgazettemusicaledeParis,13,no.35,(30August1844),278.49RevueetgazettemusicaledeParis,18,no.32,(5August1849),240-241.

32

commonvindicationusedtoprohibitSaxfromreceivingthepatentwasthathehad

notinventedit.InstrumentmakersasfarasPrussiaandItalyclaimedthatSaxhad

stolentheirinventions.ApublishedletterfromSaxtoPrussianinventorand

militaryorchestrator,WilhelmWieprecht,detailsjusthowfrequentlythisclaimwas

made:

"You'renottheonlyone,moreover,whowereholdingsuchlanguage;Parisandelsewhere,

therearepeoplelikeyouinterestedinthequestion,repeatingthatsincenearlythreeyearsandmore,

theyknowthatthey,too,aretheinventorsofmyinstruments,theyhadmadesimilarinstrumentsin

somecorneroftheirstudio,etc.Butthesearewordsandnothingelse;thesepeopleshouldlivea

centurywheretheycouldalwayssingthesamerefrain."50

TheconflictbetweenWieprechtandSaxappearstobearesultofcompeting

nationalidentitymanifestedininstruments.SimilartoSax,Wieprechtwasan

instrumentmanufacturerandsupplertothemilitary,andin1843hewasappointed

thedirector-generalofthePrussian10thConfederateArmyCorpswherehe

exercisedaprofoundinfluenceonthedevelopmentofPrussianmilitarymusic

throughre-orchestrationandmodifiedinstruments.Wieprecht'saccusationswere

madethroughaseriesofarticlespublishedinPrussia,whichwerethenreproduced

inFrance,inwhichheclaimedthatduringSax'striptoBerlinin1842theideafor

thesaxophonewasstolenfromPrussianmodels.Saxrecognizedtheaccusationasa

defensemechanisminresponsetoFrance'simprovingmilitarybands:

"Itrustthatyourarticleshavebeeninspiredbyapatrioticfeeling,butitisnotatallan

excuse;thefirstpatriotismofamanofhonoristheworshipofjusticeandloyalty;sir,Iamjustifiedin

sayingthatyouhavefailedinoneandtheother.Beforewemet,youhadmeattackedinthe

newspapers;itwasamistakeonyourpart...There,indeed,afterafewgeneralities,yousaythatthe

saxophonewasnothingbutasnorkel,itshouldthereforenotbecalledsaxophone,but

wieprechtophone."51

InordertosettlethecountlessindictmentsclaimingthatSaxwasnottheactual

inventor,hedelayedhispatentapplicationforoneyearandissuedachallengeto

thosethatclaimedtheywerethetrueinventorsofthesaxophone;ifanyonecould

produceasaxophonewithintheyear,thenhewouldwithdrawhisapplication.As

50RevueetgazettemusicaledeParis,16,no.36,(6September1846),283.51Ibid,285.

33

Saxconfidentlyexpected,nootherinventorwasabletoconstructasaxophoneand

on21March1846hesubmittedhisapplication,threemonthslateron22June1846

apatentwasgrantedfortheperiodoffifteenyears.

Despitetheirfailuretocraftasaxophonethemselves,aruthlesslastattempt

atstoppingSaxwasmadebyParisianinstrumentmakers.Litigationswerefiled

againsthimashewassubmittingtheapplicationinMarch1846ontheassertion

thathehadviolatedalawpassedin1844,whichstatedthataninventioncouldnot

bedescribedasoriginalbeforethepatentwastakenout,ifithadreceivedadequate

exposurethatallowedittobecopiedorbuilt.Thecasedraggedonfarpastthedate

ofSax'spatentapproval.Thejudgesthemselveshadappointedapanelofspecialists

thatwerefamiliarwithSax'sinstrumentstoadvisetheirverdict.Amongthepanel

memberswasCokken,whoasprofessorofsaxophoneforthemilitaryaffirmed:

"Havinglearnedthatsomehavedeniedtheexistenceofthesaxophone,Icometoattestto

youthatthisinstrumentreallydoesexist,thatIplayitmyself,andthatIteachitattheGymnasede

MusiqueMilitaire.Itakeadvantageofthisopportunitytoaddthatthesaxophoneisaninstrumentas

beautifulasitisgood,ofgreatpower,ofmagnificenttimbre,andfinallytheeasiesttolearn.Idonot

doubtthatexcellentresultscanbeobtainedfromitinmilitarybandsaswellassymphony

orchestras"52

InadditiontoCokken'saffidavitthepanelalsotookevidencefromanarrayof

journalistsandmusicianswhohadheardorwrittenaboutthesaxophone,allofwho

didnotpossesstheknowledgerequiredtobuildone.Afterhearingfromvarious

witnessesandspectatorsthepanelstatedtheirbeliefthattheallegationsagainst

Saxwerefalseandhissaxophonepatentshouldbeallowedtostand.However,the

caseverdictwouldnotbedecidedforanothereightyearsasFranceonceagain

witnessedarevolutionin1848.

Furthermore,theseeconomicquarrelswerefrequentlyentangledwith

politicalstrife.TheconflictbetweenWieprechtandSaxwasspecificallydescribedas

apolemicbetweenmilitarybanddirectors,towhichWieprecht'srefusalofSax's

1845challengedisplayed"themostexplicitrecognitionofweaknessand

52StephenCottrell,TheSaxophone(London:YaleUniversityPress,2012),24.

34

inferiority."53Themedia'spresentationofthesituationastwomilitaryband

directorswouldhaveonlystrengthenedthepoliticalconnotationsattachedtothe

instrumentandstressedthewidespreaddisturbancethatSaxhadonParisian

instrumentmakingtraditions.Inthecourtcase,whichbeganinMarch1846,several

referencesweremadeonSax'sbehalfregardingtheimportancethesaxophonehad

forthemilitary.AletterwrittenbyGiacomoMeyerbeerin1849wasshownbySax's

lawyerstating:

"Iwouldlimitmyselftomentionhisbassclarinet,aformerlydefectiveinstrument,buttoday

anachievedimprovement,andhissaxophones,comprisingafamilyofsixmembersfromhightolow,

whosemagnificentandparticularsonoritywillbeofavaluablehelptomilitarybandsandwillevenbe

abletobeaddedtoorchestras,[emphasisadded]thereinfurnishingcomposerswithnew

combinationsofinstruments."54

Evenincourtproceedingsthesaxophone'sidentitywaspresentedasinterrelated

withmilitarymusicmaking.Hiscompetitorsrecognizedthesaxophone'smartial

identityandevenwentasfarasaccusingSaxofpayingofftheFrenchmilitaryto

accepthisinstruments.Inaddition,theyscrutinizedthefinancialassistancethatthe

GeneralgaveSaxonoccasion.AletterwrittenbyGeneraldeRumignydeniesthese

accusations:

"IjustlearnedthatinthecourseofthediscussionsbetweenMr.Saxandsomeinstrument

makers,itwassaidthatmoneyinterestshadpersuadedmetoadopttheinstrumentsofhisinvention,

andthatthisconsiderationhadalsoinfluencedthedecisionofthecommissionchargedbythe

MinisterofWartocarefortheimprovementofmilitarymusic.Ideclarehereinthemostformalway

thatthisassumptionisanoutrageousslander,andingivingmysupporttoMr.Sax,Ihadnoother

goalthantoadmitintheregimentsthebestinstruments.IgaveMr.Saxsomemoneyinhistimesof

distress,topreventhimfromsuccumbingtothefightofhisgeniusagainstmediocrityandenvy.This

moneyhasneverexceededonethousandtofifteenhundredfrancs;bygiving,Ihavealwaysstated

thatitwouldproducenointerest,andIevenaddedthatheshouldnotconsiderrepayifserious

difficultiesaroselater...AsChairmanoftheCommittee,Ihelpedgetthemadoptedinthearmy;the

verythoroughexaminationofthedifferentinstrumentsinuseinthearmiesofallthecountrieswas

doneinthepresenceofallmembersofthemusicsectionoftheInstitute,Mr.Séguier,Mr.Colonel

53RevueetgazettemusicaledeParis,15,no.49,(5December1846),390.54StephenCottrell,TheSaxophone(London:YaleUniversityPress,2012),27.

35

Savart;geniusoftwocolonelswhohadtheirregimentsinthebestmusicofthearmy.Alldecisions

weretakenunanimouslyandsignedafterreadingbyallmembers,withoutexception."55

TherecurrentassociationswiththeFrenchmilitaryinSax'slegaldisputes

stimulatedevenmoredirectassociationsintheFrenchpress.Suchcandid

comparisonsbetweenthesaxophone,militarybands,andthehighlevelof

oppositionfromSax'scompetitorswouldhavefortifieddestructiveimplicationsfor

theinstrumentinbothpoliticalandeconomicspheres.TheRevuebluntlyrelatesthe

militarymentalitytothechaoscausedintheParisianinstrumentsectorbySax:

"...thewarriorenthusiasmoftheNationalGuardhasevenenteredtheindustryofwind

instruments,bothwoodandcopper,asbothanartisticandcommercialmatterthatisofinterest.

Thesedesignationsandthisindustrialbranch,whichboremanyfruits,arousedthejealousyofthe

otherinstrumentmakersthathavenotfoundabetterwaytostopthisartisticindividualityto

challengehis[Sax's]inventions,andtoperfectionandsamestrengthofitsworkforce."56

This"warriorenthusiasm"wasmostclearlyarticulatedbetweenSaxandhismost

powerfulcompetitor,Pierre-LouisGautrot.Gautrotwasaninfluentialfigure,similar

toSax,intheParisianinstrumentmakingindustry—onlyhewasnotperceivedas

detrimentalsincehemarriedintoacraftfamilywithasubstantialhistory.Gautrot

wasentirelyabusinessman,hewasnotanartisan,inventor,orperformerasSax

was.Hisdedicationtorigoroustrainingincommerceallowedhimtoincrease

productionfarpastthestagesobtainedbySax'scompany.In1855hisprofitswere

largeenoughtoopenasecondfactoryatChateau-Thierrywherelandandlabor

werecheaperthaninParis.Therehehired320workersandoperateda14-

horsepowersteamengineforproduction.Thesecondfactoryalsocontained

housingblocksforstaff.57Gautrotdemonstratedemulousbusinessactionsagainst

Saxthroughouthiscareer.SimilartoSax'sSociétédelaGrandeHarmonie,ahybrid

orchestracreatedexclusivelytopremiereSax'sinstrumentsinanorchestralsetting,

Gautrotcreatedabandofthirty-sixemployeesathissecondfactory,allofwhomhe

providedwithextensivesolfegelessons,instrumentaltraining,arehearsalroom,

55RevueetgazettemusicaledeParis,16,no.21,(23May1847),172-73.56HenriBlanchard,RevueetgazettemusicaledeParis,18,no.31,(12August1849),253.57WilliamWaterhouse,"Gautrot-Aîné,FirstoftheModerns,"BrassScholarshipinReview:TheHistoricBrassSociety,6,(1999):125.

36

andabanddirector.ParalleltothepublishingcompanySaxsetuptoprintmethod

booksandworksforhisinstruments,Gautrotalsoformedapublishingsubdivision

inhiscompany.HoweverlargeGautrot'scompanybecame,itdidnotmeetthe

reputationoftheyoungBelgian'sregardingquality.Complaintsofpoorlymade

instrumentswerecommonoccurrencestoGautrot,onecontemporaryobserves:

"TowhatdoesMonsieurGautrotowetheenormousgrowthofhisbusiness?Doubtlesstothe

cheapnessofhisprices.Itisafactthathisinstrumentsenjoyuniversaldistribution:ineveryvillage

wemayfindtrombonesandcornetsbearinghisstamp—butnotromboneorcornetbearinghis

stampthatwon'talready,alas,haveneededrepairingseveraltimes.That,beforeanythingelse,isthe

maindefectofMonsieurGautrot'swares.Helearnedlongagothatthesecretofgoodbusinessliesin

combiningmodestprofitswithamassiveturnover.Rightfromthestarthehassetouttobearallof

hiscompetitorsinprice.Hehasmanagedtodothis,butatwhatcost!Icanrecallinnumerable

occasionswhenIhavetriedtotunesomestudent-modelcornetwithabaritone...I'mnotenoughofa

makermyselftoknowhowmuchmoredifficultitistosolderwellthantosolderbadly.ButwhatIdo

knowisthatthefirstthingtocheckonaninstrumentisitsintonation...AlltoooftenI'mremindedof

acuttingremarkthatanEnglandmakeroncemadetome:"Monsuieur,whenweneedcheapquality

goods,wegetthemfromFrance."Thisthen,beforeanyotherconsideration,ismyreproachto

MonsieurGautrot,whichisborneoutbylongexperience.Itismoreanexpressionofregret,becauseI

amfarfromfailingtorecognizetheimportantachievementsofthismaker,anintelligentpopularizer

[sic]who,thankstohismodestprices,hashelpedenormouslytopromotethebrassbandmovement

inFrance."58

ButitwasnotGautrot'spricesthatkindledthe"warriorenthusiasm"betweenthe

two.ItwasthedeviousmeasuresheundertooktorevokeSax'sreputationand

achievements.BeginningjustaftertheChampsdeMarseventwhenSaxobtained

theWarMinistrycontractin1845,Gautrotorganizedacampaigncommitteeof

thirty-fourprincipalParisianinstrumentmanufacturerswiththeintentionof

restrictingSax'svictory.59FirstGautrot'sorganizedcommitteecomposeda

threateninglettertoSax,andwhenheshowednotrepidation,thegroupresortedto

litigation.OtherattemptsledbyGautrotaimedatruiningSax'scareerconsistedof

anAugust1847protestofbrasswindmanufacturersdemandingthenullificationof

Sax'spatents.UnfortunatelythedamagesinducedbyGautrot'sfactiongrewintoa

58Ibid,127.59Ibid,128.

37

twenty-yearprocessofclaimsandcounter-claims,butSaxnever"putupthewhite

flag."

"Clevercomposerswillhereafterderivewondrouseffectsfromsaxophones" WhilethepoliticalandeconomicinfluenceassertedbySaxkepthisnamein

thepublic'sear,italsoproducedanarrayofsocialconsequencesforhis

instruments.Asignificantshiftinartisticandculturalcontroloccurredbetweenthe

1830sand1840s,ashiftthatgavethebourgeoisiemoreauthorityonmusical

practice.Consequentially,tastesinmusicchangedandaestheticsfollowed.Asthe

middleclassgrew,sodiddomesticmusicmaking.Thebourgeoisiespenttheir

accumulatedwealthonmusicalinstrumentsandmusicmaking.Theirprosperity

alsofueledurbanexpansion,hadcreatedseveralconcerthallsandtheaters

availableforpublicattendance,vastlyexpandingmusicperformancefromthe

formerlyrestrictedvenuesofimperialcourtsandfewpublicvenues.Thelibertyto

participateinmusicalactivitieswasnotexclusivetothemiddleclasseither;the

workingclassalsoparticipatedinmusicactivitiesforleisure,mostnotably

promenadeconcerts.

Itisevidentthatthegeneralpopulationhadanincreasedappreciationof

musicbythenumberofpublicconcertsheldinParis;inthe1826-27season78

concertswereheldandthe1845-46seasonincreasednearly500percentat383

concertsacrossParisianvenues.60Wideraccesstomusicalperformancesledto

fragmentedmusicaltastes,however.Thefragmentedtastesinmusicalgenres

developedintomarkersofclass.By1847thepracticesofGermanicaestheticshad

becomedescribedas“classicalmusic”thankstotheirsanctificationbyEuropean

conservatoriesandtheseaestheticsmainlyappealedtothearistocracyandupper

middleclass.Thiswaslargelyimpartedtothevenueswheretherepertoirewas

played.The"classical"musicofHaydn,Mozart,andBeethovenwasusually

performedinconcerthallsinasimilarmannertoimperialcourtcustoms,tomainly

uppermiddleclassaudiences,whereasnewstylesofcomposerssuchasSchumann,

Chopin,Liszt,Berlioz,andBizetweretypicallyperformedformiddleandworking


38

classaudiencesinalessrestrictedmanner.Aficionadoswhowerefamiliarwith

Germanicrepertoireandtheirstylistictraitsapproachednewergenreswithcaution

duetothecommercialization,grandiosity,andclearvirtuositytheyexhibited;the

veryelementsthelowerclassesenjoyed.Inevitably,thevoxpopuliofthemiddle

classdevelopedadisdainedviewof"classical"musicanditsdevotees.A

fragmentedsocialstructuresurroundingtheproductionandconsumptionofmusic

inParisensuedatensionbetweenartmusicandpopularstyles,whichaffectedhow

thepublicheardthesaxophone.

Sax'sinstrumentsgainedthesupportofmanyleadingcomposersinParis;

however,composerswerecautiouswhenconsideringwritingforthesaxophone.

Perhapsthatwasthecasebecausethesaxophonewascontinuouslythesubjectof

vyingcontentions,politicalscandals,andMachiavelliandefamation.Whilethe

advocacyexhibitedbySax'sconnectionsaidedsales,itdidnotaidthesaxophone's

musicalcharacter.Onewouldassumethatdeclarationsonthesaxophone'sbeautiful

timbre61andpotentialvaluetosymphonyorchestrasbyinfluentialfiguressuchas

Berlioz,Jean-GeorgesKastner,OscarComettant,AdolpheAdam,Halévy,Gaetano

Donizetti,Meyerbeer,Arban,AmbroiseThomas,andRossiniwouldhavepersuaded

composerstowritesymphonicworkswiththesaxophone.

Berliozwasthemostoutspokentowardsthepotentialofthesaxophonesince

itsformalbeginnings.In1846,theveryyearitwaspatented,hebeganadvocating

foritsadoptioninconservatories.InalettertoMonsieurHumbertFerrand

regardingthedefectsofPragueConservatoirehewrote:"Thesaxophone,anew

memberoftheclarinetfamily,[sic]andreallyofvaluewhentheperformercan

bringoutitscharacteristics,oughtnowadaystohaveaseparateplacein

Conservatoireclasses,forthetimeisnotfardistantwheneverycomposerwillwish

toemployit."62Inadditiontothegoalsofpreservingtraditionsanotherreason

61Rossinireferredtothesaxophone'stimbreas,"ThemostbeautifulsoundthatIknow."Ibid,102.62AlthoughconcerningconservatorieshecontradictshimselfearlierinhisMemoirs:"AmusicalConservatoireought,inmyopinion,tobeanestablishmentforconserving[Berlioz'semphasis]thepracticeofmusicalartinallitsdepartments,andlearningandacquirementsconnectedwithit,themonumentalworksproducedbyit,andinadditiontothis,byplacingitselfattheheadoftheprogressivemovementinherenttoanartsoyoungasEuropeanmusic,itoughttopreserveallgood

39

conservatoriesneverconsideredinstitutingsaxophoneclassesisperhapsduetothe

allegedeasetolearntheinstrument.ReportsfromtheRevuestatethatfive

saxophonistswhoreceivedprizesintheannualmilitarymusicsolocompetitionhad

onlyninemonthsofstudyontheinstrument.63Thereputationofthesaxophone

beingarelativelyeasyinstrumenttolearnstillexistspresently,thoughLarryTeal

adds,"easytoplaybadly[Teal'semphasis]."64Whileittakeslessefforttoproducea

toneandachievetechnicalmasterythanotherwindinstrumentsliketheclarinet,it

isadeceptiveconception;simplylearninghowtomakeasoundandplayrapidly

doesnotprovideonewithmusicalityandcreativesensitivity.Therelativeeaseof

learningthesaxophonemayhavebeenperceivedasanunworthyforconservatory

studybytheoldergenerationsteachingatthoseinstitutions.Thedevelopmentin

technologythatmadeSax'senhancementsofclarinetmechanicsandthesaxophone

possiblecouldhavebeenresentedbyinstrumentalistsofpreviousgenerations,as

theconservatoryattitudewasaimedatpreserving"goldenera"ofmusic.When

youngerplayersbegantouseSax'sclarinetswhilestudyingatconservatorythose

professorswhouseddidnotusemostlikelyfeltadealofjealousytowardstheir

studentswhowereabletoovercomeissuesthattheystruggledwiththroughout

theircareers.Anexampleofourtimecanbeobservedbyhowmembersofthebaby

boomergenerationeasilydismissacademicachievementsbymillennialsbecause

they'reabletousetheinternetforaquickaccesstoinformation,whereasbaby

boomershadtosearchlibrariesforextendedperiodstofindthesameinformation.

TheParisianpressevenattemptedtouseleadingcomposers'supportforSax

asawaytodiscredittheobloquiesheamassedfromtheParisianmusical

community.65Despitethepress'seffortstohelpSaxthroughaccentuatingthe

andbeautifulworkbequeathedtousbythepast,whilstadvancingwithprudencetofutureconquests."HectorBerlioz,MémoiresdeHectorBerlioz,(NewYork:DoverPublications,1966),492.63RevueetgazettemusicaledeParis,16,no.35,(29August1847),346.64LarryTeal,TheArtofSaxophonePlaying,(USA:AlfredPublishing,Co.,Inc,1963),9.65"WelearnthatMr.Meyerbeer,Mr.RossiniandMr.Fétistheelder,havejustorderedfromMr.AdolpheSax,foruseinthevariousestablishmentswhichtheydirect,severaloftheinstrumentsinventedorimprovedbythisyoungartist.Verypositivefacts,andveryhonorabletestimoniesvictoriouslyrespondtotheattacksofcritics."RevueetgazettemusicaledeParis,13,no.8,(25February1844),68.

40

supportofleadingcomposers,alargeportionofarticlesaboutSaxwerecomprised

ofslander.Asearlyas1841,whilehewasstillresidinginBrussels,vilificationin

ParisianpapersaccusedhimofcopyinginventionsdevisedbyM.Lefevrein

Nantes.66Sax'seagersupporter,Berliozreactedtotheinitialrecurrentaccusations

with:

"Itisscarcelytobebelievedthatthisgiftedyoungartistshouldbefindingitdifficultto

maintainhispositionandmakeacareerinParis.Thepersecutionshesuffersareworthyofthe

MiddleAgesandrecalltheanticsoftheenemiesofBenvenuto(Cellini),theFlorentinesculptor.They

lureawayhisworkmen,stealhisdesigns,accusehimofinsanity,andbringlegalproceedingsagainst

him.Withalittlemoredashtheywouldassassinatehim."67

AnabundanceofdefamatoryreportsonSax'sinstrumentsmusthavebeen

thoroughlyconfusedreadersinParisasthepressalsoreportedonSax's

achievementsinearningthehighestprizesinvariousexhibitions.In1849he

receivedtheonlygoldmedaltobepresentedtoawindinstrumentmanufacturerat

thel'ExpositionNationaledesproduitsdel'industrieagricoleetmanufacturièrefor

hissaxophone.AndfourmonthslaterhebecameaChevalierdeOrdrenationaldela

Légiond'honneur,oneofonlythreeinstrumentmakerstoreceivethehonor.

Betweenthereportsonhistrials,allegationsconcerningauthorship,andpolitical

reforms,theParisianpublicmusthavehadaperplexedopinionofSax:Washe

winninggoldmedalsforinstrumentsthatweren'thisowninventions?Didhebribe

theMinistryofWartoreorganizemilitarybandsaroundhisallegedinstrumentsfor

profit?Didheprosecutetraditionalinstrumentmanufacturerstoreduce

competition?SurelytheaccusationsbylongstandingmembersoftheParisian

musicalcommunityhadmoreweightthanSax'sdismissals.

Anotherpointtoconsiderinreviewingthesocialreceptionofthesaxophone

istheincreasedinterestintimbreinFranceinthenineteenthcentury.Numerous

treatiseswerewrittenontimbre,demonstratingtheimportantroleithadtakenon

inmusicalaestheticsinnineteenthcenturyFrance.Initiatedintheearlierhalfofthe

century,Berliozwasonekeyfigureinthe"emancipationoftimbre."Someimportant

66RevueetgazettemusicaledeParis,10,no.20,(11March1841),314.67HectorBerlioz,MémoiresdeHectorBerlioz,(NewYork:DoverPublications,1966),492.

41

publicationsonthesubjectincludethe1837workwrittenbyKastner,Traité

GeneralD’instrumentation,andofcourseBerlioz'sfamous1844GrandTraité

d’Instrumentationetd’OrchestrationModernes.Berliozsummarizeshowimportant

timbreandorchestrationweretoFrenchcultureintheRomanticageinhistreatise:

“Neverinthehistoryofmusichassomuchbeensaidaboutinstrumentationasat

thepresenttime.”68

ThisnewinterestintimbrewouldcontinuetodefineFrenchorchestral

musicthroughoutthecenturywhenorchestrationmastersRavelandDebussy

formedthemesaroundtheinterplayoftimbralchanges.Thisfascinationwith

timbreinspiredcomposerstoenrichtheirorchestralsoundwithnewinstruments

amongthemultitudethatwerebeinginventedatthetime.Numerouscommentson

thesaxophone'snoveltimbreweremadethroughoutthe1840s.Infact,itshouldbe

notedthatthesubjectofthevastmajorityofarticleswritteninjournalsofthetime

focusedonthenewtimbreofthesaxophone.Farmorecommentedonthenewand

uniquetimbrethanSax'sotherinstruments,hislegalproceedings,exhibition

winnings,andpositionwithintheFrenchmilitarycombined.Someearlyexamples

explicitlycommentonthetimbraleffectsthesaxophonecouldyieldforthe

orchestra:

"anewinstrumentnamedtheSaxophone,bothofhisinvention[referringtoSax'sflutewith

analteredkeysystem],obtainedunanimousvotesbythejurybecauseoftheaccuracyandbeautyof

theirtimbre;theseinstrumentswererecognizedworthytobeallowedintheorchestra,andlikelyto

producetherethenewestandmostbrillianteffects."69

Othersspeaksohighlyoftheinstrument'stimbrethattheyrefertoitascapableof

foolingthelistenerintobelievingtheywerehearingahumanvoice:

"Howeverthesecondpartoftheconcert,inwhichwehearSaxmadeasoloandasaxophone

quartet,wasundoubtedlythemostinterestingfromthestandpointofthetest

instruments...Profoundlyalteredbytheactionofcopperinthewalls,thereedcausesthesaxophone

tohaveanaturalsoundofpenetrating,energetic,passion:you'dthinkbynowtohearahuman

68HectorBerlioz,GrandTraitéd’Instrumentationetd’OrchestrationModernes,(Kassel,Germany:Bärenreiter2003),1.69RevueetgazettemusicaledeParis,14,no.11,(16March1845),87.

42

voice....Meanwhile,Mr.Saxdoesnotworkalone,buthecreatestheearliestaschoolforyoung

saxophonists.It'snotenoughtohaveabeautifulvoice;wemustalsoknowhowtosing."70

Thelastsentencesuggeststhatthescarcityofsaxophonistsoutweighedits

timbrequalitiesakintothehumanvoice,anotherfactorthatdeterredcomposers

fromwritingforit.Yes,theParisianmusicalcommunityagreedthatitpossesseda

beautifultimbre,butifacomposerwereconsideringscoringforit,thentheywould

alsohavetodealwiththehassleoffindingasaxophonisttoplayit.Andgiventhe

onlyopportunitiestostudysaxophonein1849wereeitherattheGymnasede

MusiqueMilitaireorwithSaxhimself,composersmayhavebelievedthatthe

availablesaxophonistsdidnothaveskillscapableofperformingatthedegreeof

difficultytheywishedtouse.

InhisGrandTraité,Berlioznotonlypraisedthesaxophone’suniquetimbre

anditspotentials,butalsomentionstheshorttimeittooktoachievemasteryfrom

woodwinddoublers:

"Clevercomposerswillhereafterderivewondrouseffectsfromsaxophonesassociatedwith

clarinetfamily,orintroducedinothercombinationswhichwouldberashtoattemptforeseeing.This

instrumentisplayedwithgreatfacility;itsfingeringproceedingfromthefingeringoftheflute,and

fromthatofthehautboy.Clarinet-players,alreadyfamiliarwiththemouthing,renderthemselves

mastersofitsmechanisminaveryshorttime.TheseareSAXOPHONES.Thesenewvoicesgivento

theorchestra,possessmostrareandpreciousqualities.Softandpenetratinginthehigherpart,full

andrichinthelowerpar,theirmediumhassomethingprofoundlyexpressive.Itis,inshort,aquality

oftonesuigeneris,presentingvagueanalogieswiththesoundsofthevioloncello,oftheclarinetand

cornoinglese,andinvestedwithabrazentingewhichimpartsaquitepeculiaraccent."71

EveninthelatetwentiethcenturyFrenchmusicwascharacterizedbythe"magicof

timbre"asdescribedbycomposerHenriDutilleux,whenhespokeoftimbreas

beingamongthemostimportantattributesacomposercoulduseandreferredtoit

as"sitesauriculaires"–pointsofbeautyfortheear.72

70RevueetgazettemusicaledeParis,18,no.102,(14October1849),322.71HectorBerlioz,GrandTraitéd’Instrumentationetd’OrchestrationModernes,(Kassel,Germany:Bärenreiter2003),242.72CarolineRae,"TheMagicofTimbre:FrenchOrchestralSound",CityofLight:Paris1900-1950PhilharmoniaOrchestra,accessedMarch10,2017http://www.philharmonia.co.uk/paris/essays/10/the_magic_of_timbre

43

Fewcomposersdidshowtheircapabilityofexploitingorchestralcolorsas

partoftheircompositionalpracticeinadditiontothecustomaryrelianceon

harmonicandrhythmicconventions.Theseworkswerewrittenforstagingatthe

ConservatoiredeParisandtheParisOpéra,whereSaxhadobtainedaconducting

positioninNovember1847.(Interestinglyenough,theSaxvs.Carafabattlerepeated

itselfintheOpérahouse,asCarafawasthedirectoroftheonstagebandapriorto

Saxandhedidnotleavehispostwithoutconflict.)Thefirstworktouseasaxophone

wasKastner'sLadernierroideJuda,whichpremieredintheconcerthallofthe

ConservatoiredeParis.Kastner'soperaswererarelystagedandpublishedsincehis

reputationwasasamusiccriticandtheorist;similarlyLadernierroideJudahad

onlyasingleperformance.Kastner'ssparsescoringinbassclefforabasssaxophone

inCasanadditionallowbrassvoicedisplaystheunfamiliaritycomposershadwith

thenovelinstrument;evenaclosefriendofSaxdidnotknowtheconventionsof

saxophonewritingatthetime,(usingbassclef)thereforeitishighlyunlikelythat

composerswhoheardtheinstrumentwouldhaveknowntherangeand

transpositionsitrequired.

Thesecondoperaofthe1840sdidn'tactuallyfeaturethesaxophonebecause

thecomposer'sdecisionwasmetwithrelentlessopposition.InMeyerbeer's1849

composition,LeProphete,heintendedtoreplacethecellosolofromtheadagioofact

fivewithanaltosaxophoneduringthefirstfewrehearsals.Theresistanceofthepit

musicians,however,preventedthecomposer'salterationwhentheythreatenedto

leaveifSax'sinstrumentsweretobeused.Feelingguiltybecausehesurrenderedto

theperformers,MeyerbeerwrotealonglettertoSaxsayingthathestillregarded

thesaxophoneasawonderfulinstrument,evenifhehadn'tbeenabletouseitinhis

work.73

TheParisiancommunityperceivedthesaxophoneasamusicalinterloper;an

instrumentmadebyaforeignerthatmadeitsarrivalintomusicmakingthroughan

administrativeorder.EmilyI.Dolan'stheory,whichassertsthattheconnotations

attachedtoinstrumentspriortotheirusagewithintheorchestradictatedtheir

73IgnaceDeKeyser,"AdolpheSaxandtheParisOpéra,"BrassScholarshipinReview:TheHistoricBrassSociety,6,(1999):132.

44

musicalfunctionswithintheorchestraisproventrue,astheParisianinstrument

manufacturingcommunity'sreceptionofthesaxophoneasan"invalid"74outsider

contributedtoitsprescribeditsorchestralrole.Thesaxophone'sorchestralrole

becameoneofanexoticoutsider,usedrarelyforcolorandconjuringthestrange.

WhatevereconomicandmusicalsuccessSaxobtainedintheFrenchmilitary

wastobelosttowardstheendofthe1840swhenthe1848Revolutioncausedhim

tolosehismostpowerfulally.InthemidstofSax’ssuccess,giventohimmostlyby

hisadministrativeallies,asequenceofill-fatedincidentsoccurredduringKing

Louis-Philippe'sreign.In1845abadcerealharvestwasexacerbatedbyapoorer

harvestin1846duetoitsencompassmentofmultipleagriculturalfoodstaples,such

asbreadandpotatoes.Shortfoodsupplylevelscausedfoodpricestoriseata

disturbingrate.Higherfoodpricesresultedinareducedexpenditureonleisurely

items,suchastextiles,householdobjects,andhousesfromthebourgeoisiesincean

increasedportionofincomehadtobeusedonfood.Inturn,acolossaldecreasein

productionofmanyindustriesoccurred.In1847700,000ofFrance’sworkershad

beenlaidoffintherailandsteelindustryalone.Shortlyafter,investorsandfinance

housesweresoonaffectedandbecamebankrupt,notbeingabletoreturndeposits

tolividclients.

Theeconomicrecessionalsohadadestructiveimpactonthemusical

communityofParis.Therisingcostsoflivingcausedhordesofmusiciansto

emigrate.Periodicalsreporttheeffectsasa"timewhensingersand

instrumentalistshavedesertedParis,"75and"theEuropeanturmoilrightnow

plungesmostartistsinmisery,"76diminishingtothe"pointthatthefirstorchestral

violinshaveseentheirsalariescuttwohundredfrancsamonth.Thepricesof

lessonsalsoundergosignificantreductions,"77and"thegreatesttalentsareeven

forcedtosubmittonecessity,because,aboveall,weneedtoeat."78Themany

musicianswithoutworkwouldhavediscouragedanyattempttowritethe74Seenote49.75RevueetgazettemusicaledeParis,16,no.25,(25March1847),208.76RevueetgazettemusicaledeParis,17,no.44,(29October1848),334.77Ibid,334.78Ibid,334.

45

saxophoneintotheorchestra.Ifanyinstitutionscouldnotaffordtoemployeventhe

standardchamberorchestra,thencomposerswouldbeencouragedtoreducetheir

pre-writtenworkedorcommissionworkswithminimalinstrumentation;thusthe

economicrestraintsofParisattheendofthe1840swouldhaveaffectedthe

saxophone'sopportunitytobeaddedtoorchestralensembles.

Inaddition,ifacomposerwishedtousethesaxophoneinplaceofastandard

orchestralinstrument,thenthemusicianwhoseinstrumentwastobereplaced

wouldcontinuewithoutwork.Theinstrumentalistwhowasreplacedwould

continuetocontributetotheunemploymentrateoftheParisianmusical

community,whereassaxophonistswhowereconsideredtalentedenoughto

performinprofessionalspheresweremostlikelyemployedtosomedegreein

regimentalbands.Therecessionleadinginto1848resultedinlimitedfundsanda

scarcityofmusiciansforParis,whichwouldhavedissuadedcomposerstoscore

economically,thusexcludingthepossibilitytoaddthesaxophonetotheirworks

becausetheremaynotevenhavebeenasufficientnumberofmusicianstoforman

orchestraatagiveninstitutiontoperformthem.

Inturn,theshortageofjobopportunitieswouldhaveonlyheightenedthe

resistancefromwindplayersagainstanycomposerwhowishedtosubstituteor

writeinoneofSax'sinstrumentsinplaceofatraditionalone.Inthecasewhena

composerspeculatedwritingforthesaxophoneforanewworkatthistime—like

Meyerbeer'ssituationinLeProphete—oppositionfromprofessionalParisian

musicianswaslikelytoarise.Parisianperformerswouldhavevocalizedcomplaints

thatthesaxophonewasnotnecessaryandthatotherinstrumentswerecapableof

theperformingrigoroustechnicalpassagesandpowerfulfanfarescharacteristicof

earlysaxophoneparts.Economicscoringwouldhavebeenaprioritytocomposers

whoremainedinParisattheendofthe1840s,leavingnoroomforanadditionof

theeulogizedinstrument.

Paralleltotheworld-changingeventattheendoftheeighteenthcentury,

politicalpressureonthekingincreased,escalatedintoriots,andbecamea

revolutionwhenprotesterswereshot.Withintwenty-fourhoursKingLouis-

PhilippeabdicatedandfledtoEngland,bringinginyetanothershiftinauthority.

46

AfterLouis-Philippe’ssovereigntywasdisposedof,acitizen'sProvisional

Governmentwasestablishedandwhileitonlylastedfourmonths,Saxsuffered

considerablywithouthispowerfulallies.Sax’swell-establishednetworkofmilitary

bureaucratsandroyalpatronswasdiscardedalongwithLouis-Philippe,andhis

opponentsobtainedpositionsofpowerinwhichtheyhastilyusedtoruinhim.

Sax'songoingcourtcaseregardinghisallegedviolationofthe1844patent

lawhadbeendeferredduetotheriots,butresumedduringthefirstmonthofthe

ProvisionalGovernment'splacement—only,itwouldcontinuewithdifferent

prosecutors.Theoriginallawyer,AdolpheCrémieux,fortheplaintiffswasappointed

thepositionofMinisterofJusticeduringthetimetheProvisionalGovernmentwas

inplaceandCrémieux'sreplacementmaliciouslyexploitedSax'sconnectionswith

Louis-Philippe'sregimeandthemilitarywiththeintentionstoaccentuateSax's

supposedanti-republicantendencies.79Thecourt'sverdictrevokedcomponentsof

hissaxhornpatentandhissaxotrombapatent,howeverhissaxophonepatent

remained.Saxcharacteristicallyappealedthecourt'sdecision,butitwouldn'tbe

until1854beforethecourtdecidedinhisfavor.

Concurrently,whileSaxwasstilldealingwithaseriesofstrenuouslitigations

initiatedbyhisenemies,whichpushedhimclosertodebt.Carafa,hisopponentfrom

theChampsdeMarseventseizedtheopportunitytoinitiatethefirstmusic-related

decisionoftheProvisionalGovernment,ashewaswellconnectedwiththe

ProvisionalGovernmentadministration.CarafainstigatedanordertorepealSax's

reorganizationofmilitarybandsandreturntothepre-1845instrumentationwhen

Sax’sinstrumentswerenotused.80Musicperiodicalsreportedonthematterthat“it

wasbasedonlittlemorethanamiserablequestionofpride."81Laterin1848,the

79ThereisnodefinitiveevidenceforSax'spoliticalviews,thoughHorwoodsuggeststhatSaxtookpartinstreetfightsagainstthosewhowereopposedtothemonarchy.FormoreinformationseeWallyHorwood,AdolpheSax1814-1894:HisLifeandLegacy,(Baldock,UnitedKingdom:EgonPublishing,1992),82.80“ThecavalryensembleswerestilldestinedtoretainsomeofSax’sinstruments,butnotunderthename‘saxhorn’,recallingtheargumentsthathadlongbeenissuedbytheProvisionalGovernmentorderthat‘thenamesgiventocertaininstrumentswillbereplacedbytheirpropernames."MalouMalouHaine,AdolpheSax(1814-1894):savie,sonœuvreetsesinstrumentsdemusique.(Brussels,Editionsdel'UniversitédeBruxelles,1980,107.81StephenCottrell,TheSaxophone(London:YaleUniversityPress,2012),26.

47

ProvisionalGovernmentwasabolishedandpopularelectionsdesignatedLouis-

NapoléonBonaparteaspresident.

The1840sbeganasapromisingjourneytothecitywhereinstrument

makingwasamongthemostrespectedprofessions.Initialeffusivesupport

expressedbyleadingParisianmusicalfiguresaffirmedthecity'spromises;financial

achievementsandformalrecognitionsfollowed,makingSax'sfutureappear

indefinitelyauspicious.TheprosperityofferedoriginallybySax'sinfamousmilitary

contract,however,wouldneveroutweighthedestructiveeffectsitgenerated.The

financialbenefitsgiventohimbyroyalandmilitaryauthoritiesyieldedan

abhorrentsectarianprejudicefromtheinstrumentmanufacturingindustry,

resultinginafull-scale"war"overSax'sinstruments.Apoliticallyandeconomically

charged"war"thatwouldimpacttheattitudesoftheParisianmusicalcommunityto

theextentthattheverymusicalfateofhismostreviledinstrumentwasdecided.

The1840sendedwiththerescindmentofSax'spowerfulallies,biasedlawsuit

verdicts,andthebeginningofadevastatingfutureforthesaxophoneinorchestral

music.

V.1850s:Imperialinstrumentorworkingman'svoice?TheSaxophone'sParadoxicalIdentities AfteradecadeinthecityofinstrumentmanufacturingSaxhad

revolutionizedParisianattitudesonmusic.Hisinstrumentshadtransformed

France'smilitarybandsfromdespondentandmediocreensemblesstructuredbya

senselessarrangementofdisparateinstrumentstovehementandenriched

ensemblesofinternationalfamefortheirbalanceandrichamalgamoftimbres.His

newmanufacturingmethodshadprovokedanamplifiedcompetitivenesswithinthe

instrumentmanufacturingindustryandtheplethoraofpatentshetookout

encouragedanoverprotectivementalityofthemosttrivialdetailsamongother

inventors.Conservatoriesadoptedhismodifiedfamilyofclarinets,notonlyin

48

France,butalsoacrossthecontinent,82butthemostnotableeventforSaxinthe

1840swastheunveilingofhisinimitablesaxophone.ThecityofParisexpressed

reactionsfromadoringfascinationandastonishmenttoincredulityandmimicryat

theneverbeforeheardtimbrepresentedinthesaxophoneduringthefirstdecadeof

Sax'stimethere.

Succumbingtodebt,Sax"playedthesamehand"withthenewregimeof

President,laterEmperorLouis-NapoléonBonaparteIII.Despitethepending

lawsuitsandbankruptcy,Sax'simperialallywouldrescuehimandhewould

continuetoexertconsiderableforceontheinstrumentmanufacturingindustry.The

politicalandeconomicfacetsofSax'slifeoscillatedthroughoutthe1850sduetothe

unstabledecisionsofthegovernment,rivallitigations,andhissupervisionof

promotionalconcerts;eerilyreflectiveoftheprecedingdecade.The1850swasa

periodwherethesaxophonewasimplementedintoensembleswithoutanexecutive

orderandthesocialframeworksofthoseensemblespermanentlyaffixedcultural

identitiestotheinstrument.

Themostsignificanteventinthe1850sregardingthesaxophone'sreputationin

instrumentaldiscoursewasthedevelopmentofdivergentsocietalvenuesand

performances.

"Fighterslivelongerthanothers" Whentheupheavaloccurredin1848thesaxophonehadonlybeenpatented

fortwoyearsandusedinmilitarybandsforthreeyears,hardlyenoughto

revolutionizeinstrumentalmusicasmusiccriticsandcomposerspredicted.The

temporarysystemthathadassignedseverelybiasedpositionsofauthorityagainst

Saxhaddepletedhiswealthintherevocationofhispatents(asidefromhis

saxophonepatent)andcostlycourtfees.Tocombattheseexpensesheconsidered

reducinghisnumberofemployees,however,hewaspersuadednottoinorderto

avoidthepossibilityofaretaliationjustaftertheworker-ledrevolution.Insteadhe

82AlbertR.Rice,FromtheClarinetd'AmourtotheContraBass:AHistoryofLargeSizeClarinets1740-1860,(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2009),305.

49

wasforcedtoborrowaloanof30,000francsfromPaulLeroux,hisassociate.83The

beginningofthedecadewasofftoaterriblebeginning;hehadlosthispatentsand

militarycontractandwithinthefirsttwoyearshefiledbankruptcyonJuly5,1852.

Yet,asSaxoncestated,"fighterslivelongerthanothers,"84hefoughttoadapttothe

newpoliticalclimateofFranceinthesamemannerashedidwithLouis-Philippe's

regime.

ButduringSax'sattemptstoregaingovernmentalpatronageNapoléon's

termwasscheduledtoendinMay1852,andhisattemptswouldbemadeinvain

sincethenewlyconstructedconstitutionof1848prohibitedelectedofficialsfrom

runningforasecondterm.Napoléon,however,sawthingsdifferentlyandmadethe

argumentthatonetermwouldnotbelongenoughtoimplementhiseconomicplans.

TheNationalAssemblyrefusedtoconsideramendingtheconstitutionoutof

concernthattermextensionswouldleadtotheabuseofpresidentialofficeand

power.Subsequently,Napoléongainedpopularappealtotheideaofaterm

extensionthroughvarioustourspromotinghispolicies.TheNationalAssemblydid

notreconsider,despitehisattemptsandon2December1851;NapoléonIIIinitiated

acoupd'étatthroughappropriationofpower,claimingtherighttodosoasa

referendumonhiswidespreadpopularity.HethendissolvedtheNationalAssembly,

declaredanewconstitution,andheldreferenduminNovember1852toconfirmhis

positionasemperor.TheSecondRepublicgavewaytotheSecondFrenchEmpire

andSaxwastogainanextremelypowerfulnewally.

LookingtoabsolvehisdebtandreintroducehisinstrumentstotheFrench

military,thelargestpurchaser,hebegantointegratehimselfwithNapoléonIII's

administrationduringan1852militaryparadewhenNapoléonexpressed

satisfactioninthebandsfeaturinghisorchestration.NapoléonIIIwasalready

familiarwithSax'sworksincehepresentedhimwiththeChevalierdeOrdrenational

83Thoughthisloaninitiallyprovedunbeneficial,asM.Lerouxpassedawayshortlyafterandhisfamilydemandedafullreimbursement.SaxandM.Leroux'sfamilyeventuallyreachedanagreementinwhichhewasabletorepaytheloanovertheperiodofeightyears.StephenCottrell,TheSaxophone(London:YaleUniversityPress,2012),27.84FrederickHemke,"MusicaleCelebratingAdolpheSax,"(speech,Urbana,Illinois,KrannertCenterforthePerformingArts,2014),NorthAmericanSaxophoneAlliance,https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cXWi9A60lyI&t=350s.

50

delaLégiond'honneurawardin1849,thusmakingitpossibleforSaxtoputforthhis

revised85militarybandorchestrationplanswhenNapoléonconsideredreorganizing

themilitarybandoftheGardeimpérialeforhisprivateuse.Reminiscentofthe

previousdecade,SaxwasinvitedtoauditionfortheEmperorhimself.Followingthe

invitation,onNewYearsDay1853,justweeksafterNapoléon'scoup,Saxarrangeda

bandtodemonstratehisorchestrationforthenewlyhailedEmperor.Sax'saudition

wasreportedasuccess:

"M.Saxreceivedcongratulationsfromhisillustriousaudience,includingMr.Meyerbeerand

Mr.Fleury,Coloneloftheregimentguides.Yesterday,Saturday,themodelmusic[instrumentation]

hadtobeheardincourtinthepresenceoftheEmperor,andthereisnodoubtthatthishearingwas

anopportunityforabrillianttriumphforMr.Saxforhisinstrumentsandhisartists."86

Figure5.1:Sax'srevisedinstrumentationproposalforFrenchmilitarybands(1854)2Flutes/piccolos 2EbSoprano

Saxhorns4ValvedTrumpets

4EbClarinets 2BbAltoSaxhorns

2Cornetswitheitherpistonsorvalves

8BbClarinets 2BbBaritoneSaxhorns

3Trombones

2BbSopranoSaxophones

4BbBassSaxhorns

1BassTrombone

2EbAltoSaxophones

2EbContrabassSaxhorns

1Bassdrumand1sidedrum

2BbTenorSaxophones

2BbContrabassSaxhorns

2Percussionists

2EbBaritoneorCBassSaxophones

3EbAltoSaxotrombas

2PairsofCymbals

Thespeculationfrommusicperiodicalswereconfirmedaboutayearlaterwhenthe

successofSax'sprivateconcertbecameconcretethroughNapoléon'sfirstmusical

order:theGardeimpérialewouldfollowSax'sinstrumentationproposal.Three

weekslaterinAugust1854,Sax'snewpatronissuedanotherdecree,whichordered

FrenchregimentalbandstofollowthesameinstrumentationastheGardeimpériale.

ThankstoNapoléon'sordereachregimentalbandwouldfeatureanoctetof

85SeeFigure5.1.86RevueetgazettemusicaledeParis,22,no.1,(2January1853),7.

51

saxophonesandSaxwouldrecoverfinancially.ButSaxdidnotonlyrecover

financiallybythereinstatementofhismilitarybandorchestration,hisinfluential

patronarrangedforhisdebtbepaidandhonoredhimwiththetitleofFabricant

officield'instrumentsdemusiqueàl'empereur(OfficialMusicalInstrument

ManufacturertotheEmperor)on8April1854—anauthoritativetitle,whichSax

begantoengraveonhisinstruments.87

Figure5.2:AnengravingonasaxophoneexhibitingSax’snewdistinguishedtitlefromNapoléonIII.

Napoléon'spromotionalactionswouldhaveonlyfurtherstrengthened

connotationsofthesaxophonewiththemilitaryandprovokedinstrument

manufacturestocontinuetheircrusadesinrestrictingSax'seconomicandmusical

influenceinParis.Onecanonlyimaginethevastenvyothermanufacturersfelt

whentheEmperorrescuedSaxfromfinancialruinandappointedhisbusinessas

thesolemanufacturerfortheempire,despitehislossofsaxhornandsaxotromba

patents.Toothers,itmusthaveappearedasavindictiveactionbySaxsincethe

annulmentofhispatentsallowedforanymanufacturertoproducesaxhornsand

saxotrombas,exceptonlyhewasabletoselltoimperialorganizations.However,any

productivitybroughttoSax'sbusinessduetohisimperialtitlewasoffsetinthelater

halfofthedecadewhenseveraldetrimentaldecisionsregardingmilitarymusic

transpired.FundingcutsshutdowntheGymnasedeMusiqueMilitaireentirelyin

1856,forcingtheConservatoiredeParistoreluctantlyacceptarequesttoprovide

87SeeFigure5.2

52

thetrainingforregimentalmusicians.Saxhimselfrequestedtoteachthesaxophone

attheConservatoire,astherewasnopresentsaxophoneteacheremployedthere.88

Althoughheobtainedtheposition,theConservatoire'sdecisiontoomithisnameasa

professorinthebrochuresdisplaysthedividebetweenmilitaryandtraditional

musicsincemilitarymusicclasseswereconsideredtobeunrelatedtothemain

studiesofConservatoiredeParis.89TheConservatoire'sdecisiontoexcludeSaxand

othermilitaryclassprofessorsinitsbrochuresexhibitthestigmasthatthe

traditionallearned,or"classical"circlehadaffixedtomartialmusicmaking.Sucha

decisionmadebythemostpersuasiveinstitutioninParisianmusictraditionsis

indicativethattoclassicallytrainedmusiciansthesaxophonehadsecureda

stationaryassociationwithmilitarymusicatthatpointandwasincompatiblewith

thetraditionsofthe"classical"community.

FluctuatingFinances:Sax'sUncompromisingPersonalityandPatentParanoia Notwithstandingtheterriblebeginningframedbybankruptcy,the1850s

wasarathersuccessfulfinancialdecadeforSax.Themiddleofthenineteenth

centurycommencedarisinginternationalmarketforwindinstrumentsowedtothe

growingpopularityofmilitarybandsinEurope.Saxcateredtotheinternational

interestinmilitarybandmusicthroughsecuringpatentsandlicensingagreements

withagentsinothercountries,suchasEngland,Belgium,Russia,Spain,andPrussia.

Anearlybrochurefromthedecadelistspricesnotonlyinfrancs,butPrussian

thalersandsilbergroschen,Britishshillings,andSpanishreales.90Saxhadthemost

successintheBritishmarket,wherehehadauthorizedagentsasearlyas1846to

sellhisimportedinstruments.An1854adintheBritishjournal,MusicalTimes

88"Amongtheartistswhotodayplaythesaxophone,thereisnotonewhoisequippedtoteachallindividualsofthewholefamily,fromthesopranotothebass,andnonofthosewhoplaypossessesthebestsoundbecauseoftheinstrumenttheypracticedpreviouslyandwhichtheyareobligedtocontinuetoplayeveryday.Ifthereforetheteachingofthesaxophonewereabandonedtoaprofessorotherthanmyself,thetimbrewouldinevitablydeviatefromthatwhichIwantedandhaveachieved....ItisnotonlytopreventthetortureofmehearingallmylifeatimbredifferentfromthatwhichshouldbeobtainedthatIinsistuponthispoint;youknow,gentlemen,howimportantarethepostureandsoundproductioninrelationtothehumanvoice...youappreciateevenmorethisimportancewithregardtoanewfamilyofinstruments."SaxquotedinStephenCottrell,TheSaxophone(London:YaleUniversityPress,2012),34.89SeeFigure5.3.90Ibid,94.

53

announcedthatSax'srepresentativecompanyhad,"justreceivedagreatvarietyof

soprano,alto,tenorandbassofSax'snewandbeautifullytonedinstruments,the

Saxophone,"which"possessacharmequaltotheoriginalityoftheirtone,andthey

carrytothehighestdegreeofperfection,lavoixexpressive."91

Figure5.3:TheseparationbetweentraditionalmusiccoursesattheConservatoiredeParis(top

paragraph,anditscontinuationbelow“SOMMAIRE-TABLE”)andthemilitarymusiccourses(Classes

pourlesélèvesmilitaires),theonlycategorythatincludedsaxophonecoursesinformalstudyinthe

nineteenthcentury.

AnindicationofSax'seconomicdominationandinfluenceonmusical

practice,eventhroughhisfinancialstrugglesatthebeginningofthedecadecanbe

observedthroughlocalamateurbandcompetitions.ARevuearticlefrom1852

reportsthatbandscomposedentirelyofSax'sinstrumentswonthetopprizesfora

contestinthetownofAbbeville,locatednearthecoastofnorthernFrance.92The

factthatamateurcommunitybandsoutsideofParisadecadeafterhisarrivalhad

conformedtoSax'sinstrumentationimpliesthatheassertedahighlevelofinfluence

91Ibid,97.92RevueetgazettemusicaledeParis,20,no.37,(12September1852),307-308.

54

onFrenchmusicalpractices—onlyonwindensemblepractices,nottheelite

traditionoforchestralmusic.

Suchadegreeofauthorityonthemarketplaceaswellasmusicalpractice

revealedSax'suncompromisingbehaviors.Thenumberoflitigationsthathe

pursuedinthe1850swasmuchlarger,andforthecasesthatendedbeforethe

decade'send,hewastriumphant,perhapsduetohisstatuswithNapoléon.Even

unawarecustomerswhopurchasedcounterfeitsaxophoneswereperceivedas

"enemies"toSax.In1850hesuccessfullysuedLyoninstrumentmaker,MichelRivet

foracounterfeitsaxophonewhenanunsuspectingsoldierbroughtittoSax'sfactory

forrepair.Sax'sobduratemannersabouttheprotectionofhissaxophonepatent

resultedintheunforgivingconfiscationofthecustomer'ssaxophoneinaseriesof

events,whichthepurchaserexplainsfromhisperspective:

"Iknownothingaboutitall.IwasstationedinLyon,Ihadtogetintothemusicportionofthe

regiment;IwenttoM.Rivet,here;Isaid:"Iwanttobuyasaxophone,howmuch?"Hesaid:"Itismy

price,I'llgiveyouasaxophoneonthatmodel."Idonotthinkonitmuchlonger;whenthesaxophone

ismade,Ipaymymoneythatmyfamilysentme.Voila!wecometoParis;Ineedtorepairmy

instrument,IgotoM.Saxwhosaid,"But,boy,itisacounterfeitofmyinstrument;I'llenterbailiff."

Indeed,hegoeslookingforabailiff."But,sir,"Isaid,"Idonotknowwhyyoutakemysaxophone,I

boughtMr.RivetinLyon,whichIwilladdress,andvoila!IamwithoutmyinstrumentthatIpaidfor

withmyownmoney."93

Rivetwasfined400francsindamagesandwasorderedtoinserttheverdictinthree

newspapers,butSaxpersistedandcalledforauthoritiestoseizetheunfortunate

soldier'scounterfeitinstrument.Commonsenserevealsthatthesoldierwouldnot

havebroughthissaxophonetoSax'sshopforrepairinthefirstplacehadheknown

itwascounterfeited.ImaginablythatwouldhaveoccurredtoSax,buthebitterly

requestedseizureoftheforgedsaxophoneanyway,perhapsbecausehesawitasan

opportunitytofurthercapitalizeontheevent.Hewasmorethanawarethatmilitary

officialswouldorderthesoldiertopurchasean"official"saxophoneifhewishedto

continueperforminginregimentalbands,inturnallowinghimtoprofit.The

93RevueetgazettemusicaledeParis,19,no.34,(25August1850),285.

55

inventor'saggressivebehaviordirectedtowardsaninnocentmanmostlikely

resultedinadiminishedrespect.

Outofthenumerouslitigationshepursuedinthe1850s,themostsignificant

werehiscasesagainstGautrot.Afterbeingappointedtheofficialinstrument

manufacturingtotheEmperor,hebelievedthatthecase,whichrevokedhispatents

underthebiasedProvisionalGovernmentappointees,couldbeoverturnedinhis

favorthroughanappeal(nowthathehadappointeesbiasedtowardshim,not

against.)In1854thecasefinallydidendinhisfavor,deemingallpartsofhis

saxhornandsaxotrombapatentstobevalid.94Withanincreasedconfidencefrom

hispreviouswin;SaxvigorouslysuedPierre-LouisGautrotforpatentinfringement

inJune1856forhissarrusophone,animitationofthesaxophonebothvisuallyand

verbally.

JustthreedaysafterGautrot'ssarrusophonepatentwasgrantedinSaxfiled

suitforcopyrightinfringementson12June1856.Theresemblancesbetweenthe

saxophoneandsarrusophonewereextremelyobvious.First,inthelatter'sname;

GautrotclaimsthathenamedhisinventionaftertheFrenchbandmasterPierre-

AugusteSarrus.AsatranscriptionofthecasepointsoutthatSax'slawyerclaimed

hisdecisiontonameitaftersomebodyotherthanhimselfwhenheinventeditwas

anactintendedtoconfusecustomerswhowishedtopurchasesaxophones:

"hewillforgeanamethatwillhaveallthephysiognomyofthesaxophonename,andhecan

saysarrussophone,andexclaim:"Ifoundmybusiness!"Hethen,procreatedaninstrumentwhichhe

claimstobecomposedofacopperbody,amouthpiece,areedandarmedwithnineteenkeys,exactly

likethesaxophone,calledthesarrussophone."95

AFrenchsoldierandmusicologist,LouisAdolpheleDoulcet,comtedePontécoulant

alsobelievedthiswasthereasonbehindtheinstrument'sname,whichhewrotein

hisOrganographieof1861that"Gautrot,seekingtocounterbalancethesuccessand

94"AjudgmentoftheimperialcourtofRouenhascompletedallthetrialsofAdolpheSax,endingsuccessfullyforthefamousinventoronallissues."RevueetgazettemusicaledeParis,23,no.27,(2July1854),218.95GuinardPrunier-Quatremère,"ConcurrenceDéloyale.SaxContreGautrot.8November1862",TribunalDeCommerceDeParis,(Paris,FR:Impr.N.Chaix,1862),BibliothèquenationaledeFrance,SiteRichelieu,Paris,France.

56

vogueoftheSaxophone,thoughtofproducingacrudeimitationunderthename

sarrusophone."96

AndGautrot'splanworked,forthenamedidconfuseadvertisersand

customers.AdsplacedbyGautrotinseveralnumbersofLaFrancechoralewere

"mistyped,"attributinghimastheinventorofthesaxophone.Gautrotclaimedthatit

wasanerroronthepublisher'spart,butSax'slawyerarguedthathepurposelysent

inhisadcontainingtheword"saxophone"sothatwhencustomerswenttohisshop

lookingforsaxophoneshecouldsellthemsarussophonesinstead.Onthematterof

nameinfringementthecourtruledthatnotonlytheuseof"sarrus"wasa

misleadingattempttoconfuseconsumers,butGautrot'sattachmentof"ophone"

wasalsoconsideredadirectinfringementonSax'spatentsincehewasthefirstto

combinetheancientGreekword,whichmeans"tospeak,"withaname.

Thesarrusophonewasalsoincrediblysimilartothesaxophonevisually.97

Bothweremadeofbrasswithconicalbores,usedsinglereedmouthpieces,98were

transposinginstrumentsinthekeysofEbandBb,andhadarangeoftwooctaves

andaminorsixth.Thetwoinstrumentswereparallelinconstructiontotheextent

thatmethodbookswerepublishedasmethodsforeitherthesaxophoneor

sarrusophone.99ThecourtruledentirelyinSax'sfavoron8July1859,ordering

Gautrottopaydamagesof50,000francs.Gautrotfailedtohonorthisagreementand

wasorderedtopayanadditional150,000francs.However,hecontinuedtoviolate

thecourt'sorderbysellingunmarkedmodelsofSax'sinstrumentsand

sarrusophones,whicheventuallycosthimamassive500,000francsindamagesto

Sax.Thelastcounterclaimsandappealsbetweenthetwodidn'tenduntil1867.

96StephenCottrell,TheSaxophone(London:YaleUniversityPress,2012),67.97SeeFigure5.498Gautrotinitiallyconceivedtheinstrumentwithadoublereed,butlaterdemonstratedthatbothdoubleandsinglereedscouldbeusedonthesarrusophone.Seefigure5.5.99An1875methodbookwrittenbyA.Boscherispublishedas"Méthodede1ersaxophone-alto(ousarrusophone)inmibémolextraitdelaméthodegénéraled'ensemble:fanfareenseignementsimultanepourtouslesinstrumentsavent,courscompletenvingt-quatreleçonsde2heureschacune".SeeFigure5.6.

57

Sax'sstubbornpersonalityandinclinationtorushintolitigationwerealarge

componentbehindhisfinancialruinattheendofhislifebutwasalsoindirectly

impactedcomposer'sdecisionstoscoreforhisinstruments.Sax'sroutineofsuing

anybodywhoevenhintedatpatentinfringements,andinsomecasestheinnocent

bystandersinvolved,wouldhavegivenhimthenotorietytobeavoidedbytraders,

andperhapsbyextensionmusiciansandcomposers.Inacitycategorizedbya

ferociousinstrumentbuildingindustrywherethesmallestinnovationswere

patented,andevenhintsofinfringementwerelegallypursued,onecaneasily

imaginecomposersjokedamongsteachotherthatscoringforthesaxophonewould

resultinalawsuit.

Figure5.5:Gautrotaddedtotheresemblancebetweenthesarrusophoneandthesaxophonebyincludingasinglereedmouthpieceinhislaterpatent.

Figure5.4:Thesarrusophonecontainedthesamekeyworkwithasimilarfingeringsystem,aswellasacurvedbocalthatresembledtheiconiconeonthesaxophone.

58

Figure5.6:An1875methodbookadvertisedascompatibleforboththestudyofthesaxophoneandthatofthesarrusophone.

59

TheEmergenceofanUnderprivilegedVoice However,Sax'srestoredimperialindentureandaggressivelitigationshad

onlyminimalinfluenceontheaestheticcourseofthesaxophone.Themost

significanteventthatdisseminatedthesaxophone'sculturalsymbolismas

incongruouswiththesymphonyorchestrawasitsemploymentinworkingclass

musictraditions.Thoughattemptslookedostensiblysuccessfulregardingthe

integrationthesaxophoneintoorchestralsettingsthroughtheeffortofSax'shybrid

harmonieorchestraandthegrowingnumberofParisOpérascoresthatincludedit,

simultaneouseventswithinworkingclassvenuesaddeddetrimentalconnotations

totheinstrument'scharacter.

Abriefsummaryofthehistoryoftheseworkingclassmusicaltraditions,

theirrepertoire,theirvenues,andtheirvalueswillhelpclarifyhowthesaxophone's

usageinsuchsettingsaffecteditssocialperception.

Thevenuesandensembles,whichusedthesaxophonepriortotheinventor's

anticipatedarrivalintheconcerthall,formeditsassociations.Theconcerthall

deniedtheinstrument'sentranceduetothecontrastingvenueswhereitwas

alreadycelebrated.Thesevenueswerethecityparks,cafes,andtaverns,wherethe

popularcustomofpromenadeconcertsmadeitsname.Promenadeconcertsarose

fromthetraditionsofinformalmusicmakingamongthelower-middleclassesin

suchsettings.The1830sand1840spromenadeconcertssawachangetoits

practices:streetmusiciansandhobbyistswerenolongeratthecenterofthe

performancesinsteadaspiringprofessionalstookthereins.Promenadeensembles

weren’tcomprisedofanystandardinstrumentationbuttypicallyconsistedofa

combinationofmilitarywindensembleandchamberorchestrainstrumentation.

Aspiringprofessionalmusiciansperformedinthesesettingsbecausetheyhopedto

getenhancetheirnameandgetbookingswithlargerfees.Thepromenade

repertoireconsistedmostlyofarrangementsofpopularoperathemes,dances,and

worksbylesser-knowncomposers.Theworksfromlesser-knowncomposersand

arrangerswereusedtopromotecomposersalsotryingtocreatenamesfor

themselves,whowereoftentimesacquaintanceswiththeaspiringmusicians,intoa

widerpublicdomain,hopingspectatorswouldbewillingtomarketinmodified

60

editionsforamateursataffordablecoststoperformathomeorinsalons.The

collaborationsbetweenthemusiciansandarrangerstransformedtheseinformal

eventsintolarge-scalecommercialoperations.

Theaudienceconsistedofworkingandlower-middleclassmemberswho

wereunabletoaffordsophisticatedclassicalmusicperformances,butcouldmanage

thelowerpricesforpromenadeconcerts.Theseconcertswereincrediblypopular

withaudiencesizesfrom1500to5000withanaverageof2500.100Thesuccessof

thepromenadetraditioninPariswaslargelyduetothepopularityoftheeccentric

conductorandimpresario,PhilippeMusard.Musardwaswidelypopularduringthe

1830sand1840sduetohisbizarreuseofunorthodoxsoundeffectswhile

conducting.Hewasknownfordrawinglargecrowdsbypeculiarlyincorporatingthe

firingofpistolsandsmashingofdinnerplatesandchairsintohisperformances.101

Musard'sstrangebehaviorswerethebyproductsofeffortstosatisfytheaudience's

demandforflamboyancyandshowmanship,whichcharacterizedpromenade

concerts.

Promenadeaudiencesdesiredcertainelementsinperformancethatwerenot

alwayspresentintheconcerthalls;theypreferrednovelties,awingmusicaleffects

anddaringextremes.Andinordertosatisfythosedesires,Musardandother

promenadeconductorsfrequentlyutilizedvirtuosicsoloistsandexoticinstruments.

Informalityandentertainmentwerethedefiningtraitsofsuchconcerts,muchlike

presentrockandrollconcerts.Solosplayedbystarperformerswereasubstantial

featurefortherepertoireofmixedpopulardanceslikethepolka,quadrille,and

gallop,andwell-knownoperasegments,whichincludedusinginstrumentalsoloists

forvocallinesandplayingthemesandvariationsuponthemelodies.Dancesmade

upasubstantialportionofMusard'srepertoire,somuchthathewasreferredtoas"

LordofQuadrillesandGalops."102Asthemiddleofthecenturyapproached,

Musard'ssuccesswaned,andheretiredin1852;however,aneweraofpromenade

concertshadcommencedwithhismosttenaciousemulator,Louis-AntoineJullien.

100AdamCarse,TheLifeofJullien,(Cambridge,England:W.Heffer&Sons,1951),8.101Seefigure5.7.102AdamCarse,TheLifeofJullien,(Cambridge,England:W.Heffer&Sons,1951),5.

61

Figure5.7:"Musardentraindecomposerunnouveauquadrillepourlebalsmasqués."("Musardcomposinganewquadrilleforthemaskedballs.")AmédéedeNoé,pseudonym"Cham",Nouvellescharges,albumduCharivari,(Paris,FR:1851).

WhilethesaxophonewasusedinMusard'sconcerts,itwasinJullien's

orchestrathatitwouldbewidelyutilizedandtoanextent,fetishized.Jullienbegan

hiscareerasasoldier,thenstudiedfluteandviolinatConservatoiredeParis,butlost

hisstatusasastudentduetohisfondnessforlightclassicalmusicandshowmanship

displaysduringhisperformances.103HeviewedthepopularMusardasarolemodel

inthe1820sandbeganhisownpromenadeorchestra.Afterafewprosperousyears

hewasappointedtheconductorfortheParisOpéraBalls,maskedballsthat

occurredduringtheCarnavaldeParis.104ButJullienandhisorchestrahadmovedto

Englandin1840,whereheluredlargeaudiencesinthesamemannerashehadin

Paris.From1840intothelate1850s,Jullienfollowedaroutineofperformingfora

briefseasoneachyearinLondonandfortherestoftheyear,returntoParisand

thentouracrossEuropeandtheUnitedStates.

103Ibid,9.104Ibid,14.

62

HequicklygainedinternationalfameanddistinguishedhimselffromMusard

byusingmorestructuredconcertsprograms,pre-stagedtheatricalelements,and

collectivelyemployingmoreskilledmusicians.AnarticleintheBritishmagazine,

Punch,describesthetypicalatmosphereofJullien'sconcerts:

"Withcoatthrownwidelyopen,whitewaistcoat,elaboratelyembroideredshirt-front,

wristbandsofextravagantlengthturnedbackoverhiscuffs,awealthofbackhair,andablack

moustache—itselfastartlingnovelty—hewieldedhisbaton,encouragedhisforces,repressedthe

turbulenceofhisaudienceswithindescribablegravityandmagnificence,wentthroughallthe

pantomimeoftheBritisharmyorNavyQuadrille,seizedaviolinorpiccoloatthemomentofa

climax,andatlastsankexhaustedintohisgorgeousvelvetchair.AllpiecesofBeethoven'swere

conductedwithajeweledbaton,andinapairofcleankidgloves,handedtohimatthemomentona

silversalver."105

AmongtheeccentricnoveltiesofJullien'sconcertswerethemostnotableand

distinguishingmusiciansofhisorchestra,thetwosaxophonesoloists,Charles-Jean-

BaptisteSoualleandHenriWuille.Thetwohadasizeableinfluenceonthe

disseminationofthesaxophoneduringthe1850sand1860s,asbothwerenotonly

involvedinJullien'sorchestra,butalsoperformedinconcertsinformalcontextsin

France,Belgium,England,andtheUnitedStates.Notmuchinformationisknownon

HenriWuille,butitunderstoodfromRevuearticlesthathewasaBelgian

saxophonistwithvirtuosicabilities,wholaterinhiscareertaughtsaxophoneat

ConservatoiredeStrasbourg.106Comparatively,muchisdocumentedonSoualle.

Asadistinguishedclarinetist,Charles-Jean-BaptisteSouallehadgraduated

fromHyacintheKlosé'sclarinetclassatConservatoiredeParisin1844,shortlyafter

hebecametheclarinetistfortheOpéraComiqueuntilthe1848revolution,which

forcedhimtotakerefugeinEngland.Therehebecametheprincipalclarinetistat

theQueen'sTheatrebeforejoiningJullien'sorchestra.Soualle'sperformancesin

Jullien'sbandwereoftenpresentedwithexoticovertones;severalpamphletshave

himlistedasplayinga"cornomusa,"107whichwasundoubtedlythesaxophone,asa

criticfromMusicalWorld,describesthe"cornamusa"asbeing"madeofbrass,has105HectorBerlioz,MémoiresdeHectorBerlioz,(NewYork:DoverPublications,1966),454.Also,seeFigure5.8.106RevueetgazettemusicaledeParis,20,no.48,(30November1851),385-388.107StephenCottrell,TheSaxophone(London:YaleUniversityPress,2012),111.

63

thereedandmouthpieceofaclarinet,bristleswithkeys,andthebowlorbellofa

horn.Ithasamellowrichtone—acompoundoftheclarinetandthecornet."108

SoualletookhisEasternstagepersonalityfurtherduringhissolotoursinAsiaafter

Jullien'sdeathbyembracingthemoniker"AliBenSouAlle"anddressinginoriental

costume.Soualle'sintentionaldisplayofthesaxophoneasanexoticnovelty

reinforcedtheconceptoftheinstrumentasbeingsuch,especiallyduringtheperiod

whereFrancedisplayedanemergentmusicalinterestinexoticism.

Itwasthepresentationasanoveltyactwithinfarcepromenadeconcertsthat

greatlycontributedtotheculturalperceptionofthesaxophoneasanexotic

incongruitywiththecontrastingtraditionsofthesymphonyorchestra.Havingbeen

featuredinJullien'sconcertsfornearlytwentyyearsandthemain"act"offorabout

108Ibid,112.

Figure5.8:Jullien'seccentricpersonality.OneofJullien'ssignaturespectacles:performingapiccoloorviolinwhileconductingattheculminationpointofawork.

64

onedecade,anassociationwithinformal,ostentatious,workingclasstraditionsof

musicmakingwasestablishedfortheinstrument.AndgivenJullien'swidespread

popularityandenormousconcertattendance,it'slikelythatalargenumberof

individualswereexposedtothesaxophoneforthefirsttimethroughpromenade

concerts—especiallythoselivingoutsideofFrancewhereitwasnotusedinmilitary

bands.AftertwodecadesofJullien'smassivelysuccessfultours,itbecameexpected

amongthegeneralEuropeanpublicthattheysaxophonewouldbeheardin

promenadeconcertsandthestrongidentificationwithsuchflamboyantcontexts

restricteditsuseinthesymphonicconcerthalltraditionsthatbecameassociated

withtheupperandmiddleclassinthenineteenthcentury.

Furthermore,theseriousattemptsatincorporatingthesaxophoneintothe

orchestrawereunderminedbypromenadeconcertarrangements.Asignificant

portionofpromenaderepertoirewascomposedofarrangementsofmelodiesfrom

newandpopularoperas.Seeingasthesaxophonewasacommercialattractionfor

promenadeorchestras,itwasoftenusedtoperformthevocalmelodies,aswellas

otherinstrumentalpartsinoperaticarrangements.Thereforeitislikelythat

operaticarrangements,whichoriginallycontainedsaxophoneparts,wouldpreserve

thosepartsentirelyforthesaxophone.Thoughthescorecouldnotbelocated,a

concertposterforMusard'sconcertonthethemesofLimnander'sChateaudela

BarbeBleue109revealsthatworksoriginallycontainingsaxophonepartswere

performedatpromenadeconcerts.Theflippanttreatmentofsaxophonepartsfrom

workspremieredattheParisOpérainwildshowsassociatedwithworkingclass

settingswouldhavediscreditedthe"legitimacy"ofthoseoperas.Becausethe

saxophonewasesteemedinworkingclasspromenadesettings,andforthemost

part,thefurthestaestheticdeviationinthoseoperaswastheusageofitsnovel

timbre,affiliationsweremadebasedontheinstrument.110Inaddition,promenade

109SeeFigure5.9.110WhileIamawarethatpromenadeconcertsfeaturedafargreaternumberofarrangementsfromoperasthatdidnotoriginallycontainthesaxophone,asthenumberofpopularoperaswithoutthesaxophonewasmuchlarger,theoperasthatdidoriginallycontainsaxophonepartswereshort-livedintermsofperformancesincomparisontotheircontemporaries.Thissuggeststhattheusageofthesaxophoneintheoperaticcontextwasnegativelyreceivedduetoitseminenceinpromenade

65

arrangementsonsymphonicpiecesincludedsaxophoneparts,whichwerecriticized

becauseoftheveryorchestralcustomoffollowingthecomposer'sinstructions

exactlyregardingorchestralscoring.Forinstancein1849aLondoncriticchastised

Jullien'sperformanceofBeethoven'sfifthsymphonyforaddinginstrumentsthat

Beethovenhadnotscoredfor;causticallyaskingwhereinthescoreJullienhad

foundthepartsfor"fourophicleidesandasaxophone,besidesthoseofhisfavorite

regimentofside-drums?"111

Figure5.9:Apromenadeconcertposteradvertisingquadrillesandotherdancethemesfrom

Limnander'sChateaudelaBarbeBleue.

operaticarrangements.TheOperasfeaturingthesaxophonewerecontemporaryworks,whichwereinitiallyreceivedattheheightofpromenadetraditions,whereasapromenadearrangement,whichgavethesaxophonethevocalistlineinanariafromearlierworks,suchasCosìfantutte,wouldnothaveaffectedtheopera'spopularityasithadalreadyearnedrecognition.111StephenCottrell,TheSaxophone(London:YaleUniversityPress,2012),112.

66

Jullien’srenownedseriesofpromenadeconcertsheldanimportantrolein

earlyconceptionofthesaxophoneduetothetitanicsizeoftheaudiencestheyoften

attracted.112OnecanbetterunderstandthesizeofthecrowdsthatattendedJullien's

concertsfromaquotationbyBerliozinhisMemoirs:

"Fourorfiveyearsafterthissortofmusicalcongress,Jullien,whomIhavealready

mentionedinconnectionwiththeoperaatDruryLane,cametoParistogiveaseriesofgrand

concertsinthecircusattheChamps-Élysées.Hisbankruptcypreventedhimfromsigningthe

necessaryengagements;butIwashappyenoughtoobtainhiscertificateforhim,andwithitthe

powerofcontracting..."Ihavemoney,Ihavemoney,"hecried,takinghandfulsofgoldandbank-notes

outofhispocket....Thenext,inspiteofmyresistance,wastopayofhisDruryLanedebt.Thefactwas

thathehadalreadyreceivedconsiderablesumsforhisconcertsattheChamps-Élysées..."113

BerliozrevealsthatJullien's1858concertserieshadsuchlargeturnoutsthathewas

abletopayhimbacknotonlyfortheentrypaymenttoperformbutalsothemoney

heowedBerliozforhisDruryLaneappearanceinEnglandyearsbefore.114Because

thepromenadebandswerecomprisedoflowclassmusiciansandaudience

members,thesaxophone’sassociationwithsuchvenueshelpeddefineitsidentity;

theidentityofworkingclass,self-taughtmusiciansperforminglightclassicaland

popularmusicinaflamboyantandcasualstyle.(Precedingtheeventsthatwould

transpireinAmericawithAfrican-Americansandjazz.)Evenwhenorchestral

composersdidscoreforthesaxophone,ithadconnotationsofbeinga“peasant”

instrumentandonlyreinforcedthesocialclassdivide.EveninBizet’sL’Arlesienne

suites,theonlyorchestralrepertoirethatfromthenineteenthcenturythat

remainedpartoforchestralrepertoire,thesaxophonerepresentsacommoner,the

musicfromthestreets.115

Theuseofpromenadebandswasthemostinfluentialandsignificant

contributortothesaxophone'sworkingclassconnotations;however,itwasnotthe

112SeeFigure5.10.113HectorBerlioz,MémoiresdeHectorBerlioz,(NewYork:DoverPublications,1966),493.114RegardingJullien'sbankruptcyinBerlioz'squotation:Jullienwasknownforimpulsivespendingandoverspendingonconcertengagements.Towardstheendofhislife(1860)hebecameincreasinglymentallyill,whichcontributedtohisimprudentpurchases.FormoreinformationseeHectorBerlioz,MémoiresdeHectorBerlioz,(NewYork:DoverPublications,1966).115MichaelSegell,TheDevil'sHorn:TheStoryoftheSaxophoneFromNoisyNoveltytoTheKingofCool,(NewYork:Picador,2005),249.

67

onlyone.Cottrellconsiderstherelativelylowpricesoftheinstrumentfamilya

noteworthyfactorintheextensiveworkingclass'susage.Thecostsofother

instrumentswereusuallyprohibitiveforworkingclasssalaries,opposedtothe

saxophone,whichwascomparativelycheap.SaxophonesfromSax'sshopwere

pricedbetween50and95francs,whereastheaveragepricesforfluteswere140to

230francsinParis,andthesymbolicinstrumentofthebourgeoisie,thepiano,was

pricedatawhopping2,000to3,000francs.Thelowcostofsaxophonespermitted

workingclassfamiliestoaffordtheleisurelyactivityofmusiccelebratedinthe

middleclass,whereasevenflutesmayhavebeenunaffordabletosuchfamilies.The

averageworkingclasssalarywasaround3,000francsayearandtheaverage

middleclasssalariesbeganaround3,500francsandcouldbeasmuchas25,000

francs,116givingthemiddleclassfarmoreoptionsforpurchasinginstrumentsand

withthoseinstruments,farmoreensembleoptionstoparticipatein.Theworking

classhadseverelylimitingoptionsasinstrumentalistsandiftheyplayedthe

saxophone,theyonlyhadtheoptiontojointhemilitaryorpromenadebands.

Cottrell'sobservationsareespeciallyimportantforthesaxophone'sworkingclass

implicationsbecauseinthenineteenthcenturyinstrumentsbecameusedas

markersofclass.

116Allnumericalfigureswerederivedfrom:StephenCottrell,TheSaxophone(London:YaleUniversityPress,2012),96.

68

StifledBourgeoisAttemptsatClaimingtheSaxophone? Promenadeorchestraswerenottheonlyensemblesintentionallypromoting

thesaxophone,however;thereweregroups,institutions,andindividualsdedicated

todisplayingthepossibilitiestheinstrumentwieldedinanorchestralsetting.The

conceptualeulogiesverbalizedbycomposersduringthe1840sbecameconcrete

endeavorsinthe1850s.Theseensemblesdidexperienceadegreeofsuccess;

however,theyfailedtoachievetheirgoalbecauseoftheirlessfrequent

Figure5.10:AnetchingdisplayingthemassiveaudiencesdrawntoJullien'spromenadeconcerts.Hisvelvetchaircanbeseenonthepodium."AMonsterConcert,"LondonDailyNews1849,Jullien's Orchestra at a Promenade Concert 'in Covent Garden Theatre

69

performancesaimedatarestrictiveaudienceincomparisontothelarge-scale,

publicoperationsofpromenadeconcerts.

Thetwomajorensemblesthatspecificallyworkedtopromotethesaxophone

inorchestralsettingswere,unsurprisingly,involvedwithSaxhimself.Thefirstwas

withintheinstitutionoftheParisOpéra,wherehehadobtainedthepositionasthe

conductoroftheonstagebandain1847.Thesecondwasapromotionaltouring

hybridorchestraemployedbySaxcalledtheSociétédelaGrandeHarmonie,which

wasfoundedin1853.Becausethefirstusageofsaxophonesinanorchestralsetting

wereinthebandaandscoredworksfortheParisOpéraitisnecessarytoexamine

thesocialattributesoftheOpéraasaninstitutionanditseffectsasavenuebefore

discussingSax'sharmonieorchestra.

ThesaxophonefoundthemostsuccessintheParisOpéraforanumberof

reasons.TheforemostreasonwasalsowhatgaveSaxobtainapositionthere:opera

wasconsideredanapparatusofnationalpolicy.ThedevelopmentofoperainFrance

occurredduetoacustomarygovernmentcontribution.TheParisOpérabeganits

veryexistencethroughgovernmentpatronageasAcadémieRoyaledeMusiqueunder

a1669decisionfromLouisXIV.Atitscreation,theappointedcomposer,Jean-

BaptisteLully,andlibrettistPhilippeQuinaultproducedtragédiesenmusique,which

wereusedasaformofpoliticalpropagandafilledwithmonarchalallusions.Inthe

ageofnationalism,operaasapoliticalassetbecameprevalentoncemore,especially

underKingLouis-Philippe'sreign.TheheritageofFrenchoperawasrevivedas

Louis-PhilippehelpedestablishareputationfortheParisOpéraasasortofnational

theatre.BecausethebourgeoisieprogressivelydefinedtheFrenchconceptof

"nation,"the"CitizenKing"promotedoperaswithasubjectmatterpertainingtothe

bourgeoisie.RichardTaruskindescribesthisrenewalofpoliticalinfluencethrough

operaas,"adeliberatemodernizationandpopularizationofanancientand

aristocraticart."117

SaxwasabletoobtainhisconductingpositionattheParisOpérathroughhis

politicalconnections.Thedirectlevelofauthorityandroleofmilitarymusical

117RichardTaruskin,TheOxfordHistoryofWesternMusic,vol.3,MusicintheNineteenthCentury(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2010),206.

70

practicesexertedbyLouis-Philippe'sregimeontheinstitutionitselfcanbeobserved

bythefactthatthedirectoroftheGymnasedeMusiqueMilitaireheldthebanda

positionpriortoSax.Asthesaxophoneenteredthemusicalworldasapolitical

devicethroughmilitarybands,itisnotsurprisingthattheOpérawasthemost

accommodatinginstitutionfortheadditionofthesaxophone.Thefunctionofopera

asadeviceofnationalidentitycontinuedafterthe1848RevolutionduringEmperor

NapoléonIII'sruleandcoincidentallythefirstdecadeofNapoléonIII'sreign

initiatedapatternofcumulativeuseforthesaxophoneinopera.Anadditionalfactor

thatcontributedtheinstrument'susageintheoperaticcontextwasthegenre's

relianceonasenseofnoveltyandmusicalspectacles,especiallyinOpéraComique,

makingtheoperahouseamoreaccommodatingenvironmentformusical

innovationthantheconcerthall.118Whileonlythreeoperasscoredforthe

saxophoneduringthe1850s,Saxwasabletoassertmoreinfluenceinvolvingthe

productionofallstagedworksattheOpérabecauseofhisimperialdesignationfrom

Napoléon;asaresultheincorporatedsaxophonesinafargreaternumberof

performancesintheonstagebanda.

ThetraditionofincludinganonstagebandaoriginatedfromItalianopera

traditions,whichdrewonlocalcivicormilitarybandsforstageproductionstoassist

realisticsettings.119Thebandawasadiegeticensemble;musicthatthecharacters

couldhearandrespondtowithinthestory.Musicwrittenforbandaensembles

usuallymatchedthecontextoftheplot,forexamplethebandaintheballroom

scenesofRigolettowouldtrytoreplicatethestyleofdancemusicofsixteenth

centuryMantua.Thedirectorofthebandawasordinarilyaskedtoscorethe

ensemble'smusicaccordingtothecomposerormainorchestraconductor'swishes.

UnderNapoléonIII'sprotection,Saxwasabletoscoreforasignificantnumberof

operasincludingthebanda.Between1847and1892,twoyearsbeforehisdeath,

Saxconductedhisbandacomprisedofsaxophones,saxhorns,saxotrombas,and

118StephenCottrell,TheSaxophone(London:YaleUniversityPress,2012),102.119IgnaceDeKeyser,"AdolpheSaxandtheParisOpéra,"BrassScholarshipinReview:TheHistoricBrassSociety,6,(1999):139.

71

saxtubas,amongtraditionalinstruments,inthirty-nineoperas,fourballets,andone

oratorio.120

OperaofferedSaxtheartisticopportunitytooverridetheconventionsof

strictadherencetoscoringheldbyorchestraltraditionsbecausewitheach

production,orrevival,alterationstoattractaudienceswerewelcomedtoacertain

degree.Oneparticularliberalityinrevivalproductionswastheoptiontorescore

bandapartsforhisinstrumentsinfamousoperas,suchasGaetanoDonizetti'sLucia

diLammermoor,Rossini'sRobertBruce,andMeyerbeer'sLesHuguenotsandRobert

lediable.SaxexercisedcommandthroughhispositionwiththeEmperorby

incorporatinghisinstrumentationinthebandaregardlessofthecontext.AsDe

Keysermentions,"evenwhenascoredoesnotmentionanySaxinstrument,we

knowinsomeinstancesfromothersourcesthatSaxfurnishedinstrumentsforsome

particularproductions."121Therefore,Sax'sbandascoringhadforcedthesaxophone

intomusicpracticesthroughanotherpoliticalinstitutionwithvarieddegreesof

appreciation.

However,composersdidfeaturethesaxophoneinscoresthatwerenot

imposedbySax'sdecisions.TheinclusionofthesaxophoneattheOpéraoccurredin

threedifferentforms:alternativestoparalleltraditionalinstrumentsinthe

orchestra,asentirelynewsolotimbraldevices,andtheintroductionofentire

familieswithinthebanda.122Inthe1850s,saxophoneswerenotonlyincludedinan

augmentedbandausage,butalsothemainorchestra.Thefirstoperaofthedecade

tousethesaxophonewasArmandLimnanderdeNieuwenhove'sLeChateaudela

Barbe-Bleue,inwhichthecomposerscoresforanEbaltosaxophone.Coincidentally,

thepremiereofthisoperaportrayingtheFrenchfolktaleofBluebeard,awealthy

andpowerfulnoblemanwhorecurrentlykillshiswives,occurredattheOpéra

ComiqueontheeveofNapoléonIII'scoupd'étaton1December1851.TheBelgian

composergavethesaxophoneseverallyricalsolos,signalinghisunderstandingof

theinstrumentasanexpressivevoice,ratherthanatimbral"filler"betweenthe

120Ibid,141.121Ibid,153.122Ibid,134.

72

woodwindsandbrass.ThefollowingyearLimnanderscoredanotherlyricalsolofor

thealtosaxophoneinhistwo-actLeMaîtrechanteur.Inaddition,heusedthe

saxophoneasasoloinstrumentinhisinstrumentalintermezziforbothoperas.123

Theonlyothercomposertoscoreforthesaxophoneaspartofthemain

orchestrainthe1850swasHalévy,whodeviatedthefurthestawayfromitsnow

"traditional"roleasasolocolorinanorchestralsettingbyscoringforaquartetof

saxophonesinhisLeJuiferrant.The1852workhadpartsforasoprano,twoaltos,

andonebasssaxophone.Buttheirusagewasrestrictedtothefifthactonly,perhaps

becauseHalévywantedtoavoidcriticismforattemptingtoradicallyredrawthe

orchestrabyincludingnotmerelyanewsoloinstrument,butafamily.The

performancewasmetwithsuccesshowever;theParisOpéra'srecordsshowthata

totaloffiftyperformancesoccurredandamongtheperformersrecordedwasSax

himself.124

EvenwithSax'sposition,whichheusedtoalterbandascores,thesaxophone

madelittleimpressioninoperaorchestras.Thenumberofoperascontaining

saxophonepartsinfollowingdecadesoscillated,andatitspeak,duringthelasttwo

decadesofthecentury,thenumberofworkswouldn'texceeddouble-digits,while

saxophonepartsinpromenadearrangementsexceededdouble-digitseachseason.

Operaofferedthegreatesttolerancetowardsthemisconstruedinstrument,butonly

becausetheinstitutionhadaheritageasapoliticalmechanisminFrance.Sax's

networksinbothregimesandpositionasbandadirectorweretheprincipalreasons

hisinstrumentwasusedinonandoffstageensembles.HadSaxnotobtaineda

positionasbandadirectorandassistedtheFrenchgovernment,thesaxophonemay

haveneverbeenheardwithinthetheatreoftheParisOpéra.

ThediminutivesuccessattheoperahousemayhavepromptedSaxtomakea

desperatecommercialattemptatmotivatingcomposerstoscoreforthesaxophone.

Themeasureusedtoensurethathisinstrumentwouldbeutilizedinorchestral

musicwastheformationofamixedensembleofwindandstringinstrumentsto

displaythecohesiveeffectsthatcouldbeproduced.Formedin1853,thishybrid123Ibid,154.124Ibid,145.

73

instrumentationwasamixtureofachamberorchestraandawindensemble,which

heentitledtheSociétédelaGrandeHarmonie.Theensemble'sperformancesinboth

hisshopandtoursabroadwerewellreceived,butshort-lived,asthereisnonewsof

performancesinassortedParisianmusicalperiodicalsafter1854.Theprobable

reasonfortheensemble'sabruptendingmayhavebeenduetoadrastically

increasedvolumeofbusiness,whichcamewithSax'stitleofFabricantofficiel

d'instrumentsdemusiqueàl'empereur.

TheGrandeHarmoniewasfundamentallyacommercializedattemptto

disseminateofthelatentaestheticsproducedbySax'sinstruments.Sincehisarrival

hehadbeenholdingorganizedconcertsofclassicaleratranscriptionsinhisshop

salon;theonlydifferenceshisGrandeHarmonieofferedwerethatitwasmuch

largerensemblewithaformalizedinstrumentationclosertothatofthetraditional

orchestra,anditperformedoutsidehisRueSaint-Georgessalon.Withatouring

"template"forhisproposedorchestralreform,Saxbelievedhisinstrumentswould

haveabetterchanceofjoiningtheranksofthesymphonyorchestra:

"Mr.Saxisconvincedthatintheartsitisnotmerelyamatterofcreatingandinventing...

'Creationsasoftenaspossiblebeforethepublic,inordertograduallyaccustomthemtoacceptwhat

istrue,whatislogical,whatisexcellent,insteadoftheolderrors,thesecularroutinestowhichthey

carryanaffectionsoparticularanddevoted.'"125

Sax'suncompromisingpersonalityregardinghisanticipatedorchestral

"revolution"iseminentlydisplayedthroughhisreportedbeliefs.Sax'sinflexible

temperamentandenvisagementforthesaxophone"asafamilywithinan

orchestra...thesevenmembersfromsopraninotocontrabassabletopassmelodic

linessmoothlyasthemembersofthestringsorvoicesofthechoir"126was

manifestedinhisensemble'sperformances.HispurposeofthistouringGrande

Harmonieorchestrawastoslowlycreatepublictoleranceforhisinstrumentsinthe

orchestra,buthiscommentsalsorevealthathebelievedthattheroutineofscoring

forthetraditionalorchestrawasacelebratederror,towhichcomposersand

audienceswerefallaciouslyloyal.Ifhehadmadestatementscriticizingthe125RevueetgazettemusicaledeParis,22,no.32,(7August1853),210.126MichaelSegell,TheDevil'sHorn:TheStoryoftheSaxophone,FromNoisyNoveltytoKingofCool(NewYork:Farrar,StrausandGiroux,2005),15.

74

conventionalensembletraditionsthroughouthislife,127thenitcanbepresumed

thatthecelebratedcontemporarycomposersofhistime—whoinmostcasesifthey

werewellrecognizedhadpreviouscomposedorchestralworks—wouldhavebeen

insulted.Composerswouldhavereceivedhisstatementsasdirectinsultstotheir

works,astheywerepartakinginthe"olderrors"and"secularroutinestowhich

theycarrywithanaffection."

Theensemble'sinnovativeattemptstocorrectthose"errors"anddisrupt

thosesecularroutineswereincrediblywellreceivedbycritics,however.Aplethora

oflaudablecommentsontheGrandHarmoniewouldhaveonlyincreasedSax's

stubbornbeliefsandego.Aremarkablenumberofcelebratorycommentsappeared

onSax's"true,""logical,"and"excellent":"Weknowwellthevalueofthesaxophone

whenitwillhaveintroducedacompletesystem[family]inorchestras.Thereisa

worldofneweffectstodrawfromthecompletefamiliesofdifferenttimbres:this

willbethefutureofamanofgenius."128

Andthosethatcomparedthesaxophonetostringedinstruments,whichreassured

Sax'sbeliefthatthesaxophonewasworthyasanadditionalorchestralfamily:

"Thus,thesaxophonesintheTorchlight[MarcheauxFlambeaux,Meyerbeer],produceeffects

ofanoveltyofincomparablesonority:theyarethecellosofthewindinstruments."129"The

enormousbassSax,whoseflags[sic]arethreetimesthatoftheophicleides,rendersthe

accompanimentpartsinsuchawayastosoundlikebowingorpizzicato..."130

Onecriticevendirectlyaddressedthenearuniversalavoidanceofsaxophone

scoringfromcomposers:

"FormanyyearsMr.Saxhasmaintainedaperseveringstruggleagainstopinionswhichmay

besincere,butwhichareneverthelessdisastroustomusicalart,fortheylimititsgrowth.Mr.Sax's

systemisperfectandcomplete.Whereverhehaspresentedhisinstruments,theyhavebeenjudged

thebestconstructed;whereverhepresentedhismusic,shefoundherselfthebestofall.Withthe

127AnotherRevuearticleconfirmssuchcommentswerehabitualofSax,asonmultipleoccasionshehadcriticizedprimarytraditionalinstrumentsincomparisontohis:"theyoungvirtuosi,HenriandJózefWieniazski,cametodefendtheinterestsofthestringedinstrumentsandthepiano,inwhichMr.Saxsoughttodisputetheirsuperiority."RevueetgazettemusicaledeParis,19,no.20,(19May1850),171.128RevueetgazettemusicaledeParis,20,no.48,(30November1851),386.129RevueetgazettemusicaledeParis,23,no.2,(9January1854),8.130Ibid,8

75

adoptionoftheSaxsystem[family]inourorchestras...theyhaveonlytolettheirthoughtsspread

andtheyaresuretomeetadocileandfaithfulinterpreter.Why,then,oppositionsandstruggles?

Coulditbethatthebrillianceofthetruthwhichdelightstheclairvoyanteyesoffendsthesickeyesof

itsbrightlight?"131

Themultitudeofjournalisticadmirationfortheprototypeorchestradoesnot

correspondtorepudiationofthesaxophonewithinorchestralinstrumentation.But

itwasnottheopinionsofcriticsthatwouldconvincecomposerstoscoreforit;what

reallymatteredwasSax'sreputationwithintheParisianmusicalcommunity.No

matterhowbeautifultheeffectsofhisinstrumentswere,Saxhadbeenviewedasa

defensiveopportunisticinterloperwithastubborn,explosivepersonalitysincehis

arrivalonedecadebefore.

Furthermore,the"revolutions"madebySax'sinstrumentshadfirstoccurred

bywayofagovernmentdecree,twice.Whilethereorganizationofmilitarybands

wasadmired,therecurrentbehaviorinNapoléon'sregimeamplifiedSax's

persistenceinobtainingawidedegreeofinfluenceonmusicmakingdecisionsfor

profit.Ergo,thetemplateorchestracouldhavebeenperceivedbytheParisian

musicalcommunityinthesamewayasSax'sreorganizedorchestrationfor

regimentalbands:asthebeginningofanattemptto"standardize"orchestras

aroundhisinstrumentsforprofit.WhileofcoursenineteenthcenturyFrench

composersandmusiciansknewsuchinstancescouldneverbeenforced,therefusal

tocomposeforthesaxophonemayhavebeenaformofprotesttotheBelgian's

strategicallymadepoliticalallies,commercial"reign,"anduncompromisingnature.

Anarrayofcrucialfactorsconcerningthesaxophone'sacceptanceinthe

orchestraoccurredduringthe1850s:thesaxophonewasinterpolatedinto

regimentalensemblesagainafterabriefhiatus;themaininstitutionofsaxophone

study,theGymnasedeMusiqueMilitaire,closedandpassedresponsibilityto

ConservatoiredeParis,whereawell-defineddividewasmadebetweentraditional

andmilitarystudies;Sax'sdefensivenaturewasamplifiedindamagingways

regardingpatents;Sax'simperialprivilegesallowedhimtocontinuehisbusiness

productionsandsuccessfullywinlawsuits,aswellaspromotethesaxophoneatthe

131RevueetgazettemusicaledeParis,22,no.30,(24July1853),262.

76

ParisOpéra.ButthedirectconnectiontothemostpowerfulindividualinFrancedid

notfosteranenthusiasticinterestthatthesaxophonehadreceivedfrompromenade

orchestras.

Theinstrumentthatwasoriginallyapplaudedinroyalcourtsandrequested

byroyalpatronsacrossEuropehadbecomefavoredbytheFrenchworkingclass.

Thisratherparadoxicaldevelopmenthadseriousconsequencesonthecultural

representationofthesaxophone'sassociations.Theinstrument'sephemeral

associationwithroyalbandsandnobleshaddwindledandthemostantithetical

socialgroupbegantoabsorbitintheirmusicmakingpractices.MusardandJullien

werenotonlyvitalfiguresinthedevelopmentoflightclassicalmusicandthe

widespreadfacilityofpublicityinmusicconcerts,butalsointhedesignationofa

culturalidentificationforthesaxophone;onethatunfortunatelycontradictedthe

socialideologieswhichtheorchestracametorepresent.Promenadeconcertswere

imperativetothesaxophone'sidentityasanoveltyact;theflamboyancyand

exoticismarousedaflippantviewfromparticipantsofthetraditionalmusicschool.

Saxtriedtoprovehisinstrumentcouldfacilitateart,notmerelyostentatiouseffects,

buthisnotorietyprovokedresistance.ThenumberofenemiesmadebySax

throughouthisliferesultedinanearlyunifieddecisiontoeschewscoringforhis

instrumentsfromParisiancomposers,towhichheattemptedtocombatthroughhis

GrandHarmonieorchestra,buthecouldnotappealtothebourgeoisieandtheir

expropriationoftheorchestrathroughhiseffortsalone.

Thesaxophonehadreceiveditsidentificationasavoiceoftheoppressed

longbeforeitbecamethesymbolicexpressivetoolofemancipatedAfrican-

AmericansduringtheJazzAge.Thosewholaboreddayandnight,butstillcouldnot

participateinthedomesticleisurelyactivityofmusicmakingbecausetheyhadno

meanstoobtainaninstrumentfoundanopportunityininexpensivepricesofthe

saxophone.Thosewhowishedtheyhadtheopportunitytohearforthemselves,the

seamlesstransitionofcontemplativeserenephrasestoagitatedgrandmelodiesin

theworksofFranzLiszt,ortheelongatedlyricalbelcantomelodiesadornedwith

virtuosictechniqueinaBelliniariahadtheoptiontoheartheminpromenade

concerts.Whilethesaxophone'sassociationwiththesuperficialconcertcustomsof

77

theworkingclassinthemid-nineteenthcenturywasavitalreasonbehindthe

blatantdisregardshownbycomposers,itsascribedidentitybecameareasonupon

whichorchestralcomposersscoredforitinthetwentiethcentury.Manyorchestral

worksofProkofiev,Shostakovich,Rachmaninoff,Glazunov,Kabalevsky,and

Khachaturianwoulddesignatethesaxophone,perhapsasahiddenrepresentative

proletariatvoice;avoiceoftheunprotectedlaborer,theethnicminorities,the

forgottenpeasants;thesamelaborerswhocouldonlyaccessmusicthrough

attendingpromenadeconcertsinnineteenthcenturyParis.

VI.1860s:OldNews The1860swouldbeadecadethatcontainedmoreadversitiesthanSaxhad

accumulatedthroughouthislife.NotonlywouldhisconnectionwithNapoléonIII

emergeasnugatorywhenthecavalryensembleprogramwascutaltogether,buthe

wouldalsogrievethedeathsofaninordinatenumberofsupporters.Hewouldsee

hislastexhibitionprizerevokedandhissaxophonepatentexpire,causinghimto

endurethesightofhiscommercialenemiesmodifyinghisprizedinventionand

receivingtheirownsaxophonepatents.Furthermore,theincreasednumberof

saxophonepatentscorrespondedwiththeescalatednumberofwindinstrument

patentsingeneral,pushingSaxandhisinventionintoanonymity.

Napoléon'snationalpopularitydiminishedgreatly,whichundoubtedly

affectedSaxinthemusicalcommunity.Frenchcitizensmadeknownthatthe

majoritydidnotapproveoftheEmperor'spolicies.In1860theelectedassembly

wasgivengreaterauthoritiesandtherestraintsonthepresswereeased,which

createdanenvironmentwherepoliticaldissensioncouldbevoiced.Napoléonwould

notreversehispoliciesdespitethetwomillionoppositionvotesinfavorofa

republicintheelectionof1863.132Bythe1869electiontheoppositionvotehad

increasedtothreemillionandthepublic'smessageimpelledhimtorestorea

genuineparliamentarygovernmentthroughanewconstitution,whichestablisheda

hereditaryemperorsystemaschiefofstate.Inaddition,foreignpolicyerrorsadded


78

totheregime’shumiliation:Napoléon'sill-judgedinvolvementinthesecondFrench

interventioninMexicoprovedcostly,futile,andseemedtopresentapossible

conflictwiththeUnitedStates.Moreover,anewthreatbegantoloomnearthe

Empire:therisingdominanceofPrussia,undertheleadershipofChancellorOtto

vonBismarck.OfficialsoftheSecondFrenchEmpirebegantoaltertheiragenda;

creatingnationalstylesandmusicwasnolongerapriority,insteadraisingthe

regime'snationallevelofapprovalbecameaforemostconcern.

Withincreasingattentionongovernmentreformandforeignthreatsa

cascadeofundesirablepoliticaldecisionscausedarecessionforSax'sfactory.Inan

efforttolimitnationaldebtan1860decreewasmade,whichreducedFrench

militarybandnumbersdrastically.ThecutsincludedalargenumberofSax's

instruments.The1860decreemayhavenotinitiallyaffectedSax'ssales,butin1867

anothermandate,whicheradicatedthecavalrysectionofmilitarymusicentirely,133

indefinitelycausedtheRue-Saint-Georgesshoptogrieve.Accordingto

Pontécoulant,afterthe1860ensemblenumberdecreases,therewere226

regimentsthatrequiredinstruments,whichwerenormallypurchasedatintervalsof

everyfiveyearsandvaluedatmorethan1.1millionfrancs.134Theabandonmentof

cavalrymilitarymusicaltogetherwouldhavereducedthatfiguresignificantly.The

endofthedecadewouldrevealthatthesaxophone'sdisseminationreliedalmost

entirelyonthesuccessofthemilitarybandsandtheEmpire:astheEmpiredeclined,

sodidmilitarymusic,andinturntheworthofthesaxophone.

DespiteNapoléonIII'sactions,whichleftSaxfeelingslightedbyhispatron,

hedid,however,assistSaxin1861whenhisfifteen-yearsaxophonepatentwas

abouttoexpire.Napoléonissuedanimperialdecreefortheprolongationofthe

patentofthesaxophone,acknowledgingSaxasthesolemanufacturerforanother

fiveyears.135UndernineteenthcenturyFrenchlaws,patentextensionswere

133Althoughseveralleadingensemblesremainedduetoanimpendinginternationalcompetition:GuidesdelaGardeImpérialandGarderépublicainedeParis.Ibid,123.134MalouHaine,AdolpheSax(1814-1894):savie,sonœuvreetsesinstrumentsdemusique.(Brussels,Editionsdel'UniversitédeBruxelles,1980),107.135IgnaceDeKeyser,"AdolpheSaxandtheParisOpéra,"BrassScholarshipinReview:TheHistoricBrassSociety,6,(1999):133.

79

extremelydifficulttoobtain,infactonlyonehadbeengrantedbeforethe

saxophone.136Tobeconsideredforapatentextensiontwocriteriahadtobemet:1)

theinventorhadmadeasubstantialcontributiontoaparticularartorindustry,and

2)theinventorhadnotbeenabletoprofitfromhisinventionthroughexceptional

circumstancesthatwerebeyondhiscontrol.137Saxbelievedhehadcauseonboth

groundssincehisinventionswerewidelyconsideredrevolutionarytowind

instrumenttechnologiesandhisresourcesweredepletedfromsequencesoflegal

battleswithcompetitors.Inshort,legalauthoritiescouldnotdecideonthematter,

causingNapoléontointercede,bywhichhegaveSaxaspecialextensionforfive

years.138ItislikelythatwithouttheEmperor'sassistance,Saxwouldnothave

receivedanextension,assumingtribunalauthoritiestookintoconsiderationthe

amountoftimetheplethoraofsaxophonepatentchallengecasesconsumed;an

expirywouldhavepreventednewcasesfromforming,savingtribunalauthorities

time,costs,andstress.Napoléon'sintercessionwouldhavebeenconsideredyet

anotherbiasedactofpowertohelpsustainSax'scompanybyotherinstrument

manufacturers.

Themilitarybandreductionimpairedthedisseminationofthesaxophonein

orchestralsettingsbecauseofSax'sdecreasedproduction.Fewersaxophonesonthe

marketmeantfewersaxophonists,andfewersaxophonistspreventedthechanceto

expandtheinfinitesimalnumberofsaxophonistsatthetime.Bythe1860sthere

werefew"classical"saxophonevirtuosos;139mostperformersweremilitarytrained

musiciansorworkingclassamateurs.Suchanabsenceofskilledsaxophonistswould

136Theinventorwasgrantedafive-yearextensionforhispatentedsystemofwoodpreservationin1841.StephenCottrell,TheSaxophone(London:YaleUniversityPress,2012),31.137Ibid,32.138"Art.1-ThetermoftheinventionpatentgrantedtoAntoniusJosephSax,knownasAdolpheSax,onOctober13,1845,forthesaxotrombainstrument,isextendedbyfiveyears,subjecttothepaymentoftheannualfeefixedbyArticle4oftheActof5July1844.Art2-ThetermoftheinventionpatentgrantedtoMr.Saxon21March1846fortheso-calledsaxophoneinstrumentisalsoextendedbyfiveyearsandunderthesamecondition."IgnaceDeKeyser,"AdolpheSaxandtheParisOpéra,"BrassScholarshipinReview:TheHistoricBrassSociety,6,(1999):133.139Iamreferringtothoseprominentsaxophonistswhowereclassicallytrainedmusiciansandconsciouslypursuedsoloandensemblecareerswithsuccess,suchas,HenriWuille,CharlesSoualle,Louis-AdolpheMayeur,andEdouardLefèbre.

80

havedeterredcomposersfromscoringfortheinstrument.Thediminutivenumber

ofactivelyperformingclassicallytrainedsaxophonistswasfurtherdecreasedwhen,

perhapsthemostactiveandwell-knownperformer,CharlesSoualle,diedin1865.

Butthestagnantnumberofsaxophonistswasnottheonlycontributortothe

saxophone'srejectionfromtheorchestraduringthe1860s.ThedeathsofSax'smost

ardentsupporterscausedaninevitableabsenceofdiscussionabouttheinstrument

inParisianmusicalperiodicals.In1865Meyerbeer'sdeatheliminatedthechanceof

thesaxophonebeingwrittenintothecelebratedcomposer'sgrandoperas.

Correspondingtotheeliminationofcavalryensemblesin1867,Kastner,saxophone

composerandzealousadvocatepassedaway.ThefollowingyearRossinipassed

away,andalongwithhimwenthissupportfortheinstrument.Thedearthof

discussionandpromotionfromforemostmusicalfiguresreinforcedthesaxophone's

vanishingimageafteritsheightinFrenchculturethroughmilitarymusicmaking.

Thelackofsponsorshipwasalmostentirelyeliminatedwhenoneofthemost

influentialParisiancriticsandperhapsthemostenthusiasticsaxophonesponsor

passedawayin1869;Berlioz'sdeathwasalsothe"death"ofthesaxophoneasa

prevalenttopicinParisianmusicperiodicals.Althoughhemayhaveneverscored

forthesaxophoneintheorchestra,hepublishedthemostarticlesencouragingthe

usageofthesaxophonethananyofSax'sacquaintances,somanythathewrotein

hisMemoirsthathe'dbeencriticizedfor"excessiveuseofSax'sinstruments"to

whichhedescribesthereason:"nodoubtonthesoundprinciplethatIhaveoften

praisedthem,evenifIdonothappentohaveemployedthemanywhereexceptin

onesceneofLaPrisedeTroie,anoperaofwhichnoonehasyetseenanote."140

Berlioz'sincessantadvocacyforthesaxophonewassinceredespitethefact

thatheneglecteditinhisscores.TheautographscoreofLadamnationdeFaust,Op.

24containedaltoandtenorsaxophoneparts,whichwerecrossedoutbeforethey

werecompleted.141CottrellbelievesthatthereasonforBerlioz'sdecisiontoomit

thesaxophonepartswasduetothepoorreceptionofhisoperasduringthe1840s

and1850s.CottrellsuggeststhatifBerliozwere"tohavebeguntoscoreforan140HectorBerlioz,MémoiresdeHectorBerlioz,(NewYork:DoverPublications,1966),506.141StephenCottrell,TheSaxophone(London:YaleUniversityPress,2012),47.

81

exoticinstrumentsuchasthesaxophone,particularlyinlightoftheantipathy

demonstratedtowardsSaxbymanymusicians,mighthavefurtherlimitedBerlioz's

chancesofperformances."142Inaddition,bythe1840shisreputationwasasacritic

andwriter,notacomposer.Therefore,Berlioz'sincongruouschoicetoneverscore

fortheinstrumentmayhavebeenoutofconcernsforpersonalsuccessinhis

decliningpopularityasthecenturypassed.

ThedeathofseveralofSax'sadvocatesandtheeliminationofthe

saxophone'sprimaryensembledrasticallydiminishedtheinstrument'srelevance.

Thedeclininginterestintheinstrumenttothegeneralpublicwouldhavepresented

evenfewerreasonsforcomposerstoscoreforit.Eveninindustrialexhibitions—the

settingwhereSaxreceivedthemostattentionandhonor—theweakenedinterest

forthesaxophoneshowed.AttheExpositionuniverselled'artetd'industriede1867

SaxhadwontheGrandPrix,pricedat20,000francs;however,heneversawthe

prize,asthedecisionwasbitterlyrevoked.143ItbecameclearthattheBelgianwho

amazedjudgeswithaneverbeforeheardtimbrehadbecome"oldnews."

Furthercontributingtothedeclineofthesaxophone'spopularitywasthe

enormousincreaseofinstrumentalpatentsduringthedecade.The"quests"fornew

timbreswasansweredbyinstrumentmanufacturerswhosoughttoimproveand

inventnewinstrumentslikeSaxhaddonenearlytwentyyearsearlier.CriticEduard

Hanslick,observedtheindustry'sdesiretoprovidecomposerswithamultitudeof

timbresinhisreviewofthe1863LondonIndustrialExhibition:

"Eachproudfatherofayoungbrassinstrumentisparticularlyconcernedtothinkupanew

outrageousname.Iftherearetennewimprovementsinventedforthecommonflugelhorn,orthe

ophicleide,sotheyareintroducedintothemusicalworldastennewinstruments,oftenunderthe

mostarbitraryandincomprehensiblenames.Onefindsinthecatalogueofexhibitedbrass

instruments,amongothers,thefollowing:schwannenhorn,glyceide,euphonion,tritonikon,

phonicon,trompettin,zvukoroh,baroxyton,sarrusophone,pelitticon,konigshorns,helicon,andhalf

dozencompoundsincludingthename"Sax",ect.ect.Allthesefabulouscreaturescouldeasilybe

broughtundertwoorthreemorefamiliardesignations"144

142Ibid,104.143Ibid,33.144Ibid,102.

82

Hanslick'squoterevealstheridiculousamountof"new"instrumentsthathad

attemptedtoentermusicalpracticesthroughnineteenthcenturycommercialism.

Theexclusivetimbreofthesaxophonewasnolongeraphenomenon;newtimbres

werebeingintroducedeachyear,obscuringthesaxophone'suniquefeaturethathad

givenitunprecedenteddistinction.

Asthesaxophonevanishedfrombourgeoismusicpublicationsand

conversationsitremainedintheearsoftheworkingclass.Promenadeconcerts

continuedtoexploititwiththemesofexoticism.AfterJullien'sdeathin1860,the

followinggenerationsofpromenadeorchestraconductorscontinuedtoemployitin

thesamesatiricalroutines.LondonPromenadeleaderAlfredMellongained

considerablesuccessinhisimitationofJullien's"Turkish"burlesquesinwhichhe

dressedhissaxophonesoloist,aFrenchmanbythenameofCordier,injanissary

attireandpresentedhimas"AliBenMustapha."145Jullien'ssonalsofollowedinhis

father'sexaggeratedtheatricalfootstepsandhabituallypresentedhisprinciple

clarinetistas"AliBenJenkins"forsaxophonesolos.146TheseOrientalizedsaxophone

performancescontinuedtobethemostpopularpiecesinworkingclassmusic

concerts,asRivièrenoteson"AliBenMustapha"'ssolosduringoneCoventGarden

season,"Hesoonbecamethelionoftheseason."147SaxophonesolosinTurkish

costumedemonstratethemarginalizedviewtheinstrumenthadgained;justas

TurkishandorientalcultureshadbeenostracizedbyEuropeancultures,sowasthe

saxophonein"classical"music.

DespitethedwindlinginterestinthesaxophonefromtheParisianpublic,it

stillmanagedtofinditswayintotheParisOpéra,albeititmainlyasasubstitute

instrument.Meyerbeer's1865grandopera,L'Africainefeaturedthesaxophoneasa

alternativepartforthebassclarinet,whichaccordingtoSaint-Saëns'sreviewofone

performancewasnotwellreceived:"[Meyerbeer],asacomplimenttoAdolpheSax

substitutedasaxophoneforthebassclarinettheauthorindicated.Thisresultedin

145JulesPrudenceRivière,MyMusicalLifeandRecollections,(London:SampsonLow,Marston&Company,1893),126.146StephenCottrell,TheSaxophone(London:YaleUniversityPress,2012),116.147JulesPrudenceRivière,MyMusicalLifeandRecollections,(London:SampsonLow,Marston&Company,1893),126.

83

thesuppressionofthatpartoftheariaOParadissortidel'ondeasthesaxophonedid

notproduceagoodeffect"148Saint-Saëns'sremarkisironicconsideringthathe

scoredforthesaxophoneonseveraloccasions.149Meyerbeer'sdeathpreventedhim

fromhisnextcompositionproject;are-orchestratedL'Africaineinwhichhe

preparedforbystayingwithSaxforhourseachdaytostudythepropertiesofhis

instrumentsneartheendofhislife.150

Anotheroperathatthesaxophonewasfeaturedasasubstitutewasthe1861

ParisproductionofRichardWagner'sTannhauser.UponarrivalinParis,Wagner

discoveredthattherewasnotasufficientnumberofskilledhornplayerstofillthe

twelvepartsrequiredforhisGesamtkunstwerk.TheOpéradirectorstoldWagner

thatsaxophonessoundedsimilar,soherewrotethetwelvehornpartstofitthe

rangesofthealtoandbaritonesaxophone.151TofulfillWagner'ssubstitutedemands

theOpéramanagementagreedtoordertheseinstrumentsfromSaxatthecostof

1000francs.152ApparentlySaxtookthisasanopportunitytopromotehisbusiness,

asWagnerclaimsinhismemoirs:

"Regardingthisproblem,Ihadtodealwithaterriblemanthefamousmusicalinstrument

maker,Sax,whotriedtohelpmewithallkindsofsurrogatessuchasSaxophonesandSaxhorns;

moreover,hewasofficiallyappointedtoconductthemusicbehindthescenes.Itwasanimpossibility

evertogetthismusicplayedproperly."153

PerhapsthisexampleofSaxattemptingtoconvinceWagnertousehisinstruments

isanillustrationofhowothercomposerssawhim:promotinghisinstrumentsfor

hisownprofit,notforart'ssake,justastheyconceivedhismilitaryband

reorganizations.

Wagnermayhavenotappreciatedthesaxophone,butoneparticular

composerdemonstratedhisadmirationfortheinstrumentthroughaninstrumental

148CamilleSaint-Saëns,MusicalMemories,(Boston:Small,Maynard,andCompany,1919),248.149OrientetOccident,op.25,theoperaHenryVIIIcontainsaquintet(S/2A/T/B)inthebandasection,andthecantataLesNocesdeProméthée,op.19,containstwoaltosandabaritone.150IgnaceDeKeyser,"AdolpheSaxandtheParisOpéra,"BrassScholarshipinReview:TheHistoricBrassSociety,6,(1999):142.151StephenCottrell,TheSaxophone(London:YaleUniversityPress,2012),124.152IgnaceDeKeyser,"AdolpheSaxandtheParisOpéra,"BrassScholarshipinReview:TheHistoricBrassSociety,6,(1999):146.153Ibid,146.

84

recitative.AmbroiseThomas's1868opera,Hamlet,wasperhapsthemost

progressiveuseofthesaxophonebecauseitdemonstrateddemandingtechnical

capabilitiesforawindinstrument,whichwereunderstoodpreviouslyasexclusive

totheclarinet,oboe,andflute.154Hamlet'sscoringispossiblythefirstexampleto

exhibitthesaxophone'sversatilityinmusicalcharacter,whichisdisplayedthrough

transientalterationsofrapidpassagesofsixteenthnotesandamorosolyricism.

Figure6.1:Thomas’s

scoringexploitsthe

saxophone‘sacrobatic

technicalabilitiesaswell

asacknowledgingthe

instrument’svocal-

esquequalitiesthrough

lyricisminarecitative.

154SeeFigure6.1.

85

The1860swereanespeciallypoignanttimeforSaxandthesaxophone.The

Emperor'sshiftoffocusfromenrichingtheFrenchnationalidentitythrough

militarybandbravuratomaintainingapprovalathomehadreducedthe

instrument'sprominenceinFrenchculture,whichinturnhadalsodecreasedthe

demandforitsproduction,asthemajorityofsaxophonesalesweremadebythe

military.Followingtheeliminationofaportionofthesaxophone'sprimary

ensemblewerethedeathsoftheinstrument'smostdedicatedsupporters,leaving

thepagesofmusicperiodicalsabsentoftheword"saxophone."Thescarcityof

promotionintheParisianmusicalcommunityfurtheredthesaxophone'swaned

imageafteritsmartialheightinFrenchculture.TheexpiryofSax'spatentresulted

inanarrayofalteredanddebasedversionsfromotherinstrumentmanufacturers,

whichcouldhaveoffendedtheearsofcomposers.Theincreasednumberof

saxophonepatentspushedthesaxophonefurtherintoanonymity,asit

correspondedwiththeincreasingnumberofwindinstrumentpatentsofthedecade.

Theincreasednumberofwindinstrumentpatentswasmostlycomposedof

transientinventions,whichalthoughfewmadeanyimpactonmusicalpracticehad

alsomadetheaccessibilitytonewtimbresacommonoccurrence,resultingina

reducedsignificanceforthesaxophone'sonceexclusiveidiosyncrasy.Moreover,the

saxophone'srelevancetoclassicaltraditionsfurtherdegeneratedastherising

popularityof"AliBenMustapha"scontinuedtofosterconnotationsofexoticismin

promenadeconcertsettings.Theunfortunatecombinationofeventsduringthe

1860shadcausedthesaxophonetofadeawayfromaculturallyreveredpractice,

thebourgeoispublic'sattention,andtheinstrumentmanufacturingindustry,

ultimatelyrenderingitasdémodé.

VII.1870s:TheOrchestraatLast Thepoignancyofthepreviousdecadewasintensifiedduringthe1870s.After

theamalgamationofevents,whichdrainedSax'srevenueandremovedthe

saxophonefromthe"frontpage"ofParisianpaperseachweek,Saxwasforcedto

acceptdefeatsimultaneouslywiththeEmpire.France'sdefeatintheFranco-

86

PrussianWarin1871createdacolossalamountofdebtforthenation,whichwas

dealtwithbymassivemilitaryfundingcutsfromthesucceedingThirdRepublic.The

Republic'sreducedmilitaryspendinghadeliminatedtheexpenditureforthemusic

divisionentirely,causingSaxtodeclarebankruptcytwicebeforenearlyvanishing

fromParisianmusicculturealtogether.Additionally,themostprominentsaxophone

chamberrepertoirecomposerandoneofthefew"classical"saxophonevirtuosos

hadpassedaway,furtherremovingtheinstrumentfrompublicperformancesand

modishness.DespitethemultitudeofunfortunateeventsthataffectedSaxandhis

instrumentinthe1870s,Sax'sintendedraisond'êtreforthesaxophonewas

achieved:acomposerhadfinallyscoredforitinapurelyorchestralwork.Hadthis

serendipitybecomeacommonoccurrence,thelaterhalfofthecenturymayhave

beenparalleltotheformerforSax.

TheCollapseofanEmpireandtheDemiseofanInstrument Justasthepreviouspoliticalchangesaffectedthesaxophone'spresenceand

identityinFrance,thechangesinauthorityhaddirectlyinfluencedthefateofthe

"war"instrument.The1870swereanexceptionallydevastatingandturbulenttime

forFrenchpolitics:Prussia'svictoryintheFranco-PrussianWarbroughtruinto

NapoléonIII'sadministration;thenationaccumulatedmassivedebt;LaCommunede

Paris,arevolutionarygroup,wassuppressedbymartialforcetopreventanother

revolutionand20,000Frenchsocialistswereexecuted;FrancehadtocedeAlsace

andthenorthernportionofLorrainetotheGermanstatesduetotheprovisionsof

theTreatyofFrankfurt;andtheprocessofinstatinganewrepublicwasdrawnout

until1879.ThechaoticeventshadaffectedallFrenchresidentstovaryingdegrees;

however,the1871defeathadseverelyaffectedSaxandthecourseofthesaxophone.

Hisformidablepatronofeighteenyearswaspermanentlyremovedfrom

powerandtheeliminationofmusicspendingnotonlycostSaxthecontractthat

ensuredcontinuousbusiness,butalsoabrogatedthecentralinstitutionforteaching

thesaxophone.In1871Saxreportedthathehadsuppliedlessthan2,000francs

worthofinstrumentstothemilitarythatyear.155Twoyearslaterin1873,he


87

declaredbankruptcyforthefirsttimesince1852—onlythistimehehadno

influentialpatrontoabsolvehisdebt;instead,hehadtomakeanagreementwithhis

creditorstopermithimtoremaininbusiness.Sax'scompanymaintainedenough

profitstoremainforthefollowingfouryears,untilhehadtoyetagaindeclare

bankruptcy.

DespiteSax'samassingdebt,hecontinuedtomakeattemptsatensuringhis

name-bearinginstrumentwouldoutlasthisinsolventbusiness.Outofdesperate

concernsforthefutureofhisbelovedinstrument,hewroteletterstothedirectors

oftheConservatoiredeParisofferingtoteachthesaxophoneforfree;156however,

hisattemptswereunavailing,astheConservatoirewouldnotallowanysaxophone

classestoresume.Itwouldtakeseventy-oneyearsfortheConservatoiredeParisto

offersaxophoneclassesagain,whichresumedunderthedirectionofMarcelMulein

1942,presentlyregardedasthe"FatherofClassicalSaxophone."157The

Conservatoire'sdismissalofSax'sproposalfurtherconfirmsthetraditionalschool's

flippantviewsofthesaxophone;iftheConservatoire's1856decisiontoomitSax's

nameasaprofessoranddividemilitaryclasseshadrevealedthestigmatizationof

thesaxophoneasamilitaryinstrument,thenthe1871decisiontorefuseSax'sfree

laborunapologeticallyconfirmedthe"classical"school'sfrivolousopinionofthe

instrument.Thedecisionwasoneofsymbolism;Saxhadonlydesiredtosecure

propertechniquesandmethodsforthesaxophonewiththeassiduoushopesthat

performerscouldfacilitatethehighestdegreeofperformance,leadingtoserious

treatmentfrom"classical"traditions;however,theConservatoire'srefusalclearly

exhibitedimperiousviewsthatthesaxophonewasincongruouswithlearned

traditions.

ToSax,saxophoneclassesattheConservatoirewithoutthemilitaryaffixation

wereavitalcomponenttoestablishingitsresidencyintheorchestra.Withoutthe

furtheranceofapropermethodofplaying,saxophonistswouldnotbeableto

achievesufficientmusicalproficiencies,barringthemfromtheopportunityto

156Ibid,109.157AlexanderMorin,ClassicalMusic:ThirdEar:TheEssentialListeningCompanion,(SanFrancisco:BackbeatBooks,2002),1161,

88

participateintheoftenchallengingnatureoforchestralrepertoire,hadany

composersscoredforit.Thescarcityofadequatelyskilledsaxophonistswas

probablyafactortakenintoconsiderationbycomposerswhodesiredtouseit:ifa

onewroteapiece,wouldtheybeabletofindasaxophonistwiththefacilitytomeet

thedemandsoftheirmusicinperformance?ThelikelihoodwasslimeveninParis

wheresaxophonistswererelativelyabundant,duetoSax’spresencethere.Theissue

ofhiringcapablesaxophonistspersistedintothemid-twentiethcenturyfor

composers,asMarcelMulesuggests:“Iwouldsaythattheonemostevident

elementsofdiscouragementwasthatcomposersofthetime[the1940s]didnot

writeenoughforthesaxophone.Ibelievethattheyreallythoughttherewerenot

enoughgoodsaxophonistsavailable.Whatapity!”158Ifthelackofadequate

performerswasadeterrentforcomposersinthe1940swhenthesaxophonewasat

thecenterofpopularmusicinEuropeandtheUnitedStates,thenonecaneasily

conceivehowthisproblemwasdrasticallyexacerbatedforcomposersduringSax’s

lifetime.

Inaddition,themajorityofsaxophonistswereoftheworkingclass,manyof

whomonlypurchasedsaxophonesduetotheaffordabilityinordertoparticipatein

leisurelyactivityofmusic-makingthathadbecomesoadornedbythebourgeoisie;it

isveryunlikelythatmembersoftheworkingclasscouldalsoaffordtotakemusic

lessonsonaregularbasis.WiththeaveragesalaryforaParisianlaborerin1871at

fivefrancsperday,equalingapproximately1,810francsperyear,159methodbooks

werejustabouttheonlyoptionforthemajorityofsaxophonistsatthetime.Thefew

methodbooksofferedearlierbySax,Cokken,Kastner,Klosé,Mayeur,andothers,

wererelativelyexpensiveforworkingclassmembers,rangingfrom15to24francs

duringthe1870s;itwouldtakeaboutthreetofivedaysofworkfortheaverage

workingclasslaborertoaffordone.160

158EugeneRousseau,MarcelMule:hisLifeandtheSaxophone(ShellLake,Wisconsin:Etoile,1982),78-79.159PierreSicsic,“City-FarmWageGapsinLateNineteenth-CenturyFrance,”TheJournalofEconomicHistory,Vol.52,No.3(September,1992),683,http://www.jstor.org/stable/2122890.160Comparingthepricesof1870seditionmethodbooks:HyacintheKloséMéthodecomplètedeSaxophone-baryton,(Paris,AlphonseLeduc,1879)andLouisMayuerGrandMéthodecomplètede

89

Theinsufficiencyofaptsaxophonistswascompoundedbythedeathof

prominentsaxophonevirtuosoHenriWuillein1871.Despitehispromenade

orchestraconnections,hewasoneofthefew“classically”trainedmusicianswho

transferredtheirtechniqueandmethodsasaclarinetisttothesaxophone.In

additiontohispromenadeorchestracareerhewasoneofthefirstsolotouring

saxophoniststowhoperformedclassicaltranscriptionsandcontemporaryworks

commissionedbySax,asonecriticfromtheRevuerecorded:

“M.Wuilleanartistofgreattalent…playedinthelastwinterinseveralconcerts,andhas

performedonthissameinstrumentthetoughestfeatureswithease,totheunanimousapplauseofa

connoisseurpublic.M.Wuille,whoseskillisindisputable,howeverprovedwrongthemisjudgedthe

characteroftheinstrument,whichisnotintendedforshiny[flashy]things,butforexpressivemusic

andmysteriouseffects.”161

TheRevue’sdescriptionofHenriWuille’sperformancesconfirmstheatypicalnature

ofvirtuosityandrepertoirechoicesastheoppositeofwhatwasnormallyexpected

bysaxophonistsandthestyleofmusictheyperformed.Thecritic’sphrase

“connoisseurpublic”leadsonetobelievethattheaudiencewascomprisedof

bourgeoismembers.ThecriticalsoreportsthatWuille’sperformancerefutedthe

“misjudgedcharacteroftheinstrument”bydemonstratingthesaxophone’s

capabilitiesofmakingartmusic,ratherthantheostentatiousstylesusedin

promenadeconcerts.

Thescarcityofskilledsaxophonistswascompoundedfouryearslaterwhen

thelargestcontributortosaxophonesoloandchamberworks,composerJean-

BaptisteSingeléehadpassedaway.TheBelgianviolinistandcomposerwasfirstto

treatthesaxophoneasaseriousclassicalinstrument,ashecomposedoverthirty

SolosdeConcoursforSax’sstudentsattheConservatoiredeParis.Theseworkswere

allpublishedbySax’sbusinessandprovidedtheearliestrepertoireforthe

instrument.Singeléeprovidedtheearliestsaxophonistswithavarietyofchamber

worksincludingsolos,duets,trios,andthefirstsaxophonequartetwork.Singelée

Saxophones,(Paris,LéonEscudier,1878).Thepricesofsaxophonemethodbooksremainedstagnantthroughoutthenineteenthcentury,despiteitsdeclineinformalpopularitysincethe1840s.161RevueetgazettemusicaledeParis,20,no.48,(30November1851),262.

90

continuedtocomposesaxophonechamberworksuntilhisdeathin1875.The1870s

presentedanendangeredenvironmentforsaxophone'sexistence:therewereno

institutionsprovidingsaxophonestudy,andtheinstrument'smostactivecomposer

hadpassedaway.Singelée’sabsenceindefinitelycontributedtothesaxophone’s

waningexistenceinpost-imperialFrance.

WhileSingeléewastheleadingsaxophonechamberworkcomposerinSax’s

lifetime,manyothercomposershadalsomadefewer,butsignificantcontributions

nonetheless,inestablishingrepertoireforthethirty-five-year-oldinstrument.The

smallamountofchambersaxophonerepertoirewasbirthedinthelaterhalfofthe

nineteenthcentury.Oneoftheissuesinestablishingrepertoireforitwasthefact

thatthesaxophonewasinitiallyseenmoreasautilitarianinstrumentthanan

artisticone.Itsreverenceasthesolutiontobalanceissuesinmilitaryandwind

bandsoutweighedanyreputationitobtainedasapurelyexpressivemedium.

Therefore,itwouldnotreplacetheviolinorcellointrios,solos,orduetsasidethe

pianointendedforsalonperformances.Saxunderstoodthathisinstrumentswere

receivedmoreassolutionstoensembleproblemsthanexpressivesoloinstruments,

soheranapublishingbusinessfrom1858to1878toencouragethesaxophone's

expressivevocal-likequalitiesthroughproducingchamberrepertoire.

ComposerssuchasJulesDemersseman,JermoneSavari,Paul-AgricoleGénin,

Jean-BaptiseArban,andLéonChicpromotedthesaxophonethroughanarrayof

chamberworkspublishedbySax’scompany.Solostoquartetswerepublishedfrom

the1850sonwards.Perhapsonereasonwhythecampaigntoexhibitthesaxophone

asasalon-orientedinstrumentfailedwasduetothedatedaestheticsinwhichthe

composersengagedin:titlessuchasFreischutzFantasy,Fantasiebrillante,Caprice,

SolosurlaTyrolienne,betraytheirRomanticconnotations,astheywerewrittenina

relativelylightclassicalstyleandwereintendedtodisplaythetechnicalandlyrical

capabilitiesofthesaxophone.162ARevuearticlepointsthestylisticdisparityoutin

thesaxophone’schamberworks:

162SeeFigure7.1and7.2.

91

"TotheworksofwhichM.Saxcomposeshisnewrepertory,onecouldjoinwithhappiness

piecestakenfromclassicalauthors.Thus,wethinkthatsomeandantes,somescherzi,andquartets

byHaydnandMozart,ingeniouslytranslatedforanequalnumberofhisnewinstruments,would

produceaveryinterestingeffect…theseprettypieces,somewhatlightinstyle,itistrue,thathemade

ushearsoundsofformertimes…”163

Thecriticproclaimsthatthenewrepertoireforthesaxophonecouldbeagreeably

placedbesidestheworksofclassicalcomposersandthattheaudiencehadheard

“soundsofformertimes”inthenewlycomposedworks.

Figure7.1:LaChansonduPrintemps,anearlytenorsaxophonesolochamberpiece,whichadheresto

Classicaleraaesthetics:asimplegalantmelodybarestriadsoftheharmonicprogressionvia

appregios;evenlystructuredphraseswithantecedentandconsequentphrasemembers;and

sequencedimitativegestures.

163RevueetgazettemusicaledeParis,19,no.20,(19May1850),171.

92

Perhapstheanachronisticaestheticsusedintheseworkshadharmedthe

instrument’sreceptionsincethefirsthalfofthenineteenthcenturyyieldeda

multitudeofdistinctaesthetics—allofwhichhaddepartedfromthecosmopolitan

aestheticsoftheclassicalperiod—thathadbecomeaccustomedinallgenres.The

controlledharmonictension,stabilitybetweenconsonanceanddissonance,

perfectlyproportionedformalstructuresandutilizationofthematicdevelopments

oftheclassicalperiodwereoppressorstotheRomanticspiritanditsneedfor

subjectivity.Throughreducedformalrestrictions,romanticcomposerscouldfully

expresstheirindividualideas:bythetimesaxophonerepertoirehadbecome

available,musicalaestheticsweresolelydrivenbyemotionandsubjectivity,notthe

rationalityandlogicusedinthepreviousera.Becausethesaxophone’schamber

reperotireemergedinthelaterhalfofthenineteenthcenturyandconsistedof

exclusivelyclassicalaesthetics,itispossiblethataudiencesreceivedtherepertoire

as“impassive”anddémodé,renderingthesaxophoneinasimilarmanner.Had

composerswrotechamberworksinamoreromanticstyle,thesaxophonemayhave

becomeadefiningtimbralfeatureoflateromanticsalonmusic:insteadthe

instrument’searliestchamberworksattemptedtoredraftthepreviousera’s

aestheticsbyincludinganewtimbre.

93

Figure7.2:Anearlysolochamberworkforaltosaxophoneandpiano,SolosurlaTyrolienne

displaysaestheticsthatbelongedtothepreviouscentury.Featuressuchascleartonic-dominant

relationships,evenphrases,drivingrhythmicpulses,andmonorhythmicgesturesbetweenboth

instruments.

94

PariswasoneoftheforemostcitiesformusicintheRomanticera;itislikely

thatParisianswholistenedtothesaxophone’schamberworkswerewearyofstyles

thatseemedarchaiccomparedtotheunprecedentedaestheticsproducedby

FrédéricChopinandtheinnovativeformsofvariationscreatedbyFranzLisztand

NiccolòPaganini.Notonlywerethenewopposingromanticstylesandphilosophies

attheirheight,butthetimeperiodalsoyieldedscathingsatiricalworksthatmocked

classicalcomposer’svalues.Onewell-knownexampleisJacquesOffenbach’s

operetta,Orphéeauxenfers,whichparodiedGluck’sstoicmusicalvaluesthat

attemptedto“Delighttheeyesandears,torouseupandtoaffecttheheartsofan

audience,withouttheriskofsinningagainstreasonorcommonsense”164inhis

reformoperasettingofOrfeoedEuridicethroughlicentiousnessandmindless

celebrations.Therefore,music’spurposewasregardedasonetofulfillartist’sneeds

forself-expressionduringSax’slifetime;itspurposewasnolongertosuitthe

audience’spleasuresandneedsthroughintellectualstimulationasitwasduringthe

Classicalera.

AfterSaxdeclaredhisthirdbankruptcyin1877,hewasforcedtosellhis

musicpublishingrightsinordertoprovidepartialreimbursementtohiscreditors.

Whenhispublishingcompanyended,thepiecesforsaxophonechamberrepertoire

followed,augmentingtheeducationalandculturalissuesalreadypresentedinthe

1870s.

OutofBusiness AsSax’sinfluenceonmilitarymusicalpracticesdwindled,sodidhisbusiness.

The1870swerethebeginningoftheendforSax’scompany:in1877hedeclaredhis

thirdandfinalbankruptcy.Hecouldnotaffordtoreachanagreementwithhis

creditorsthistimeandwasforcedtosellhisprizedinstrumentcollection,which

contained467examplesofhisowninventions,andalsoinstrumentsfromearlier

periods.Hisinstrumentcollectionwassetatthepriceof40,000francs;however,

thehistoriccollection,whichincludedthefirstmodelsoftheEbaltoandbaritone

saxophones,aconcertpitchedsopranosaxophone,andseveralLégiond'Honneur

164FrancescoAlgarotti,EssayontheOpera,(NY:EdwinMellen,2005),20.

95

winninggoldandsilverplatedsaxophones,hadonlyaccumulated12,000francsin

itsinauction.165TheprimeresultsofSax’smostlaborioustoilshadnotevenbeen

valuedatone-thirdoftheprice,whichhereluctantlyposeduponhispriceless

trophies.

AftertheauctionofSax’smostvaluedpossessionsheandhiscreditors

reachedanagreementthatpermittedhimtopay25%ofhisremainingdebtovera

five-yearperiodinordertoallowhiscompanytoremain.Hiscompanyendured

throughthenexttwodecades,makingbarelyenoughprofitstoremaininbusiness.

Hewouldnothavetorelocatehisfactorytoasmallerbuildinguntiltwoyears

beforehisdeath.Bythetimethe1878ExpositionUniversellewasheldSaxcouldnot

evenaffordtheentryfee.TypicalofSax’sadamantandparanoidnature,he

protestedtotheministerofAgriculture,claimingthathewasbeingdeniedthe

opportunitytodisplayhisnewestdesignsandifhewerenotallowedtoparticipate

thepublicwouldassumethathiscompanyhadceasedproductionentirelybecause

othermanufacturerswereabletoexhibittheirversionsofhisinventions.166Cottrell

notesthathisqualmsofinjusticebehindhisprotestwereprovenvalidwhenthe

Expositionjuryawardedaseriesofgold,silver,andbronzemedalstohis

competitorsfor“theirexcellentsaxophones.”167

Thesixty-fouryearoldinventor,whohadconsecutivelydefeatedhis

competitorsinvariousexhibitionssincehisarrivalinParis,musthavehadan

amalgamofindignation,envy,anddespondencystirringwithinbytheendofthe

decade.Hisfearshadbeenconfirmed:theoncemostsuccessfulinstrumentinventor

andluminary’sdaysofsuccesshadlongpassed.

“Theonlyvictories,whichleavenoregret,arethosethataregainedoverignorance”-NapoleonI ThedecadethatgavenothingbutmisfortuneandtribulationtoSaxdid,

however,ironicallyyieldaneventthatwouldbecomeregardedasthemost

importanteventinclassicalsaxophonehistory:thefirstscoringforthesaxophone

165StephenCottrell,TheSaxophone(London:YaleUniversityPress,2012),35.166Ibid,35.167Ibid,35.

96

inapurelyorchestralwork.GeorgesBizet’s1871suiteentitled,L'Arlésiennemarked

thecommencementofsaxophoneusageinorchestralworksthatwerenottiedwith

opera—thoughearlieroperaticinclusionswerenotlessmomentous.Bizet’susage

ofthesaxophonewassignificantanumberofreasons:thedecisionwasnot

associatedwithorinducedbySaxhimself,itwasthefirstusageofthesaxophoneas

bothasoloisticandcollectivevoice,anditisusedtorepresentthelaborersthathad

readilyaccepteditintheirpromenadeconcerts.Diachronicallyspeaking,

L'Arlésienneisalsosignificantbecauseitistheonlyorchestralsaxophoneworkfrom

thenineteenthcenturythatisstillperformedbymodernorchestras.

ThepioneeringworkbeganasincidentalmusicforAlphonseDaudet'splayof

thesamename,whichtranslatesto“TheGirlfromArles.”Thefirstperformanceof

occurredonOctober1,1872attheThéâtreduVaudeville.TheplayissetinCastelet,

aruralvillageonthebanksoftheRhoneinsouthernFrance,wheretheyoung

peasant,Fréderi,fallsinlovewith“TheGirlfromArles.”Shortlybeforetheir

weddingdateFréderilearnsthathissoontobebridehasbeenunfaithfulandthe

discoverydriveshimintoinsanity.Hisfamilyattemptstohelptheirsoncopewith

thelossofhisloverbyarranginganothermarriageforhim,butFréderiisconstantly

remindedof“TheGirlfromArles”andeventuallycommitssuicidebyjumpingoffa

balconyduringthetown’sharvestcelebration.Bizetcompiledthefolk-themed

dancesintotwoorchestralsuitesfororchestraaftertheplay’sshort-livedtwenty-

oneperformances.Bizetwroteseveralfolk-likethemeshimself,butalso

incorporatedthreeexistingtunesfromafolkmusiccollectionpublishedbyVidalof

Aixin1864:LaMarchodiRei,theDansedeiChivau-Frus,andErdouGuet.168

Bizet’susageofthesaxophoneinL'Arlésienneembodiesitsascribedsocial

identity.TheveryfirstorchestralsaxophonesoloisusedtorepresentFréderi’s

youngerbrother,nicknamed“l’Innocent,”alsoapeasantinruralFrance.After

Bizet’sthemeandvariationsonthefolkmelody,LaMarchodiReitheorchestra

ritards,fades,andpreparesfor“l’Innocent”’sthemewiththreesolemnchordsanda

longpause.Theconsordinistringaccompanimentintuttiandostinatoclarinet168DanielGregoryMason,TheAppreciationofMusic,Vol.III:ShortStudiesofGreatMasterpieces,(NY:H.W.GreyCo.,1918),109.

97

motivesetaninnocuousaccompanimentforyoungpeasant’stheme.169The

saxophoneentersforasolomarkedespressivoassai,whichrendersasensitive,

curious,butalsomournfulmelody.170DanielGregoryMasonbelievesthatbecause

therecurringmotivethroughoutthesaxophone’ssoloisharmonizeddifferentlyat

eachappearance,Bizetintendedtorepresentnaïvetéintheyoungpeasant;171

perhapstosymbolizeacharacterthatrepeatsthesamecuriousactionsindifferent

situations.

Figure7.3:BizetL'ArlésienneFirstSuite,movementone:theyoungpeasant’ssaxophonemelodyis

accompaniedbysimpletuttistringharmoniesandarecurringclarinetmotive.

169SeeFigure7.3.170SeeFigure7.4.171DanielGregoryMason,TheAppreciationofMusic,Vol.III:ShortStudiesofGreatMasterpieces,(NY:H.W.GreyCo.,1918),105.

98

Figure7.4:L’Innocent’spenetratingthematicmelodyembodiedthroughanEbaltosaxophonesolo.

Bizet’sdecisiontoscoreforthesaxophonespecificallyformusicthatwas

originallyusedforaplaysetinarusticvillageinsouthernFranceprovidesevidence

fortheworkingclassimplicationsthatbecameaffixedtheinstrument.

Coincidentally,theplayhadpremieredattheThéâtreduVaudeville,locatedinthe

IXearrondissement,justsouthofthebohemianMontmartredistrict.TheThéâtredu

Vaudevillewasknownforputtingonperformancesofcomédieenvaudevilles,short

comedies,whichfeaturedoperabuffaelementsandmelodiesfrompopular

vaudevilles;anappropriatevenueforworkingclassaudiences.Thesaxophone’s

culturalidentitywasultimatelyconfirmedthroughtheworkofMusard,Jullien,and

otherpromenadeorchestraleaders,butin1872Bizethadinaugurateditsroleasa

workingclassrepresentationintheorchestraassuch;theinstrumentthatis

celebratedbythepeasants.Thoughit’sclearthatthesaxophoneneverlostits

militaryconnectionseither;ZoltánKodály’s1926suitefromhisHungarianfolk

opera,HáryJánoscontainssaxophonesolosthroughout,butmostnotablyisthe

99

satiricalusageofitinthemovemententitled,“TheBattleandDefeatof

Napoleon.”172

Figure7.5:SardonicallyusedaltosaxophonesolosinZoltánKodály’sHáryJánosSuite.Kodály’suseof

thesaxophoneinthecontextofrepresentingNapoleon’sarmyandFrenchconfirmthesaxophone’s

initialconnotationsasaFrenchmilitaryinstrument.

Bizet’sscoringwasundoubtedlythemostmonumentalappearanceofthe

saxophoneofthedecade,butitdidmakeothercameoformsattheOpéra.Infact,by

theendofthe1870sthesaxophone’spresencewassufficientlyestablishedfromits

occasional“visits”totheOpérathatitwaslistedaspartoftheofficial

instrumentationoftheresidentorchestranexttobassclarinetist,LouisMayeur’s

name.173ThefirstworktoincludeasaxophoneattheOpérawasMassenet’s1875

oratorio,Èvewherehegavethesopranosaxophoneabriefappearancewithharp,

172SeeFigure7.5.173StephenCottrell,TheSaxophone(London:YaleUniversityPress,2012),103.

100

cello,flute,clarinet,andhorninaccompanyingaduetbetweenAdamandEve.The

secondworkwasthethree-actballet,Sylvia,composedbyLéoDelibesin1876,

whichcontinuedtheOpéra’straditionspastNapoléon’srule.Theballetfeaturesan

altosaxophonesolointhebarcarollescenewherestringsandfluteaccompanythe

alluringbarcarollemelody.PerhapsDelibeschosetousethesaxophoneforthis

scenebecausethebarcarollehasitsoriginsasafolksongthatwassungbyVenetian

gondoliers;whatbetterwaytorepresentthesimplegondolaoarsmenthantosing

theirfolksongthroughalaborer’sinstrument?

AndthefollowingyearJulesMassenetscoredforvarioussaxophonesinhis

operaLeRoideLahore.ThegrandoperaissetinLahore,Indiawherethevillage’s

residentsprepareforanattackfromaneighboringvillage.KingAlim,hisminister

Scindia,andthehighpriestTimourprepareforbattle.ScindiasecretlylovesAlim’s

niece,SitaandwhenAlimdiesinbattleScindiaattemptstomarryher.However,

AlimgoestoParadisewherethegodIndramakesadealwithhimallowinghimto

returntoearth:ifhecancompelSitatoliveasahumblebeggarfortheremainderof

herlife.Varioussaxophoneswereusedthroughoutthelushorchestrationand

melodramaticactionofLeRoideLahore,174butmostnotablyistheopulentsolo

duringthecharmingballetinIndra’sparadise.Massenet’sdecisiontoscoreforthe

saxophoneconfirmsotherconnotationsthatbecameaffixedtoitthrough

promenadeconcerts:theorientalthemed“AliBen”burlesques.Theinstrumenthad

becomesofirmlyassociatedwiththeexoticeastthatMassenetdidnotmerely

choosetouseitforanoperasetinIndia,buthealsousedittorepresentthehighest

possiblestateaccordingtothefollowersofHinduism,theHinduafterlifevisionof

paradise.InthatwayMassenetdidnotusethesaxophonetosignifytheexoticina

flippantmannerlikeitwasinpromenadeconcerts,butagenuineone:tosincerely

portraytheHindipeople’sculturewithadegreeofaccuracy—thoughitwas

inaccuratetousethesaxophoneatallasarepresentativeofIndianculture,itwasan

earnesteffort.ThesubjectmatterofMassenet’soperawasofmelodramatic

174ActIIIcallsforEbaltoandBbtenorsaxophonesandActIVrequiresaBbContrabasssaxophone.DemarIrvine,Massenet:AChronicleofHisLifeandTimes,(Portland,OR:AmadeusPress,2003),97.

101

historicalfiction,notmerelysatiricalscenesofcostumedFrenchmenplayingquasi-

easternmelodies.Massenet’sserioushandlingofafabricatedmusical

representationofadistantcultureconfirmedbeliefsofFrenchculture:the

saxophonehadbecomesymbolicofeasternphilosophies.

Thesaxophone’sidentitiesasaworkingclassinstrumentandexotic

representativewereformallyconfirmedbytheworksproducedinthe1870s.Bizet’s

L'Arlésiennedepictedsimple,innocent,ruralpeasantsthroughsaxophoneusagein

authenticfolkdancesandsongs;Delibes’charmingsaxophonesoloofabarcarolle

melodyinSylviafurtheredtherenditionaspoorlaborer’svoice;andMassenet’s

usageinLeRoideLahoreascertainsthebeliefs,whichbecameacceptedinFrench

culturethattheinstrumentwasanexoticentity.

Overall,the1870scontinuedthedistressingtrendofthepreviousdecade.

Saxplungedintobankruptcytwiceduetotheeliminationofthemilitaryband

budget;heasforcedtosellhiscollectionofhisprize-winninginstruments—andthe

publicdemonstratedhowlittlehisinventionswereworthtothem,astheydidn’t

evenraiseonethirdoftheaskingprice—andhecouldnotevenaffordtheentryfee

toparticipateinthe1878ExpositionUniverselle.Theannihilationofformal

saxophonestudyattheConservatoiredeParisandthedeathsofprominent

saxophonistsandcomposershadSaxfearingnotonlyforthefutureofhisbusiness,

butalsohisnonpareilinstrument.Sax’sperceptionofhisfadingexistenceinthe

ThirdRepubliccouldeasilybesummarizedinGustaveFlaubert’slettertoGeorge

SandontheaftermathoftheLaCommunedeParis:“IcomefromParis,andIdonot

knowwhomtospeakto.Iamsuffocated.Iamquiteupset,orratheroutofheart.The

sightoftheruinsisnothingcomparedtothegreatParisianinsanity…”175

175GustaveFlaubert,TheCorrespondenceofGeorgeSandandGustaveFlaubert:CollectedLettersoftheMostInfluentialFrenchAuthors,(Norway:e-artnow,2015),10June1871.

102

VIII.1880-1894:ThePhoenixInstrument:DeathoftheInventor,ReincarnationoftheSaxophone Thelasttwodecadesofthenineteenthcenturywouldnot“playadifferent

tune”forSax’sbusinessandthesaxophone:hiscompanywouldcontinuetobe

impecunious;thegloryofFrenchmilitarymusicwouldremainburiedwiththe

SecondEmpire;andthesaxophonewouldcontinueitsexistencedestituteofan

institutiontoprovideformaltraining.Saxwouldcontinuefightingforhis

instrument’s“life”untilhisdeathin1894.ItwasintheseyearsthatSaxprovedto

composersthathewasnotpromotingtheuseofhisinstrumentsforprofits,

especiallyinthetimewhenheneededitthemost,butwithintentiontoleavea

significantcontributiontoFrenchmusicculture.

The1880sand1890sleftFrancesearchingforanewidentityforitsnew

republic.ThewakeoftheSecondIndustrialRevolutionpromptedthenationto

returntocolonialexpansionforresources,thusdetractingfocusonthestate;

militarybandsweretheperhapsfurthestconcerninassertingnationalinfluence.

Duringthe1880sanexpansioniststanceFrancehadimpelledtheFranco-Chinese

Warof1883-1885inwhichFranceinvadedandcapturedTonkinandAnnamandby

1893hadcreatedacolonyinLaos.176Francehadalsoestablishedpostsin

Brazzaville,alargecityontheCongoRiverinAfricaearlierinthedecade,motivating

otherconquestsinAfrica.In1884theageofNewImperialismwasinfullforce,as

theBerlinConferencewascreatedinordertomandatetheEuropeancolonizationin

Africa,whereFranceasserteditselfconsiderably.AdheringtoConferencepolicies,

FrancecolonizedTunisiaopposingothermajorEuropeannation’sinterests

nonetheless.Affirminganationaldominancewasnolongeramatterofdisplaying

themostdisciplinedandmusicalmilitaryensembles.Theharmoniousfrequencies

ofexclusiveperformancesbySax’sensemblesintheextravagantlydecorated

ImperialTuileriespalacenolongerfunctionedasassessmentstodecidehowto

contendFrance’ssuperioridentityamongEurope,Francehadreturnedtotheuseof

maps.

176EdwardG.Ruoff,TheFranco-ChineseWarof1883-1885,(NY:SyracuseUniversityPress,1953),7.

103

PublicPleas:FromTycoontoBeggar Towardstheendofhislife,Saxbecameincreasinglydestitute.Themanwho

hadonceloanedthousandsoffrancstoBerliozforaconcerttourinRussiahadnow

foundhimselfinthesamefinancialstateaswhenhearrivedtotheFrenchcapital.

Theonceyoungandtempestuousindustrialistwhohadcausedarevolutioninthe

processofmanufacturingmusicalinstrumentshadassumedapositioninParisian

lifeasanunfortunateandpenuriousoldman.In1887outofdesperation,hemade

publicpleasforfinancialassistancetohelphimreimbursethoseheowedandpay

theremainderofhiscourtfees.177SeveralmusicalParisiansdidshowconcernsand

assistSaxinhisfiscaldilemma.ComposerPaulLacôme,whohadlatercomposed

saxophonechamberworks,hadmadeplanstohelpSax,thoughitisunclearwhether

hisplanswerecarriedthrough,178andcomposerEmmanuelChabrierwroteto

Vincentd'Indy—acomposerofsaxophoneorchestralrepertoire—regarding"Poor

pèreSax!Whenonethinksthatthistalentedmanhaspassedhislifetobecomea

bankruptinordertoenrichmenwhotodayhavedecorationsandaremillionaires...

itisdisgusting."179

Saxalsocontinuedtomakepleasforsaxophoneclassestoresumeatthe

Conservatoire,claimingthatcomposerswereunabletofindsaxophonistsforthe

partstheywroteorcontemplatedwriting.In1883hewroteletterstothedirectorof

theConservatoireregularly,ironicallythedirectorwasnowAmbroiseThomas,the

composerwhohadwrittenthelengthysaxophonerecitativeintheopera,Hamletin

1868.AnexcerptfromoneofthemanyletterssenttoThomasdescribesthe

difficultiescomposersfacedwhentheyplannedtoscoreforthesaxophone:

"Thefamilyofthesaxophonedoesnotconsistonlyofthefourtypesknownandpopularized

bymilitarymusic.Itconsistsofuptosixteenmembersandtheprofessorshouldaccustomhis

studentstoplayifnotonallofthematleastonseveraltypes.Theforceofhabitissuchthat

saxophonistswhorefusetoplayanotherinstrumentthantheonetheyareusedhavebeenableto

opposethewishesofcomposers...ThesaxophoneinFappearedtomeasthetruetypewhichshould

beadoptedforthesymphony.SometimeagoIhadtheoccasiontoplaythisinstrumentseparatelyfor

177StephenCottrell,TheSaxophone(London:YaleUniversityPress,2012),36.178Ibid,36.179Ibid,37.

104

twoofouryoungmasters,M.MassenetandM.Saint-Saëns.Theyweresoimpressedbythetimbre,

thepenetratingcharm,andtheextraordinarynoveltyofthisorchestralvoicethattheyatonce

conceivedtheprojectofusingit(asMeyerbeerhaddoneatthebeginningofL'EtoilduNord).M.

Massenetintroduceditinoneofhissymphonicpieces;M.Saint-Saënsatoncecomposedasolofor

HenryVIII.However,bothcomposersclashedwiththeill-willorinabilityofasaxophonistwhowas

usedtohissaxophoneinE-flat,andbothofthemwereforcedtoretreat,andentrusttheirsolosto

otherinstruments;M.Massenettotheclarinet,andM.Saint-Saënstotheoboe.Thesearethefruitsof

blindhabit:tobeabletodeprivetheinspirationandinventivenessofcomposersofnewresources,

andtopresentimpassableobstacles.”180

Saxclaimsthatcomposershadtoscraptheirideasforusingthesaxophonebecause

eithertheycouldnotfindasaxophonistforperformanceorthesaxophonistthey

hiredwasnotskilledontheothermembersoftheinstrumentfamily.Thomaswould

notagreecompletely,despitehisearlierscoringfortheinstrument;however,inthe

1892evaluationofConservatoiredeParis’spracticesincludedasuggestionto

resumesaxophoneclasses.

OneinterestingdetailisSax’sthoughtsaboutthemembersofthefamily

pitchedinF,asthosehethoughtwouldbetheonesaddedtotheorchestra.Though

Saxdoesnotrevealthereasonwhyhebelievedthatinhisletter,modernsaxophone

scholarssupposehisbeliefwasduetothesmallerbellonthesaxophoneinF,or

mezzo-soprano,whichwouldmakeiteasiertosoftlyblendwiththestrings.Ifthat

werethecase,onewouldimaginethatSaxwouldhavepromotedmoresaxophones

inF.

DespiteSax’sbeliefthatthemezzo-sopranosaxophonewouldbetheone

integratedintotheorchestra,the1880sand1890shadproventhatthealtowould

besufficientfororchestralneeds.Anupsurgeofworkscontainingtheinstrument

premieredattheOpéraduringtheremainingdecades.BeginningwithMassenet’s

1880oratorio,LaVierge,whichdepictstheascensionoftheVirginMary,thebass

saxophonecommencedtheinstrumentfamily’smostsuccessfuldecadeinorchestral

music.ThefollowingyearMassenetalsoincorporatedthebasssaxophoneintohis

fouractopera,Hérodiade.Anothercomposerutilizedthecolorsofthelow

saxophonefamilymembersthatsameyearwhenAmbroiseThomas’sFrançoisede180Ibid,58.ItisnotknownwhichworksSaxisspeakingofinthisletter.

105

Riminipremieredwithabaritonesaxophoneinitsorchestra.181In1883Saint-Saëns

composedpartsforaquintetofsaxophones(soprano,twoalto,tenor,andbass)in

thebandascoreforHenryVIII.182ThreeyearslaterÉmilePaladilhe’s1886opera,

Patrie,usedthesaxophone.…

Whilethe1880sbroughtaconsiderableproliferationofsaxophone

performancestotheOpéra,nonewouldpremiereafterPatrie.Tocomplicatethe

saxophone’sresidenceattheinstitution,theOpéra’sofficialsaxophonist,Louis

Mayeurpassedawayin1894,removingtheformalintegrationofthesaxophone

fromtheonlynon-militaryestablishmentthatembracedit.Hadthesaxophonenot

foundamildacceptanceattheOpéra,itsorchestralpotentialsmayhaveneverbeen

discovered.

OutsideoftheworksthattookplaceattheOpérawerethreecaptivating

works,twoofwhichwereneverpublishedanddiscoveredinarchivesduringthe

middleofthetwentiethcentury.ThefirstwasPaulDukas’sL'OndineetlePecheur,a

concertariathatwascomposedin1884,butwasnotdiscovereduntilthemiddleof

thetwentiethcentury.Oddlyenough,theworkbeginswithalyricallyenchanting

altosaxophonesolo.183LikeMassenet,Dukasappearstohavebeenaheadofhistime

duetohisvarietyofusesforthesaxophonewithintheorchestra;thesaxophone

doesn’tmerelyserveasarecurringsolovoice,butalsoasharmonicsupportand

timbralcoloringthroughout.184Theotherwork,CésarFranck’sopera,Huldawas

writtenin1886andusesaquartetofsaxophonesonstagefortheprologuescene.

HuldawasnotpublishedduringFranck’slifetimeorcompletelyperformeduntil

1979.

181PerhapsThomas’s1882scoringhadpromptedSaxtopursuethereinstatementofsaxophoneclassesattheConservatoirethefollowingyear.182IgnaceDeKeyser,"AdolpheSaxandtheParisOpéra,"BrassScholarshipinReview:TheHistoricBrassSociety,6,(1999):152.183SeeFigure8.1.184SeeFigure8.2.

106

Figure8.1:TheopeningsaxophonesoloinDukas’sposthumouslydiscoveredconcertoariafor

sopranovoiceandorchestra,L'OndineetlePecheur.

107

Figure8.2:Dukas’suseofthesaxophoneasacollectiveorchestralcolor(fourthstafffromthetop.)

Thefinalmomentoussaxophoneworkofthecenturywasyetanother

brilliantoperabyMassenet.Werther,the1892workwasadramelyriquethat

premieredinViennaattheImperialTheatreHofoper.TheViennesepremierewas

adaptedtoaGermantranslationoftheoriginalFrenchlibretto,whichisloosely

basedonJohannWolfgangvonGoethe’sSturmundDrangepistolarynovelDie

LeidendesjungenWerthers.Thenineteenthcenturysaxophone“finale”would

containthemostconsistentuseoftheinstrumentthroughoutitsentiretyasbotha

solovoiceandamemberofthecollectiveensemble.185

InthesameyearasWerther’sViennesepremiereSaxwasforcedtosellhis

famousrueSaint-Georgesshopandmovetoasmallerbuilding.Itisbelievedthat

the78-year-oldSaxhadhisson,Adolphe-Edouard,handlingthemajorityofthe

185SeeFigures8.3and8.4.

108

businessatthispoint.OnFebruary7,1894Saxpassedawayandwasburiedina

tombintheMontmartreCemeteryinParis.Cottrellsuggeststhattheordinarytomb

hewasgivenreflectsthenearobscurityhehadbytheendofthenineteenthcentury

asithasnodistinguishingmarkings.Adolphe-Edouardranhisfather’spioneering

businessuntil1929,whentheSelmerCompanypurchasedit.Sax’slife,accordingto

Cottrell,mirroredtheveryimageoftheartisticphilosophiesownedbythecentury:

“Saxcanbeseenasaromanticfigurebecauseromanticismwasanintegralcomponentof

nineteenthcenturyFrenchculture.Hisstrugglesagainstthevariousfatesthatbefellhim,hisrise

fromhumbleoriginstogracingFrenchcorridorsofpower,hislegalbattleswiththosewhoconspired

againsthim,hisidiosyncraticgeniusandfierytemper,hisimpoverishedfinalyears,evenhisaffection

forawomanhefeltunabletomarry,couldallcontributetoareadingofhislifewhichseeshimas

thatquintessentiallyromanticcharacter:theartistashero."186

Thefin-de-siècletookSax’slife,butitdidnottakehisscandalousnamebearing

invention.ThoughSaxleftthisworldwithmassivedebts;however,itistheworld

thatwasindebttohimforsharinghisgeniusinventionwithit.

Figure8.3:OneofthemanyalluringsaxophonesolosinMassenet’sWerther.Theannotationabove

theclarinetstaffstatesthatthesoloisintendedforthesaxophone’however,ifthereisno

saxophonistavailabletheclarinetistmayplaythesolo,indicativethatsaxophoneplayerswere

difficulttoscarceuntiltheveryendofthenineteenthcentury.


109

Figure8.4:Asmallportionoftheconsistentusageofthesaxophoneasacollectiveorchestralcolorin

Werther(secondstaff).

IX.CONCLUSIONThecommonbeliefastowhysaxophonesdonotmakeupaportionofthe

woodwindsectioninthesymphonyorchestrabeingduetothesaxophone’s

“incongruous”timbreisstillaprevalentmisconceptionamongclassicalmusicians.

Whilesomemayarguethatthesaxophone’screationwascondemnedby

chronology,havingbeeninventedafterthefoundationsoftheGermanictraditions

hadbeenestablishedwithJ.S.Bach,JosephHaydn,W.A.Mozart,andLudwigvan

Beethoven;therewasfargreatercomplexityinvolvingthenovelinstrument’s

dismissalthanchronology.Inventedataseeminglyperfecttimeandculture,the

saxophonewasconceivedatatimewhenFrenchcomposerscravedmasteryover

110

timbreandcontinuouslysearchedfornewwaystomanipulateorchestralcolorslike

starvingvulturesquestforfreshcarcasses.

Unfortunately,Saxunknowinglydestinedhisinstrumenttoexclusionfrom

thetraditionsofsymphonicartmusicthroughhisinitialalliancewiththeFrench

militaryandKingLouis-Philippe.Thesaxophonefirstenteredmusicalpractice

throughcompulsoryordersofre-orchestrationinFrenchmilitarybands—and

thoughitwaswelcomedeventually,itwasoriginallymetwithoppositionfromall

levelsofmilitarymusicauthority.Theyoungforeigner’srequestbecamean

executiveorder,whichallmilitarymusiciansandsergeantswereobligedtofollow.

Sax’sinstrumentswoulddevelopmilitarybandconnotationsandbecomeknown

fornotoriouslyinterloping—justastheirinventorwasknownintheParisianrealm

ofinstrumentmanufacturing.Tofurtherthesemartialconnotations,Saxrepeated

hisinterlopingmaneuverswiththesubsequentlong-termpoliticalestablishment,

theSecondFrenchEmpireofNapoléonIII.Thedemandforinclusionmanifesteda

generaldisrespectforthenovelinstrumentwhenithadnotyetearnedanymusical

“reputation.”Insteadofallowingauthorities,andconsequentlycomposers,to

recognizeforthemselvestheartisticpossibilitiesthatthesaxophonepossessed,the

decreesmadeonSax’sbehalfintheFrenchmilitarybequeathedsaxophonewithan

audaciousreputation.

Ofcourse,Sax’sownaudaciouspersonalityintheParisianinstrument

manufacturingindustrycontributedtothegeneralperceptionoftheinstrument’s

impression.Amultitudeofscandalouslawsuitsinvolvinganinstrumentthatforced

itswayintoFrenchmusicdidnotassistSax’shopesforthesaxophone’sintegration

intotheorchestra.ThetightlyinterlacedmusicnetworksofParishadgovernedover

musicalpracticesforcenturies;Sax’sdisturbanceintheseuninterruptedand

securelynetworkedtraditionshadrestrictedthesaxophone’sfuturefromits

inception.

Inaddition,thesaxophonedevelopedasafavoredexoticismamongthe

workingclasstraditionsofpromenadeconcerts,sharplycontrastingwiththeonce

aristocratic,butduringSax’slifetimebourgeoiscontrolledlarge-scaleensembleof

theorchestra.Wildlypopularinthesecontexts,thesaxophonedevelopedan

111

identityasanoutlandishexoticisminFrenchculture.Whilethesaxophonefound

somethingofahomeattheOpéra,itwaslargelyduetothegenre’srelianceon

audienceenticementthroughnovelandexoticsounds,whichonlyaddedtothe

implicationsofferedbypromenadeorchestrausage.

Thestigmatizations,whichoriginallydevelopedinSax’slifetime,enduredthe

testoftime,asthesaxophoneremainsanexoticoutsidertotheorchestra

contemporarily.Composer,JohnAdams,whenaskedwhyhehaswrittenthe

saxophoneintohisorchestralworkselaboratesonthefurtherdevelopmentsof

thosestigmatizationsthatoccurredinthetwentiethcentury:

"Thesaxophoneisbynowaveryanecdotalsound.Whenpeoplehearittheyimmediately

connect,evenunconsciously...withpopularmusic,whetherit'sblues,orR&B,orjazz.It'salmost

impossibletodivorceone'sawarenessofthesaxsound.That'ssoiconic,andwhenyouhearthatyou

justmakealloftheseconnections-urbanNewYorkandstreetpeopleandkidsandjazz...sex,drugs,

andviolence.Thesaxophone...carriesthatculturalmessagewithit."187

Saxhadbelievedthathisinventionwouldbetherevolutionarybasisfora

restructuredsymphonyorchestra—ahomogeneousfamilythatwouldsupportthe

vocalqualitiesofthestringfamily;andhisbeliefwasintuitivebecausethe

saxophonewouldbecomethebasisforareformedorchestra:thejazzband.

Despitethefrequentpraisefromcomposersinthenineteenthcentury,the

onlyorchestrathatwouldadopttheinstrumentwasBerlioz’stheoreticalorchestra

of467instrumentalists,whichcontainedfivesaxophones.But“therest”isn’tjust

“history.”Wecaneithercontinuetoalloworchestralmusictobedictatedbycultural

perceptionsorbreakfreeandexploreallthetruepossibilitiesthatliewithinusing

thenineteenthcenturyinstrumentinorchestralmusic.Wecancontinuetoembrace

oldprejudices,butatwhatcosttomusic?Ifwecontinuetoacceptthesaxophone’s

historyasonedefinedbyan“incongruous”timbretothemostsignificantmajor

ensembleofthewesternworld,weunderminetheverynatureoftheinstrument’s

timbre.Yes,thesaxophone’stimbreisincrediblyversatile,fittinganextensive

varietyofmusicalstyles,sowhyisitthatthe“classical”stylehasyettoutilizethis

187JasonCaffrey,“ClassicalSaxophoneinPromsSpotlight,”BBCNews,September4,2014,accessedApril10,2017,http://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-28980993.

112

timbre?Withglobaladmirationforthesaxophone,composerslikeJohnAdamshave

beenincreasinglywritingorchestralworkswiththeadditionofthe“exotic”

instrument;perhapsthetwenty-firstcenturywillprovethejudgmentsmadefour

yearsafteritspatentascorrectafterall:"thealtosaxophone,[is]oneofthemost

movingvoicesthatcanenrichourorchestras."188

188RevueetgazettemusicaledeParis,20,no.2,(20January1850),171.

113

BibliographyAlgarotti,Francesco.EssayontheOpera.NY:EdwinMellen,2005.Berlioz,Hector.GrandTraitéd’Instrumentationetd’OrchestrationModernes.Kassel,

Germany:Bärenreiter2003.Berlioz,Hector.MémoiresdeHectorBerlioz.NewYork:DoverPublications,1966.Blanchard,Henri."AdolpheSax."LaRevueEtGazetteMusicaleDeParis10

Septembre.37(1843):314-16.BibliothèquenationaledeFrance,SiteRichelieu,Paris,France

Carse,Adam.TheLifeofJullien,Cambridge,England:W.Heffer&Sons,1951."Concertd’HarmonieD’aprêsUneNouvelleOrganizationD’Ad.Sax."LaRevueEt

GazetteMusicaleDeParis22Mai.(1853):187.BibliothèquenationaledeFrance,SiteRichelieu,Paris,France.

Comettant,Oscar.Historied'uninventeuraudix-neuvièsiècle:AdolpheSax,ses

ouvragesetseslutes.Paris,Pagnerre,1860.Cottrell,Stephen.TheSaxophone.London:YaleUniversityPress,2012DeKeyser,Ignace."AdolpheSaxandtheParisOpéra,"BrassScholarshipinReview:

TheHistoricBrassSociety.Volume6(1999),pp.133-169.Dolan,EmilyI.TheWorkoftheOrchestrainHaydn'sCreation.19th-CenturyMusic Vol.34,No.1(Summer2010),pp.3-38.Flaubert,Gustave.TheCorrespondenceofGeorgeSandandGustaveFlaubert:

CollectedLettersoftheMostInfluentialFrenchAuthors.Norway:e-artnow,2015.10June1871.

Haine,Malou.AdolpheSax(1814-1894):savie,sonœuvreetsesinstrumentsde

musique.Brussels,Editionsdel'UniversitédeBruxelles,1980.Hamel,Maurice.NotescomplémentairessurAdolpheSax.ArchivesofH.etA.Selmer,

Paris,1925.QuotedinStephenCottrell.TheSaxophone.London:YaleUniversityPress,2012.

Hemke,Frederick.TheEarlyHistoryoftheSaxophone.Madison,WI:Universityof

Wisconsin,1975.

114

Horwood,Wally.AdolpheSax1814-1894:HisLifeandLegacy.Baldock,United Kingdom:EgonPublishing,1992.Ingham,Richard.TheCambridgeCompaniontotheSaxophone.UnitedKingdom:

CambridgeUniversityPress,1998.Kastner,Georges.Manuelgénéraldemusiquemilitaire.Paris:F.Didot,1848.Krutzer,Leon.LaQuotidienne,11May1845.QuotedinStephenCottrell.The

Saxophone.London:YaleUniversityPress,2012."LeSaxophone."LaRevueEtGazetteMusicaleDeParis22Août(1852):278.

BibliothèquenationaledeFrance,SiteRichelieu,Paris,France.L'Illustration.17June1845.QuotedinStephenCottrell.TheSaxophone.London:

YaleUniversityPress,2012.Mason,DanielGregory.TheAppreciationofMusic,Vol.III:ShortStudiesofGreat

Masterpieces.NY:H.W.GreyCo.,1918.Morin,Alexander.ClassicalMusic:ThirdEar:TheEssentialListeningCompanion.San

Francisco:BackbeatBooks,2002."NosLecteursDoivent...?"LaRevueEtGazetteMusicaleDeParis11Mars(1841):

159.BibliothèquenationaledeFrance,SiteRichelieu,Paris,France.Pontécoulant,AdolpheDoulcetde.LaFrancemusicale.9June1844.Porter,CecliaHopkins.FiveLivesinMusic:WomenPerformers,Composers,and

ImpresariosfromtheBaroquetothePresent.Chicago,IL:UniversityofIllinoisPress,2012.

Prunier-Quatremère,Guinard"ConcurrenceDéloyale.SaxContreGautrot.

November1862",TribunalDeCommerceDeParis,(Paris,FR:Impr.N.Chaix,1862),BibliothèquenationaledeFrance,SiteRichelieu,Paris,France.

Rae,Caroline."TheMagicofTimbre:FrenchOrchestralSound."CityofLight:Paris

1900-1950PhilharmoniaOrchestra,accessedMarch10,2017.

Rémy,Albert."AdolpheSax."dinant.be.January28,2017.

Rice,AlbertR.,FromtheClarinetd'AmourtotheContraBass:AHistoryofLargeSizeClarinets1740-1860.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2009.

Rivière,JulesPrudence.MyMusicalLifeandRecollections.London:SampsonLow,

Marston&Company,1893.

115

Saint-Saëns,Camille.MusicalMemories,Boston:Small,Maynard,andCompany,

1919.Segell,Michael.TheDevil'sHorn:TheStoryoftheSaxophone,FromNoisyNoveltyto

KingofCool.NewYork:Farrar,StrausandGiroux,2005Taruskin,Richard.TheOxfordHistoryofWesternMusic,Vol.3,Musicinthe

NineteenthCentury.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2010.

Teal,Larry.TheArtofSaxophonePlaying.USA:AlfredPublishing,Co.,Inc,1963.

Waterhouse,William."Gautrot-Aîné,FirstoftheModerns,"BrassScholarshipinReview:TheHistoricBrassSociety.Volume6(1999),pp.121-131.

more than its sound: the political, economic, and social

Documents