Morphology: Morphology: Cross-linguistic variationCross-linguistic variation

Linguistics 200Linguistics 200

Spring 2003Spring 2003

More word formation typesMore word formation types

How are new words created? What is the structure How are new words created? What is the structure of existing words?of existing words?

More types of morphologyMore types of morphology InfixationInfixation ReduplicationReduplication Portmanteau morphemesPortmanteau morphemes AblautAblaut Position class morphologyPosition class morphology Simultaneous morphologySimultaneous morphology

InfixationInfixationUlwa possessive formsUlwa possessive forms

[su:lu][su:lu] ‘‘dog’dog’

[su:kilu][su:kilu] ‘‘my dog’my dog’

[su:malu][su:malu] ‘‘your (sg.) dog’your (sg.) dog’

[su:kalu][su:kalu] ‘‘his/her dog’his/her dog’

[su:nilu][su:nilu] ‘‘our (incl.) dog’our (incl.) dog’

[su:kinalu][su:kinalu] ‘‘our (excl.) dog’our (excl.) dog’

[su:manalu][su:manalu] ‘‘your dog’your dog’

[su:kanalu][su:kanalu] ‘‘their dog’their dog’

Ulwa InfixationUlwa Infixation

-[ki]--[ki]- ‘‘my’my’

-[ma]--[ma]- ‘‘your (sg.)’your (sg.)’

-[ka]--[ka]- ‘‘his/her’his/her’

-[ni]--[ni]- ‘‘our (incl.)’our (incl.)’

-[kina]--[kina]- ‘‘our (excl.)’our (excl.)’

-[mana]--[mana]- ‘‘your’your’

-[kana]--[kana]- ‘‘their’their’

Infixation: placement of the infixInfixation: placement of the infix

‘‘his/her...’his/her...’

[a[amak]mak] ‘‘bee’bee’ [a[amakmakkaka]]

[sa[sapa:]pa:] ‘‘forehead’forehead’ [sa[sapa:pa:kaka]]

[[bas]bas] ‘‘hair’hair’ [[basbaskaka]]

[[ki:]ki:] ‘‘stone’stone’ [[ki:ki:kaka]]

[[su:lu]su:lu] ‘‘dog’dog’ [[su:su:kakalu]lu]

[[asna]asna] ‘‘clothes’clothes’ [[asaskakana]na]

[si[siwanak]wanak] ‘‘root’root’ [si[siwawakakanak]nak]

[a[ana:la:ka]na:la:ka] ‘‘chin’chin’ [a[ana:na:kakala:ka]la:ka]

marks primary stress; -ka- ‘his/her’

Infixation: placement of the infixInfixation: placement of the infix

In Ulwa, possessive affixes follow the In Ulwa, possessive affixes follow the stressed syllable (infixation as a special case stressed syllable (infixation as a special case of suffixation)of suffixation)

ReduplicationReduplication

RED (reduplicant): RED (reduplicant): a morpheme which copies the phonological a morpheme which copies the phonological

segments of the root it is attached tosegments of the root it is attached to partial reduplication (affixational) vs. total partial reduplication (affixational) vs. total

reduplication (compounding)reduplication (compounding)

Total reduplicationTotal reduplication

Sahaptin inanimate pluralsSahaptin inanimate plurals [[p’up’u] ‘teardrop’] ‘teardrop’ [[p’p’úú p’up’u] ‘teardrops’] ‘teardrops’

English: ‘real, true’ English: ‘real, true’ red red (vs. blue red)red red (vs. blue red) home homehome home India IndianIndia Indian

Partial reduplication: suffixing

analysisanalysis

[yil[yile]e] /yil/yile/e/ ‘‘gopher’ gopher’

[yil[yileeyilyil] ] /yil/yile-RED/ e-RED/ ‘‘gopher’ (absolutive singular) gopher’ (absolutive singular)

[nute] [nute] /nute/ /nute/ ‘‘earth, ground’ earth, ground’

[nute[nutenutnut] ] /nute-RED/ /nute-RED/ ‘‘earth, ground’ (absolutive earth, ground’ (absolutive singular)singular)

Chukchee (Chukotko-Kamchatkan, Russia)Chukchee (Chukotko-Kamchatkan, Russia)-RED = absolutive singular (of noun)

Partial reduplication: prefixing

phoneticphonetic analysisanalysis

[pe:wa][pe:wa] /pe:wa//pe:wa/ ‘‘bathes’bathes’

[[pepepe:wa]pe:wa] /RED-pe:wa//RED-pe:wa/ ‘‘bathe’bathe’

[smo:l’a][smo:l’a] /smo:l’a//smo:l’a/ ‘‘smokes a hide’smokes a hide’

[[smosmosmo:l’a]smo:l’a] /RED-smo:l’a//RED-smo:l’a/ ‘‘smoke a hide’smoke a hide’

[m’a:s?a][m’a:s?a] /m’a:s/m’a:sa/a/ ‘‘is sick’is sick’

[[m’am’am’a:sm’a:sa]a] /RED-m’a:s/RED-m’a:sa/a/ ‘‘are sick’are sick’

Klamath (Penutian, Oregon)Klamath (Penutian, Oregon)RED- = plural subjects of verbs

Partial reduplication: Prefixing

Yoruba (Niger-Congo, Nigeria)RED- nouns derived from verbs

verbverb nounnoun

[l[l] ‘to go’] ‘to go’ [lí[líll] ‘going’] ‘going’

[dùn] ‘to be tasty’[dùn] ‘to be tasty’ [[dídídùn] ‘tastiness, sweetness’ dùn] ‘tastiness, sweetness’

[V] = high tone vowel, [V] = low tone vowel, [V] = mid tone vowel

Prespecification: part of RED is phonologically fixed; part of RED copies the root

Reduplication summaryReduplication summary

•Total reduplication compounding

•Partial reduplication affixation

prefixing reduplication

suffixing reduplication

infixing reduplication

Portmanteau morphemesPortmanteau morphemes

Single phonological representation corresponds to two meanings. Verb paradigms in Sekani (Athabaskan): (‘paradigm’ = set of related items)

perfective perfective past; imperfective past; imperfective present; present; optative optative subjunctive) subjunctive)

Portmanteau morphemesPortmanteau morphemes

imperfectiveimperfective optativeoptative perfectiveperfective

1 sg1 sg sststs sststsii iitstsèè

2 sg2 sg intsints wintswintsii intsintsèè

3 sg3 sg tsts tstsii tstsèè

1 pl1 pl ts’ts’tsts ts’ts’tstsii ts’ts’tstsèè

2 pl2 pl ahtsahts wahtswahtsii ahtsahtsèè3 pl3 pl tsts uutstsii tstsèè

i- 1s.perfective; s- 1s

[] = voiced velar fricative] = voiced velar fricative

Witsuwit’enWitsuwit’en (Athabaskan, British Columbia)(Athabaskan, British Columbia)

labiallabial alveolaralveolar palatalpalatal labio-labio-velarvelar

uvularuvular glottalglottal

stopstop p pp p p’ p’ t tt t t’ t’ c cc c c’ c’ kkww k kww kkww’’

’’

affricateaffricate ts tsts ts ts’ ts’

tt t t t t’’

fricativefricative s zs z çç xxww hh

nasalnasal mm nn

approxapprox ll yy ww

Witsuwit’en morphologyWitsuwit’en morphology

Morphological processesMorphological processes affixationaffixation compoundingcompounding ablautablaut

Witsuwit’en morphologyWitsuwit’en morphology

Affixable lexical categoriesAffixable lexical categories nounsnouns verbsverbs postpositionspostpositions directional adverbsdirectional adverbs adjectivesadjectives

AblautAblaut

= Root-internal vowel substitution= Root-internal vowel substitution

English English

present past past participlepresent past past participle

sing sang have sungsing sang have sung

ring rang have rungring rang have rung

Ablaut in Witsuwit’enAblaut in Witsuwit’en

verb root impf/opt verb root impf/opt perfective futureperfective future

-/qes/ ‘scratch hard’ –[qes]-/qes/ ‘scratch hard’ –[qes]–[qez] –[q–[qez] –[qs]s]

-/q-/qz/ ‘do with arms’ –[qz/ ‘do with arms’ –[qiis]s] –[q–[qz] –[qz] –[qs]s]

Ablaut pattern:Ablaut pattern:

/i/ replaces //i/ replaces // in the imperfective/optative/ in the imperfective/optative

/// replaces /e/ in the future/ replaces /e/ in the future

Affixation to nounsAffixation to nouns

[t[to]o] ‘‘water’water’

[st[stoo]] 'my 'my waterwater''

[nt[ntoo]] ‘‘your (sg.) your (sg.) waterwater’’

[n[nxxwwttoo]] ‘‘your (pl.), our your (pl.), our waterwater’’

[p[pttoo]] ‘‘his/her/its his/her/its waterwater’’

[h[hppttoo]] ‘‘their water’their water’

A possessive paradigm:

Morphological analysisMorphological analysis

ttoo ‘‘water’water’

-- possessedpossessed

s-s- ‘‘my’my’

n-n- ‘‘your (sg.)’your (sg.)’

nnxxww-- ‘‘our, your (pl.)’our, your (pl.)’

pp-- ‘‘his, her, its’his, her, its’

hhpp-- ‘‘their’their’

Prepositions and postpositionsPrepositions and postpositions

Prepositions: preposition - nounPrepositions: preposition - nouncountcount forfor me me 

verbverb prepositionpreposition nounnoun

Postpositions: noun – postposition. Witsuwit’en: Postpositions: noun – postposition. Witsuwit’en: [[s- s- pepe c’oc’ottw]w]me me forfor you (sg.) countyou (sg.) count

noun postposition noun postposition verbverb ‘ ‘count for me’count for me’

Affixation to postpositionsAffixation to postpositions

[spe][spe] ‘‘for me’for me’

[mpe][mpe] ‘‘for you (sg.)’for you (sg.)’

[n[nxxwwpe]pe] ‘‘for us, you (pl.)’for us, you (pl.)’

[p[ppe]pe] ‘‘for him, her, it’for him, her, it’

[h[hpppe]pe] ‘‘for them’for them’

Morphological analysisMorphological analysis

-pe-pe ‘‘for’for’

s-s- ‘‘me’me’

m-m- ‘‘you (sg.)’you (sg.)’

nnxxww-- ‘‘us, you (pl.)’us, you (pl.)’

pp-- ‘‘him, her, it’him, her, it’

hhpp-- ‘‘them’them’

Morphological analysis (revised)Morphological analysis (revised)

sgsg plpl

1 person1 person s-s-

nnxxww--2 person2 person n/m-n/m-

3 person3 person pp-- hhpp--

Prefixes to nouns/postpositions:

Nouns vs. postpositionsNouns vs. postpositions

1. y- 3sg. object of postposition vs. p- 3sg. 1. y- 3sg. object of postposition vs. p- 3sg. possessorpossessor -le ‘hand’-le ‘hand’ (noun)(noun) vs. vs. -le ‘hand to’-le ‘hand to’

(postposition)(postposition) pple yunqle yunqhhatat ‘he slapped his hand’‘he slapped his hand’

he slapped ithe slapped it yyle yinle yinayay ‘he handed it to him’‘he handed it to him’

he handed ithe handed it

Nouns vs. postpositionsNouns vs. postpositions

2. t- reflexive (‘-self’)2. t- reflexive (‘-self’) -- ‘with’ ‘with’ (postposition)(postposition) vs. - vs. -tstsen ‘brother’ en ‘brother’

(noun)(noun) tt neyec neyecltltcc ‘I’m talking to myself’ ‘I’m talking to myself’ tt neyelt neyeltcc ‘she’s talking to herself’ ‘she’s talking to herself’ sststsen pen pq’q’ssy’ ‘I love my brother’y’ ‘I love my brother’ tttstsen yen yq’q’ntsntsy’ ‘she loves her brother’y’ ‘she loves her brother’

t- 3 person reflexive with nouns; t- reflexive t- 3 person reflexive with nouns; t- reflexive with postpositionswith postpositions

Affixation to verbsAffixation to verbs

Unusual featuresUnusual features Position class morphology: (Position class morphology: (prefix order prefix order

restrictions)restrictions)

prefix- prefix- ...-verb root-prefix- prefix- ...-verb root-suffixsuffix

(position 1) (position 2) etc.(position 1) (position 2) etc. Discontinuous morphemesDiscontinuous morphemes

Some verbs (dictionary entry)Some verbs (dictionary entry)

-yin -yin 'sg./du. stand''sg./du. stand' -tseq ‘be lightweight’-tseq ‘be lightweight’ --as ‘du./group goes, walks’as ‘du./group goes, walks’

O-u-yin ‘pick O (berries) while stationary’O-u-yin ‘pick O (berries) while stationary’ d-d-d-d-as ‘du. pick berries (while walking as ‘du. pick berries (while walking around)’around)’

O = object

Some verbs (actual words)Some verbs (actual words)

Minimal verb word: dictionary form of Minimal verb word: dictionary form of verb+‘tense’verb+‘tense’

[sa [sa nna] ‘the sun/moon is going’a] ‘the sun/moon is going’ sa ‘sun, moon’sa ‘sun, moon’ --a 'sun, moon goes'a 'sun, moon goes' nn- continuative (‘round-trip’)- continuative (‘round-trip’)

[sa [sa iiaa] ‘the sun/moon is moving'] ‘the sun/moon is moving' i-...-i-...- progressive progressive

Position class morphologyPosition class morphologyVerb prefix positions: postposition/adverbial – iterative – multiple plural – negative – incorporated root – inceptive – distributive plural – pronominal object/subject – qualifier – tense/neg – subject – valence

Root

Suffix positions: negative - tense

[sa [sa iiaa] ‘the sun/moon is moving'] ‘the sun/moon is moving'

ii- - tense + --aa root + - tense

Some more verb wordsSome more verb words 1. [t1. [tci ci uyinuyin]] 'he/she is picking huckleberries''he/she is picking huckleberries' [t[tci] ‘huckleberries’ci] ‘huckleberries’ O-u-yinO-u-yin 'pick O (berries) while stationary‘'pick O (berries) while stationary‘ O- u - yinO- u - yin (object required) qualifier –root - imperfective- imperfective (tense position) (tense position)

Ø / u ___Ø / u ___

Prefix positions: postposition/adverbial – iterative – multiple plural – negative – incorporated root – inceptive – distributive plural – pronominal object/subject – qualifier – tense/neg – subject – valence

Root

Suffix positions: negative - tense

2. [c'oyin] 'he/she is picking' c'-c'- unspecified objectunspecified object ( (pronominal

object/subject position)(c’ + u c’o)

Prefix positions: postposition/adverbial – iterative – multiple plural – negative – incorporated root – inceptive – distributive plural – pronominal object/subject – qualifier – tense/neg – subject – valence

Root

Suffix positions: negative - tense

3. [c'o3. [c'onnyin]yin] 'he/she is picking (round things)''he/she is picking (round things)'

n-n- round object (optional) (qualifier position) round object (optional) (qualifier position)

Prefix positions: postposition/adverbial – iterative – multiple plural – negative – incorporated root – inceptive – distributive plural – pronominal object/subject – qualifier – tense/neg – subject – valence

Root

Suffix positions: negative - tense

4. [4. [wewec'onc'onssyiyin’n’]] 'he/she isn't picking (round 'he/she isn't picking (round things)' things)'

we-we- negativenegative (negative position) (negative position)s- non-perfective negatives- non-perfective negative (tense position) (tense position)-- (negative position) (negative position)n + n + n’ n’

Prefix positions: postposition/adverbial – iterative – multiple plural – negative – incorporated root – inceptive – distributive plural – pronominal object/subject – qualifier – tense/neg – subject – valence

Root

Suffix positions: negative - tense

5. [wec'on5. [wec'onzzsysyin’]in’] 'I'm not picking (round things)' 'I'm not picking (round things)' s-s- 1sg. subject (subject position)1sg. subject (subject position) /s/ /s/ [z] / ___ V [z] / ___ V

Prefix positions: postposition/adverbial – iterative – multiple plural – negative – incorporated root – inceptive – distributive plural – pronominal object/subject – qualifier – tense/neg – subject – valence

Root

Suffix positions: negative - tense

th- future (qualifier position)i- (tense position)- (tense position)/ + / t /n/ Ø / ___ C]syllable

6. [wec'onthzisyit] 'I won't pick (round things)‘

Prefix positions: postposition/adverbial – iterative – multiple plural – negative – incorporated root – inceptive – distributive plural – pronominal object/subject – qualifier – tense/neg – subject – valence

Root

Suffix positions: negative - tense

Morphological structureMorphological structure'I'm not going to pick (round) things'

[we- c’- o- n- th- [] z- i- s- yi -t -]

negative round 1 sg. subject

unspecified object‘pick (berries) while stationary’

future

Witsuwit’en summaryWitsuwit’en summary

Lexical categories: nouns vs. postpositionsLexical categories: nouns vs. postpositions AblautAblaut AffixationAffixation

with nouns, postpositions: relatively simple with nouns, postpositions: relatively simple (one or two bound morphemes per word)(one or two bound morphemes per word)

with verbs: multiple prefixes possible, prefixes with verbs: multiple prefixes possible, prefixes strictly ordered (position classes), strictly ordered (position classes), discontinuous morphemesdiscontinuous morphemes