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NAME __________________________________________ pg. 1 Units 8-10 Study Guide: Classification & Evolution, Ecosystems, & Energy Classification Domain Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus species Eukarya Animalia Chordata Mammalia Primate Hominidae Homo sapiens Mnemonic: DUMB KING PHILIP CAME OVER FOR GOOD SOUP ____________________________________________________________________________________

Domain is the broadest: Archaea, Bacteria, & Eukarya Archaea – Archaebacteria: prokaryotes (cells w/o nucleus), live in extreme or harsh environments Bacteria – Kingdom Eubacteria: prokaryotes (cells w/o nucleus), may be beneficial or pathogens Eukarya – Eukaryotes: cells have nuclei and membrane-bound organelles Kingdoms in Eukarya: Protista, Fungi, Plantae, & Animalia Each Eukarya kingdom has distinguishing characteristics:

Protista – unicellular aquatic eukaryotes; may be autotrophic or heterotrophic Fungi – multicellular decomposers (except for yeast); heterotrophs that absorb their food; cell walls made of chitin Plantae – multicellular autotrophs; perform photosynthesis; plant cells have cell walls made of cellulose Animalia – multicellular heterotrophs that ingest their food; cells do not have cell walls

NAME __________________________________________ pg. 2 Units 8-10 Study Guide: Classification & Evolution, Ecosystems, & Energy

Using a Dichotomous Key – a dichotomous key may be used to sort organisms into correct taxonomic groupings using yes or no statements. If the organism has the first characteristic listed, follow the directions. If they have the opposite characteristic, follow a different set of directions. Continue moving through the table until you have classified the organism.

Binomial Nomenclature – 2 name naming system for all organisms (reduces confusion and language barriers among scientists). Always use the Genus & species name for the organism (never just the species name) and italicize or underline it. Humans are Homo sapiens. The genus name (Homo) should be capitalized; the species name (sapiens) should be lowercase. The genus name may be abbreviated with the first letter: H. sapiens. NEVER refer to humans as sapiens; the genus must be included.

NAME __________________________________________ pg. 3 Units 8-10 Study Guide: Classification & Evolution, Ecosystems, & Energy Species 2 organisms are considered to be in the same species if they can breed with each other to produce fertile offspring. 2 organisms that are not the same species (ex: Horse & Donkey) may be able to produce offspring called a Hybrid, but hybrids are always sterile (cannot produce their own offspring). Evolutionary Relationships Evolutionary Theory states that all organisms can be traced back to a common ancestor (single-celled organism). These evolutionary relationships can be shown using a cladogram (aka phylogenetic tree).

These diagrams are used to analyze features of organisms that are considered "innovations", or newer features that serve some kind of purpose. These characteristics appear in later organisms but not earlier ones and are called derived characters.

Natural Selection Darwin identified Natural Selection as the mechanism of evolution. Natural Selection is where some alleles (forms of a trait) provide an advantage over other alleles. These advantages are called adaptations. Adaptations may be physical or behavioral but they MUST be able to be inherited AND allow the organism to be more successful at producing offspring (passing genes on to the next generation). Survival of the Fittest is where organisms that have these advantages are better adapted to their environment and are able to leave more offspring. Over generations of time, this will cause a shift in the frequency of alleles so that the advantageous adaptations are more prevalent in the population’s gene pool.


Organisms cannot “choose” to adapt or “acquire” adaptations within their lifetimes; they either have the advantageous phenotype in their genetic code or they don’t. If they do not, they may struggle to survive, reproduce, and eventually die out. (ex: Giraffes did not grow longer necks to reach more food. The giraffes that were born with slightly longer necks were better able

to get food, survive, and produce offspring than those with shorter necks; over generations of time there was a directional shift towards longer necks)


There are several types of Natural Selection: 1) Directional Selection is where the gene pool shifts in one direction towards the more advantageous phenotype (ex: a particular camouflage pattern provides better protection from predators) while the other phenotypes die out; 2) Stabilizing Selection is where the gene pool is narrowed towards the most intermediate phenotypes and the extreme phenotypes die out; 3) Disruptive Selection is where the intermediate phenotypes in the gene pool die out and the extreme phenotypes are better suited for survival, there is a shift towards BOTH extremes; 4) Sexual Selection is based upon traits that identify mates as having “good genes” (ex: male peacocks that can grow big tails with lots of eyespots are seen as better fit by female peacocks for producing strong offspring even though the tail is cumbersome and provides no other ecological advantage for survival) 5) Artificial Selection (selective breeding) is where man chooses which phenotypes are desirable and breeds organisms to make those phenotypes more pronounced


Disruptive

NAME __________________________________________ pg. 7 Units 8-10 Study Guide: Classification & Evolution, Ecosystems, & Energy Population A population is a group of one species in a defined area (same species, same area). Example: number of white tailed deer in Graves County Community A community is a group of multiple populations in a defined area (more than 1 species, same area). Example: (all of the birds in Graves County, including turkey, chickens, hawks, songbirds, etc…); a food web is a community Ecosystem An ecosystem includes all of the biotic factors (living things) and the abiotic factors (nonliving things) in an area. The biotic factors would include all of the organisms in the food web. The abiotic factors would include the nonliving parts of the environment such as temperature, amount of rainfall, water availability, amount of sunlight, topography, etc… (Example: All of the nonliving and living parts of Graves County) Biome A biome is a broad group of similar ecosystems. Each biome has specific unifying characteristics. Temperate Deciduous Forest – above average amounts of rain; mid-latitudes; fertile soil; mild summers & cold winters; Plants: deciduous trees such as oak, maple, & hickories; Animals: deer, bear, variety of small mammals & reptiles; this is where we live Grassland (aka Prairie & Savannah) – average precipitation; mid-latitudes; continent interiors; hot summers & cool winters; fertile soil; Plants: grasses, shrubs, small trees near water; Animals: grazing mammals (buffalo, bison, antelope, giraffe, etc.), snakes, birds, variety of predators Taiga – less than average precipitation; mid to high-latitudes; cool summers & very cold winters; acidic (infertile) soil; Plants: coniferous trees (spruce, fir, pine, etc.); Animals: small rodents & mammals; caribou, bear, wolves, birds in summer; reptiles rare Tundra – very little precipitation; upper latitudes; very cold winters & short, mild summers; permafrost (permanently frozen layer of soil); poor soil; Plants: grasses, mosses, & small shrubs; Animals: rodents, hawks, owls, caribou, bears (occasionally polar bears) Desert – very little precipitation (less than 10 in per year); very hot days & cold nights; sandy soil; Plants: cactus, shrubs, bunched grasses; Animals: insects, reptiles, small rodents, camels Tropical Rainforest – highest amount of precipitation (around 100 in); hot all year; at equator; nutrient-poor soil; Plants: ferns, trees, vines, flowering plants; Animals: insects, reptiles, birds, monkeys/apes, amphibians, tiger/panther; GREATEST BIODIVERSITY Biosphere – all of the portions of earth that contain life (all biomes together) Species Population Community Ecosystem Biome Biosphere (broadest)

NAME __________________________________________ pg. 8 Units 8-10 Study Guide: Classification & Evolution, Ecosystems, & Energy Population Growth Exponential growth – the population grows at a constant rate of increase (ex: doubles every generation); this can only be maintained with unlimited resources. However, since resources in nature are limited, there comes a point at which the population growth begins to slow down because there is competition for resources.

Logistic growth – the population goes through a period of exponential growth but the growth rate slows due to competition for resources. Eventually, the growth rate will approach 0 (horizontal line) which means there are exactly enough resources to sustain the current population. This is referred to as the Carrying Capacity (the maximum number of individuals that can be supported by the environment). Predators, disease, food, water, and shelter are all Density-Dependent limiting factors for population growth; these become more of an issue the more crowded the population gets. Density-Independent limiting factors limit the growth of all populations regardless of how crowded the population is; these include human activities, weather patterns, forest fires, natural disasters, etc…

NAME __________________________________________ pg. 9 Units 8-10 Study Guide: Classification & Evolution, Ecosystems, & Energy Succession Primary Succession – any disruptive ecological event that causes the ecosystem to develop from bare rock without any soil; these events include volcanic eruptions and glaciers receeding. Primary succession takes a long time because erosion and decay must occur over time to build up soil to allow small plants to grow. Pioneer Species = 1st to inhabit an area after a disruptive event (ex: Lichen) Secondary Succession – any disruptive ecological event that removes all of the plants in the ecosystem, leaving only bare soil. It does not take the ecosystem as long to recover from a secondary succession event because the soil is already there so plants are able to grow back immediately. Examples: fire, clear-cutting, mudslide, flooding, farming, human activities and other weather-related events Climax community – a stable, mature ecosystem with an appropriate range of biodiversity for that biome; the goal of primary and secondary succession

NAME __________________________________________ pg. 10 Units 8-10 Study Guide: Classification & Evolution, Ecosystems, & Energy Habitat = the place in which an organism lives out its life Niche = the role a species plays in the community; its total way of life Community Interactions Competition – organisms compete for the same resource, in the same place, at the same time Competitive Exclusion Principle = No two species will share the exact same Niche because of competition

NAME __________________________________________ pg. 11 Units 8-10 Study Guide: Classification & Evolution, Ecosystems, & Energy Predator-Prey Interaction – as the number of prey increases, the

number of predators that are able to survive and reproduce increases over several generation. When there are more predators, they will consume more prey, which means there will be fewer prey available to reproduce and there will be a sharp decline in the population. Since their food source is dying from over-predation, the predator population also declines. This allows the prey to flourish again. (continues in a cycle: Prey increase Predator Increase Prey Decrease Predator Decrease Prey Increase)

Symbiosis Symbiosis is when 2 different species live in a close relationship with each other and at least one species benefits from the relationship.

- Mutualism – both species benefit from the relationship (insects & flowers) - Commensalism – one species benefits from the relationship, the other species is unaffected (not helped or

harmed); (shark & remora) - Parasitism - one species benefits from the relationship, the other species is harmed (tick & dog)

Interaction Species A Species B

Mutualism Receives Benefit Receives Benefit

Commensalism Receives Benefit Not Affected

Parasitism Receives Benefit Harmed

Energy Food Chains: Energy flows in one direction through an ecosystem. Each level of a food chain is called a Trophic Level. Only 10% of the energy is able to be stored and transferred to the next trophic level. The other 90% of the energy is either lost as heat or used by the organism for growth, development, and reproduction. Producer – 1st trophic level; a plant or other autotroph Primary (1st) Consumer – 2nd trophic level; an organism that eats the Producer (herbivore or omnivore) Secondary (2nd) Consumer – 3rd trophic level; an organism that eats the Primary consumer (omnivore or carnivore) Tertiary (3rd) Consumer – 4th trophic level; an organism that eats the Secondary consumer (omnivore or carnivore) Quaternary (4th) Consumer – 5th trophic level; an organism that eats the Tertiary consumer (carnivore or decomposer) Decomposer – may be any trophic level but always at the end of the food chain; breaks down dead or decaying organisms

NAME __________________________________________ pg. 13 Units 8-10 Study Guide: Classification & Evolution, Ecosystems, & Energy Photosynthesis: The primary source of energy for life on earth is sunlight. That sunlight gets converted into energy-storing carbohydrates, mainly glucose, through photosynthesis. Plants (producers/autotrophs) absorb sunlight primarily using a pigment called chlorophyll that is found in the chloroplasts of leaf cells. Inside the chloroplasts, there are small sacks called thylakoids. The chlorophyll is found in the thylakoid membranes. The sunlight allows a series of chemical reactions to take place that result in energy storage and oxygen production. Equation: 6CO2 + 6H2O + Light C6H12O6 + 6O2

Step 1: Light Dependent Reaction – During the Light-Dependent reaction, water (H2O) molecules are split (hydrolysis), the H+ atoms from the water are carried outside the thylakoids by electron carriers (NADPH), and the oxygen gas (O2) is released through the pores of the leaf. The light-dependent reaction requires light, chlorophyll, and water. It occurs in the thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts. It produces high-energy compounds called NADPH (an electron carrier) and oxygen gas. Step 2: Light-Independent Reaction (aka Calvin Cycle) – After the Light-Dependent reaction, the high-energy NADPH molecules move into the stroma, a space between the thylakoid membranes and the outer chloroplast membranes. In the stroma, a second series of reactions takes place called the Calvin Cycle (Light-Independent reaction). Through the Calvin Cycle, Carbon Dioxide and the H+ atoms carried by the NADPH are used to build high-energy carbohydrates such as glucose (C6H12O6).

NAME __________________________________________ pg. 14 Units 8-10 Study Guide: Classification & Evolution, Ecosystems, & Energy Plant Transport – The carbohydrates produced through photosynthesis are transported by specialized veins called phloem that move the food molecules from the leaves to the roots of the plants where the food is stored. In contrast, water is absorbed by the roots and must move up through the plant in order to reach the leaves where photosynthesis takes place. The water travels through specialized veins called xylem, which only transport water and dissolved nutrients up through the plant against the pull of gravity. This is able to work because of a property of water called Capillary Action, which is where cohesion of water to water and adhesion of water to the sides of the vein allow the water to “climb.” Also, Transpiration (the evaporation of water from the leaves of plants) plays an important role in bringing water to the leaves because as one water molecule evaporates, the one that it is attached to is pulled to the surface, thereby allowing it to eventually evaporate and continue water’s upward motion through the plant.

NAME __________________________________________ pg. 15 Units 8-10 Study Guide: Classification & Evolution, Ecosystems, & Energy Cellular Respiration All organisms must utilize the energy that is converted into carbohydrates by plants. Plants, Animals, and most other Eukaryotes go through a process called Cellular Respiration in order to “burn” and release the energy stored in the carbohydrates. Equation: C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + 36 ATP Step 1: Glycolysis – breaks the 1 glucose molecule into 2 pyruvic acid molecules & 2 ATP (net gain) and NADH electron carrier energy molecules; this happens in the cytoplasm of the cell and is anaerobic (does not require oxygen) IF OXYGEN is NOT present after Glycolysis: Step 2: Fermentation – breaks down the pyruvic acid molecules in order to get 4 more NADH electron carriers (but no ATP); this produces some harmful byproducts (animals = lactic acid; fungi = CO2 and ethanol); this occurs in the cytoplasm without oxygen (anaerobic); NOT the preferred method of breaking down glucose IF OXYGEN IS PRESENT after Glycolysis: Step 2: Krebs Cycle – pyruvic acid is broken down into CO2 and H+ (attached to the electron carriers FADH2 & NADH); produces 2 ATP; occurs in the matrix of the mitochondria & requires oxygen Step 3: Electron Transport Chain – electron carriers pass through the electron transport chain to produce 32 ATP and water; occurs across the inner membrane of the mitochondria & requires oxygen

name pg. 1 - wordpress.com characteristics: protista – unicellular aquatic eukaryotes; may be...

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