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Principles of Environmental Sciences, B.Tech Ist Year

NATURAL RESOURCES

CLASSIFICATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES

Natural resources are classified based on their chemical nature, recycling period,

location and their share by nations.

1.BASED ON THEIR CHEMICAL NATURE:-

They are classified into organic, inorganic.

(a).Organic:-The resources which constitute organic materials such as proteins

Carbohydrates and lipids etc are known as organic natural resources these are

derived from living organisms.E.g. Fossil fuels, plants, animals, micro organisms.

Fossil fuels are formed from the remains of living organisms and all have a high

carbon/hydrogen content.

(b).Inorganic:-These resources contain substances such as Phosphorous, Sulfur,Carbon, Nitrogen, Hydrogen etc and inorganic chemicals such as chlorophyll. These Arenot having the characteristics of living organisms.

E.g.-Water, air, minerals.

(c).Mixture of organic and inorganic:-A mixture of organic matter derived

from weathered rocks and organic compounds(such as humus)resulting from decay of

prior vegetation.

E.g.-Soil

2.CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF THEIR LOCATION AND SHARE

BY NATIONS:-These are three typesNational, multinational and international.

(a).National:- Their share is combined to a limit of national boundaries.E.g.- lands and mines etc. A naturally occurring substance with a characteristic

chemical composition is mines.

(b).Multinational:- These are shared by more than one nation.E.g.- Rivers, Migratory animals etc. Migratory birds /animals change from one

place to another according to season.

(c).International:-These resources are shared by all inhabitants of the earth.E.g.- air, Solar energy

3. COMMONLY, NATURAL RESOURCES ARE CLASSIFIED ON THE

Dr. M.Sumanth Kumar,

Assistant Professor, Dept. of Basic Sciences, VIEW, Visakhapatnam


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BASIS, THESE ARE GROUPED INTO TWO MAJOR CATEGORIES.

(a) Exhaustible (b) Inexhaustible

Exhaustible resources :-The resources, which are limited and be diminished or

degraded it improperly used are called exhaustible resource.

E.g.-fossil fuels,(coal, oil and natural gas)

These are further classified into

(a).EXHAUSTABLE RENEWABLE SOURCES:-These are the resourceswhich have short recycling time. so that they reappear soon and are available

for human use. E.g. soil, water, plants and animals.

These are exhaustible, because they diminish it improperly used. Deforestation causes

depletion of top soil. development of fertile soil takes very long time.

(b)EXHAUSTABLE NON-RENEWABLE RESOURCES:- substances with a

very long recycling period or which cannot be replaced or lack the ability toreplenish themselves are called non-renewable resources.

E.g.-coal, petroleum and minerals.The availability of coal and petroleum is finite. Improper use of these fossil fuelswill exhaust the stock. Formation of fossil fuels is very slow process. It takes

thousands of years.

(C)INEXHAUSTABLE RESOURCES:-These are not likely to be exhausted

by human use. Though the air is available in inexhaustible quantity, it may become a

limiting factor quantitatively. Its pollution is not controlled.

4.BASED ON RECYCLING PERIOD:-

(a).Renewable:-These resources are capable of being recycled by ecological processwith in a reasonable time period. They have potential to renew themselves.

E.g: soil, water, air, wild life.

These are further classified into(i) Continues (ii) Extrinsic

(i)Continious resources:-These are continuously renewed.

E.g.-solar energy, wind, tidal energy.

(ii).Extrensic resources:-These resources are prone to breakdown or degradation, yetare available continuously if well managed.

E.g.-Human shills,institutions, mamagement abilities.

(b)Non- renewable resourses:-these are not capable of being regenerateg by

ecological processes.It cannot be replenished.once its gets exhausted.E.g. - minerals, coal.




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FOREST RESOURSES

INTRODUCTION:

The word "forest" is derived from a latin word "foris" meaning outside, the

reference being to a village boundary or fence and it must have included all cultivated

and uncultivated land. A forest can be defined as a biotic community predominantly

of trees, shrubs or any other woody vegetation usually with a closed canopy. Forestsconstitute about one-third of the types of forest vegetation depend upon the types of

soil, percentage of rainfall, frost, wind and air current.Depending upon the type ofdominant vegetation, the forest biomes can be classified into coniferous forest,

tropical forest and temperate forest. Thousands of different species of plants are

found in forests.

IMPORTANCE OF FORESTS:

Forests are most natural resourses for man. It has immence value to the human

civilization. The other natural resourses such as oil, coal will be exhausted in course oftime.

Some important roles of forest may be summarized as follows: Forests and woodlands provide a rich variety of goods useful both to affluent

industries, societies and rural poor people. The timber and sawn up wood obtained

from the forests are used for building houses mostly in rural areas. Paper is madefrom cellulose fiber which is an important component of wood.

The heaviest demand on forest is for fuel wood. About 80% of total quantity ofwood used in the world is burnt as fire wood. For much of the third world, it

provides the fuel for cooking the food. More than 1500 million people depend on

woods for cooking their daily food and keeping warm. The total consumption of thewood for fuel is estimated about 1000 million m^3. About 58% of total energy used

in the Africa and 42% in South-East Asia comes from fuel wood.

The other important product of the forest is bamboo, which is generally called as poor man's timber. The bamboos are used in rafters, roofing, walling, flooring,

mating, basketry, cart wood and cordage. Moreover, large amount of bamboos are

used for making paper and rayon.

Canes (also known as rattans) of the palm family are used as plating material. Canesare also used for ropes, furnitures, umbrella handles, walking sticks and number of

sports goods.

Essential oils are extracted from a variety of forest plants, such as rosha grass, khas,

and sandalwood. Trees provide resins and latex which are trapped from tree by

cutting of the bark. Resins yield turpentine and similar products, while latex is theraw-material for rubber. Various components of the trees are used in making

cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, dye, resin etc., various drugs, insecticides; spices areobtained from the varieties of plants of the forests. Tendu leaves are used andwrappers for bidis.

Barks of trees provide a number of products. It is being increasingly used as a long




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Haryana, Upper Gangetic plains, Deccan plateau and Lower Peninsula India. Teak,

dalbargia, acacia, Mimosa, cordia are mainly found in this type of forests.

[3] Sub tropical forests:

This type of forests occurs from Assam to Kashmir and in Nilgiris of South

India at elevatof 750 to 1800m. The forest flora is represented by Pines, Maples, Michelias

etc;[4] Temperate forests:

This type of forest is constituted by broad-leaved evergreen species of Oaks,Walnuts, Magnolias, Maples etc; Mosses and ferns are abundant in this type of forests.

[5] Alpine forests:

This type of forests is found above 3500m along the entire length of theHimalayas. Alpine forests consist of fire Spurce and rhododendron and other evergreen

trees. Several varieties of shrubs and flowering herbs and also found.

DEFORESTRATION:

The destruction of forests is a serious threat to the economy and environment ofthe country. Deforestation leads to many short term and long term effects on theenvironment, land masses and animal species.

- According to an estimate , the total forests areas in India was 7000 million hectares in

1900 which have been gradually declined to 2890 million hectares in1975.- The economically important tropical forest areas have declined from 1600 million

hectares to 938 million hectares with this deforestation trend the country had only 2370

million hectares of forests by the end of 2000 years.

- The main cause of the reduction of forest areas are the ever increasing humanpopulation and live stocks. As a result of explosion of human population, the requirement of

timber, fuel, wood, land for cropping are gradually increasing.

- Industrialization and large sized irrigation projects are also the major cause ofelimination of forest areas particularly in the hilly region is one of the major cause of scale

deforestation.

- Development of industries such as paper industry, plywood industry based on forestproducts such as bamboos, wood causes gradual decline of forests. Mining, quarrying,

irrigation and agriculture are also responsible for large scale deforestation.

Causes of Deforestation:

The below reasons are main causes for deforestation,1) Developmental Projects: Developmental projects causes deforestation in two ways.

Through submerge of forest area underwater

Destruction of forest area




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Eg:- Big dams, Hydro electric projects, etc,

Hence, there is a need to discourage the undertaking of any development works in

the forest areas.

2) Mining Operations: this activity has a serious impact on forest areas. Mining

operations reduce the forest area.Eg:- Mica, Coal, Manganese, Etc,

3) Raw material for Industry: wood is the important raw material for many industriesand many proposes.

Eg:- For making boxes, furniture, plywood, match boxes, pulp and etc,

4) Fuel Requirements: In countries like India both rural and tribal population is

dependent on the forest for meeting their daily need of fuel wood, which leads to the

pressure on forest, ultimately to deforestation.

5) Shifting Cultivation: The replacement of natural forest ecosystem for monospecific

tree plantation can lead to disappearance of members of plant and animal species.

This can be observed mainly at hilly regions where we could find huge amount offorest.

6) Forest Fires: Forest fire is one of the major causes for deforestation. Due to human

interruption and rise in ambient temperature, forest fire happens often now a days.

Thus, due to forest fire thousands of forest area gets destructed.7) Agriculture: Deforestation occurs in many ways. Most of the clearing of forest

around the world is done for agriculture purposes (grazing, planting crops, etc,).Poor farmers cut down small areas, typically a few acres and burn trees and proceed

with agriculture. Intensive or modern agriculture destroys forest on a much largerscale, sometimes destroying several square kilometers at a time.

Case Study: Deforestation in the Himalaya region, involves clearing of natural forests and

plantation of monoculture like Eucalyptus, Camaduleness, etc. Due to this, nutrient cycling

has become poor and the soil is losing their fertility. Thus the entire west Khasihill,Himalaya, Ladakh, Garhwal are now facing the serious problems of deforestation.

HAZARDS OF DEFORESTRATION: Man is directly or indirectly effected by

deforestation. The major consequences of deforestation may be described as follows:

1) SOIL EROSION: Deforestation has intensified soil erosion. Loss of vegetation

causes the loosening of the soil which in turn results in erosion of the soil. Every year

huge amount of soil has been washed away in country and as a result the country lost

the fertile soil for agriculture.

2) DESTRUCTION OF RESOURSES: Deforestation decreases the availability offorest resources like timber, fire wood or other forest products which are necessary

for the daily activities of human being. In mountain region of Northern India and

gangetic plains faces shortage of firewood and there will be shortage of firewood in




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rest of countries in future.

3) HEAVY SILTATION OF DAMS: Large scale deforestation results disastrousfloods which in turn causes soil erosion. The siltation of dams reduces the water

holding capacity of the dams and there by reduce the prospects of irrigation and

hydroelectric production. Brahmaputra river of Assam may be cited as one of the

example. Deforestation also leads to the landsides particularly in the hilly regioncausing destruction of roads, dwelling houses and loss of human lives.

4) CHANGES IN THE MICRO-CLIMATE; Forests are the integral components

of the hydrological cycle of terrestrial ecosystem. Deforestation decreases availability

of ground water resources and results in the reduction of the average rainfall of a

particular area. Deforestation increases the atmospheric temperature of a particulararea.

5) DESTRUCTION OF WILD LIFE: Forests are the natural home of a variety.Deforestation destroys the habitats of these wild animals. As a result the reproductive

capacity of the animals is diminished for which the numbers of wild species arereduced which may lead to the extinction of certain species.

6) ESERTIFICATION: At present desertification is a world-wide problem which

needs immediate attention. More and more land is in danger of being converted todesert land because of deforestation and overgrazing by animals. Deforestation leads

to the shortfall of rainwater and ultimately converts the fertile land to desert which

are deficient in water and other soil nutrients.

7) ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION: Forests are very important in controlling the

environmental pollution. The enormous production of carbon dioxide by industries,

automobiles and others causes environmental pollution. Thus forest help in regulatingthe atmospheric co2 and thereby control the environmental pollution.

8) DESTRUCTION OF THE SCENIC BEAUTY OF THE ENVIRONMENT:

Landscape, vegetation of the areas, lakes, streams, rivers, wildlife etc, determine the

scenic beauty of an area. Destruction of the forests causes detrimental effect to this

scenic beauty and ultimately leads to a barren arid land.

FOREST CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT:

This is essential to maintain the forest in its natural state which prevent destruction ofthe forest and wild life present therein. Forests are generally destroyed by fire, improper

cutting of trees and killing of animals. About 90% of the forest areas are caused by manfor their own benefit. once a forest is destroyed, it takes several years to regenerate




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vegetation.

The present forest policy of India recognizes the need of balanced and

complimentary land use for checking soil erosion and scientific exploitation of this forestproducts for commercial use.

The basic objectives of this forest policy are

- Maintenance of the forest ecosystem in proper shape.

- Conversation of biological diversity.- Checking erosion of the soil.

- Increasing the forest areas and productivity of the forest.- Increasing the availability of fuel wood, fodder and other forest products and their

efficient utilization.

- Creating mass awareness on the importance of forest to achieve the above objectives.

AFFORESTRATION:

Conservation measures include both management of the existing forests and

renovation of forest areas in the original site3 where extensive deforestation occurred. Thecentral and the state governments have launched several afforestation programmes

throughout the country as a part the forest conservation policy. The social forestry programme was launched in 1976. Afforestration restricts the soil run-off and helps toreduce the environmental pollution. The afforestation includes planting of new trees and

protecting the existing ones.

Though the techniques adopted in afforestration vary according to the local conditions,primarily it consists of two main lines

[1] Management of forests as 'fiber crops' in which desirable plant species are planted.

[2] Management of forests as multiple use forests in which the general development and

management of the forests are considered.In dry tracts where irrigation facilities are available, Khair, Jamun, Shisham are mostly

preferred for afforestation and Acacia, Dodonea, Prosopis are planted where irrigation

facilities are not available.Following measures should be taken into consideration for scientific conservation and

management of forests:

1. Use of wood for fuel should be discouraged. The use of solar energy and bio-gasshould be encouraged for cooking.

2. New plants of more or less of the same variety should be planted to replace the trees

cut down for timber or fire woods so that no scarcity of wood occurs.

3. Modern management practices should be implemented. Proper irrigation use offertilizers, bacterial any mycorrhizal inoculations, disease free plantation, control of

weeds, cleaning and thinning of elite trees increase the success of afforestration

considerably. Tissue culture technique should also be adopted.

4. The union and state governments have launched several programmes to developforest in the country. The social forestry programmes have been started in 1976. the

main objectives of this programme are to use the waste lands to produce firewood,fodder and timber for the use of rural people.




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5. Another programme namely agro forestry programme encourages the use of same

land for farming, Forestry and animal husbandry.6. The Urban forestry programme includes planting of trees for aesthetic purposes in

urban areas. Ornamental trees should be planted in vacant land and parks in the

urban areas. These plants reduce air pollution and also increase scenic beauty of the

area.

CASE STUDIES:

THE CHIPCO ANDOLAN: Experts beleive that atleast one third of the country's totalland area should be covered by forest to maintain the quality of the environment. The

chipko movement in Tehri Garhwal area of u.p was initiated by Shree Sundar Lal Bahugna

in 1973 in which women came forward andsuccessfully checked felling of trees by

constractors. It was started in Gopeswar town of chomoli district. The women saved treesfrom cutting by hugging them. The public agiation that followed against the construction of

a hydroelectric project in silent valley is the result of public awareness towards preservation

of nature.

JFM (Joint Forest Management):The need to include local communities in forest management has become a growingconcern. Local people will support greening of an area if they can see some economic

benefit from conservation. An informal arrangement between local communities and forest

department began in 1972, in the Midnapore district of West Bengal. JFM has now evolvedinto a formal agreement which identifies and respects the local communities right and

benefits that they need from forest resources. Under JFM schemes, Forest protection

committees (FPCs) from local community members are formed. They participate in

restoring the green cover and protect the area from being over exploited.

Social Forestry:This forestry started with NCA, National Commission on Agriculture (1976) could succeed

on private land. There are two main objectives in social forestry. (i) use of public and

common land to produce in a decentralized way firewood, fodder and small timber for thelocal poor men and also to manage soil and water conservation, and (ii) to relieve pressure

on conservation on forest. This program is in fact for poor, which aims at intensification of

nursery operation at villagers level for multipurpose species for firewood, fruit etc. by

involving villagers and school children. The area under social forestry increased from 15Mha in first plan to 1524 M ha in Sixth plan.

Agro forestry:

This is actually a modified version of social forestry. According to ICRAF (InternationalCenter for Research in Agroforestry) Agroforestry is a system of land use where woody

perennials are deliberately used on the same land management units as annual agriculturalcrops and/or animals, either sequentially or simultaneously, with the aim of obtaining




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greater outputs on a sustained basis. Agroforestry is indeed a new name for an ancient land

practice where land is used for agriculture, forestry and animal husbandry. It is however, a

recent scientific activity.

WATER RESOURCES

INTRODUCTION

The 3/4th of the earths surface is covered with water, but only a small

portion of it accounts for freshwater can be put to use

The freshwater is mainly obtained from surface ran off &ground water that iscontinually being renewed 7 recharged though hydrogen scale

All the water moves with the (hydrogen) hydrological cycle ensuring that water is a

renewable resource

The water cycle is, through evaporation and precipitation, maintains the hydrological

system which forms rivers, lakes and supports a variety of aquatic ecosystems

Hydrology is the subject that deals with origin, distribution and property of water of

the earth. Thus, a schematic representation of various sequence of events to which the water is

being subjected to, in the atmosphere and the earth.,is the hydrological cycle.

WATER: SOME FACTS AND FIGURES:-

96.5% of the total volume of worlds water is estimated to exist as oceans & only

2.5% as fresh water. nearly, 70% this freshwater occur as ice sheets & glaciers in

Antarctica ,green land & mountains regions of worlds , while a little less than30% is stored as ground water in worlds a quitters.

When the countries per capital water availability is less than 1700cm it is

considered as water stress country.

Main source in India is rivers. the rivers in India can be classified as -1. Himalayan, water system (Indus, gaga, Brahmaputra, chi nab, thulium,

Ravi Beas

2. Deccan plateau water system (Narmada, Tapti, Mahanadi, Godavari,

Krishna, prayer)

3. Coastal water system4. Others including island, water systems.

The total renewable water resources of India are estimated at 1897 sq.km per annum.

India receives nearly 4%of global ppt & ranks 133 in world in terms of water

availability per person per day.

In india, out of total rainfall in area of 3920 lakh hectares, a rainfall of 4000 billioncubic meters annually occurs.




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The water consumption by Indian industry ranges between 40 billion Cu.M and 67

billion Cu.M per annum.

Global climate change:-

Change in climate ay a global level, caused by increasing air pollution, have nowbegun to affect our climate.

In some regions, global warming & the El Nio winds have created

unprecedented storms.

In other areas, they lead to long droughts. Everywhere the green house effect

due to atmospheric pollution is leading to increasingly erratic & unpredictable

climate effects. This has seriously affected regional hydrological conditions.

FLOODS:-

Floods have been a serious environmental hazard for centuries. However, the haroc raised

by rivers overflowing their banks has become progressively more damaging, as people havedeforested catchments & intensified the use of river food plains that once acted as safety

values.

The destruction of forest influences the regulation of natural water cycle. The

removal of dense and uniform forest cover over the hilly zones leads to occurrenceof floods in drainage basins.

India is the most fold effected country in the world after Bangladesh. The state of

Bihar, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and Uttar Pradesh are major flood prone

zones.

Deforestation leads to desertification and drought too.

Distribution of Water Resources

About 9.%by volume of water is found in oceans and is too saityand cannot be used fordrinking, irrigation, industrial purposes. of the remaining 2.6% of fresh water , most of

which s locked up in ice or in deep ground water Thus only about 0.014% of the earths totalvolume of water is easily available to us usable groundwater.

Types of Fresh Water Resources

Fresh water resources may be broadly classified into two types

1) surface waterA) standing water bodies : lakes,reservoirs,estuaries

B) Flowing water bodies: streams, rivers.

Surface water

The water, which is coming out directly through precipitation and does not percolate down

into the ground or does not return to the atmosphere by evaporation, is known as surface

water1) standing water bodies

A) Lakes




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Oligotropic lakes: these are generally deep, clear and

deficient in nutrients without much biological activity.

Eutrophic lakes : these are the lakes having morenutrients and more turbid and support more life

Dystrophic lakes : these are shallow and colored lakeswith allow ph and clogged plant life

b) Reservoirs: these are generally larger than lakes

c) Esturies: esturies are deltas formed at the mouth of rivers, where they

join the ocean, the mixing of fresh and salt water gives estuaries2) Flowing water bodies: the water, which originate from the point of precipitin and

flows in streams and rivers are called flowing water bodies the flowing water carries

sedimentary materials and dissolved minerals

Under Ground Water

The water, which is found available deep in the ground due to percolation surface water is

called under water ground water .under water ground, is the major sources of water. It ispure and used for all purposes in the world.

Types of under water systems

Aquifer: a layer of highly, permeable rock containing water is called aquiferExamples

1) Layers of sand and gravel are aquifers (have good permeability)

2) clay and crystalline rocks are not good aquifers ( have poor permeability)

Types of aquifers: there are two types of aquifers.1) Unconfined aquifers: an unconfined aquifer is formed when water collects over a

less permeable rock or compact clay . they are rechanged by water percolating down

from the above surface through permeable material2) Confined aquifers: a confined aquifer is formed when water collects over a

impermeable rock. It is sandwiched between two layers of impermeable rock. They

are recharged only in those areas here the aquifer intersects the land surface.

Uses of surface and ground water

The water is used mainly for two parts of uses

a) Consumptive use: here water is completely utilized and it is not reused.Examples: in domestic application, industry and irrigation.

b) Non _ consumptive use: here water is not completely utilized and it is reused.

Examples: hydropower plant.

c) Other important uses of water

1) water is mainly used for domestic purposes like drinking , cooking , bathing andwashing etc

2) Water is also used for commercial purposes like hotels, theatres, educationalinstitutions, offices,etc.

3) Another important use of water for irrigation. Like agriculture. almost 60-70% of the

water is for irrigation




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4) 20_30% of the total fresh water is used for so many industrial operations like

refineries, iron and steel, paper pulp industries.

5) Water is very essential for the sustainance the living organisms6) Water also plays a key y role in sculpting the earths surface, moderating climate and

diluting pollutants.

Over utilization of surface and ground waterThe rapid increase in population and industrial growth has increased the demand, for

water resources. Due to increase of ground water usage, the annual extraction of groundwater is in far excess than the natural recharge

EFFECTS ON OVER- UTILIZATION OF WATER (OR) CONSEQUENCES OF

OVERDRAWING OF GROUND WATER

1) Decrease of ground water: due to increased usage of ground water , the ground water

level decreases. Reasons

a) The erratic and inadequate rainfall results in reduction in storage of

water in reservoirs

b) The building construction activities are sealing the permeable soil zone

reducing the area for percolation of rainwater and increase in surface

runoff2)Ground subsidence: when the ground water with drawal is more than its recharge rate, the

sediments in the aquifer get compacted, which results in sinking of overlaying land surface.

The process is known as ground subsidence

Problems

A) Structural damage in buildings.

b) Fracture in pipes.

3) Lowering of water table: over utilization of ground water in arid and semi arid regions oragriculture disturbs the state of equilibrium of the reservoir (disturb the hydrological cycle)

in the region. This causes following problems

Problems:

1) Lowering of water table

2) Decreased pressure in the aquifers and changes and changes in the speed and

direction of water flow4) Intrusion of salt water: in coastal area, overt exploitation of ground water would lead to

rapid intrusion of salt water from the sea

Problems: water cannot be used for drinking and agriculture5) Earthquake and landslides: over utilization of ground water leads to decrease in water

level, which cause earthquake, landslides and famine




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6) Pollution of water: when the ground water level near he agricultural land decreases, the

water m containing the nitrogen as nitrate fertilizer, percolates rapidly into the ground and

pollute the water Problems: water becomes unsuitable for potable use by infants, when nitrate

concentration exceeds 45 mgs/lit.

Conflicts over Water

Water is so essential for out existence and is fast becoming a scarce resource. Fresh water isconsidered to be the most environmental issue of this century. Nearly 1.2 billion people do

not have access to safe drinking water. Thus due to increase in population and decrease inwater resources conflicts over water starts.

Causes of Water Conflictsi International Conflicts

-- India and Pakistan fight over the rights of water from the Indus.-- Mexico and USA have come into conflict over the Colorado river.

-- Iron and Iraq contest for the water from Shatt-al-Arab water.

-- India and Bangladesh are fighting for Brahmaputra river.ii) National Conflicts

-- Sharing of Cauvery water between Karnataka and Tamil Naidu.-- Sharing of Krishna water between Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.-- Sharing of Siruveni water between Tamilnadu and Kerala.

2) Construction of Dams (or) Power Stations : For hydroelectric power generation, dams

are built across the river, which initiates conflict between the states.3) Conflict Through Pollution : Beside the production of electricity and shipping, rivers

and lakes are also used for industrial purpose. Not only they act as reservoirs for the supply

of fresh water bust also as a means of disposing of waste water and industrial rubbish. With

the increasing decline in the quality of the water crossing borders, the problem of cleaningthe water takes on an international dimension (conflict).

Management of Conflicts over Water

1) Efforts are mainly concentrated to enact laws to check thesePractices to control water pollution.

2) The conflicts over sharing of river water in the country has been

Studied by many organizations and several solutions are suggested.The interlinking of rivers has been one such solution.

3) Demand for Nationalization of water (river) needs serious

Consideration. Therefore power must be given to National Water

Authority and River Basin Authority for equitable distribution ofBasin water.

Local Managers: In India, even today, there are several villages where water management is

done by the local mangers and not by irrigation department.

Type of Local Managers1) NEERKATTI: In south India, a neerkatti manages the traditional

Tanks very efficiently. They give preference to the tail end fields and decide percapitaallocation of water based on the stock of available water in the tank and irrigation needs.




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2) Havaldars: In Maharashtra, a havaldar manages and resolves conflicts by overseeing the

water channels from main canal to the districutory canals.

3) Churpun: In , a churpun is empowered over allocations of available water.

Dams benefits and problems

Dams are built across the river in order to store water for irrigation hydroelectric power

generation and flood control .most of the dams are built to serve for more than one purpose

called multi purpose dams. These dams are called as the temples of modern India by thecountrys first prime minister, Jawaharlal Nehru.

BENEFITS OF DAMS

1) Dams are built to control flood and store flood water

2) Sometimes dams are used for diverting part or all of the water from river into a channel

3) Dams are used mainly for drinking and agricultural purposes

4) Dams are built for generating electricity.5) Dams used for recreational purposes.

6) Navigation and fishery can be developed in the dam areas

Problems of dams

Problems of dams can be studied in the following two titles

A) upstream problems1) Displacement of tribal people2) Loss of non-forest land.

3) Loss of forests, flora and fauna.

4) Landslips sedimentation and siltation occurs.5) Stagnation and water logging around reservoirs retards plant growth.

6) Breeding of vectors and spread of vector-borne diseases.

7) Reservoir Induced Seismicity causes earthquakes.8) Navigation and aquaculture activities can be developed in the dam area

B) Down Stream Problems

1) Water logging and salinity due to over irrigation

2) Reduced water flow and silt deposition in rivers.3) Salt water intrusion at river mouth.

4) Since the sediments carrying nutrients get deposited in the reservoir, the

Fertility of the land along the river gets reduced.5) Sometimes, due to structural defects the dam may collapse suddenly and

Destroy many living organisms.6) Salt water intrusion at river mouth.

Conservation of water resources

The abundance & renew ability of water , it is difficult to imagine that we may suffer

from water scarcity

The moment we speak of water shortages , we immediately associate it with regions

having low rainfall or those are drought prone

We instantaneously visualize the deserts of Rajasthan & women balancing manymatkas (earthenpots) used for collecting & storing water & traveling long distance

to get water




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The availability of water resources varies over space & time ,mainly due to

variations in seasonal & annual ppt but water scarcity many in most cases is causedby over exploitation

The ever increasing industries has made matter worse by exerting pressure on

existing freshwater resources

Much of this energy comes from hydroelectric power

Fragile water resources are being over exploited & have caused their depletion in

several of these cities

To conserve & manage our water resources , to safeguard ourselves from health

hazards , to ensure food security , continuation of our livelihood & productive

activities & also to prevent exploitation.

Collect water from dew and fog using large nets: this technique has been developedin Israel and is being tried out in many places.

Educating the people about the importance of water and to use it in an effective

manner.

Water conservation measures in agriculture, such as using drip irritation, pit

irrigation etc.

Water Resource Management

There are central and corresponding state organization concerned with specific aspects of

water resource management, Some of these are as follows.

S no Organization Source

1 Central Water Commission Surface water

2 Central Ground Water Board Ground water

3 Indian Meteorological Department Precipitation

4 Central Pollution Control Board Water quality

5 Ministry of Agriculture and ICARWater use foragriculture

6

Department of Environment forests and wildlife

( Ministry of Environment and Forests)

Environmental Impact

Assessment

LAND RESOURCES

Land forms about 20% of earth's surface, covering about 13,393 million hectares.

About 36.6% of the land area is covered by houses, factories, roads, railways, deserts,

mountains, rocks, Glaciers and polar ice marshes. About 30% of land is occupied by forests.

About 22% of land is occupied by meadows and pastures. Only 11% of land is fit forploughing.The surface layer of land is called soil. About four-fifth of the land consists of

soil. soil is the upper weathered layer of earth's crust which supports plant life and contains

many living organisms and their dead parts.




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EFFECT OF ABSENCE OF OXYGEN:

_ Absence of proper-aeration reduced nitrates and sulphates of the soil and forms nitrogenoxides, toxic sulphides, ethane, butyric acid and etc.

SOIL FERTILITY:

It is the ability of the soil to support luxuriant growth of plants.It is determined by four main factors.

- Soil air

- Soil water

- Soil nutrients and

- Absence of plant pathogens.

Soil air contains 3 metabolic gases oxygen, carbon dioxide and elemental nitrogen.

Elemental nitrogen is used by nitrogen fixing organisms only. Accumulation of salts in theupper soil layer results in producing saline, alkaline soils. Such soils are unfit for

cultivation.

ROLE OF SOIL:

Soil plays a multiple role in the life of organisms.

- It provides water and minerals nutrients to the terrestrial plants.

- It is the medium in which plant and animals materials are decomposed and their inorganiccomponents are released into the environment for reuse.

- It serves as a habitat for bacteria, fungi many types of animals and humans.

- Soil provides water,minerals and fossil full to man.

- Vegetation supported by soil gives food and oxygen to all animals and many other usefulmaterials (timber, fibers, medicines, etc) to man.

FACTORS REDUCING SOIL FERTILITY:

- Over ropping which withdraws materials from the top layers of the soil.- Non-rotation of crops causes deficiency of minerals at a particular level. It also increases

incidence of soil borne diseases.

- Soil erosion due to wind or water.

- Deposition of silt due to floods.

- Overgrazing

- Leaching

- Salination of top soil due to improper irrigation.

- Precipitation of minerals due to change in soil pH.

- Non-availability of rain or irrigation.

- Salinity of under ground water.CONSERVATION OF SOIL:

- Conservation of soil needs preservation of its top layer which is most suitable for plant

growth.




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- This can be achieved in two ways :

a) restoring of fertility and

b) prevention of erosion.

RESTORING OF FERTILITY:

- Fertility of the top soil reduced or cost by cropping can be restored by taking the following

measures.

a) USE OF MANURE AND FERTILISERS:

- Regular addition of organic manure and chemical fertilizers to the soil can replenish the

mineral used by the crops.

b) ROTATION OF CROPS:

- Growing two or more crops alternately is called crop rotation.

- This particle is being used in agriculture since long.

- It mountains the minerals contents of the soil.

c) UNDER SURFACE WATERING:

- New techniques of applying water beneath the surface are being developed to prevent soilsalination and depletion and to conserve precious water.

PREVENTION OF EROSION:

- Erosion of soil is caused by water and air measures can be taken against both.

A) Erosion of soil by water can be prevent by the following measures:

o Stopping clear-cutting of forests and over grazing of ranges check soil

erosion by streams and rivers.

o Terracing of sloping lands reduces the speed of water and prevent soil

erosion.

o

Bunds around the fields contain rain water and check soil erosion besideswashing Away of minerals.

o Irrigation channels in the fields should be so designed as to carry water at a

slow speed.

o Fast flowing water will carry away top soil.

o Drainage canals to carry flood water will protect the fields against erosion.

o Intensive cropping also prevents soil erosion.

,

o Contour ploughing check soil erosion by water.

B) Erosion of soil by wind may be stopped by planting tree and growing grass.

o Tree builts round fields act as wind breaks.

Tree builts and grass beds also check the advancement of desert towards

fertile land.




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o Eroded land may be repaired y manual work or with the help of earth moving

machinery.

FOOD RESOURCE

Introduction

Today our food comes almost entirely from agriculture, animal husbandry & fishing

FAO food &agriculture organization which defines sustainable agriculture as that

which conserves land, water and plant and animal genetic resources

Most of our large farms grow single crops(monoculture)

example: if this crop is hit by a pest the entire crops can be divested, leaving the

farmer with no income during the year. on the other hand, if the farmer usestraditional varieties and grows several different crops, the chance of complete failure

is lowered

Many studies have shown that one can use alternative to inorganic fertilizers and

pesticides. This is known as integrated crop management.

Food problems:

In many developing countries where populations are expanding rapidly, the

production of food is unable to keep pace with the growing demand.

Food productions in 64 of the 105 developing countries are lagging behind their

population growth levels.

These countries are unable to produce more food or do not have the financial means

to import it.

India is one of the countries that have been able to produce enough food by

cultivating a large proportion of its arable land through irrigation.

Many of the technologies we have used to achieve this are being questioned now as,

Our fertile soils are being exploited faster than they can recuperate

Forests, grasslands and wetlands have been converted to agricultural use, whichhas lead to serious ecological questions.

Our fish resource, both marine and inland, show evidence of exhaustion.

There are great disparities in the availability of nutritious food Today, the world is seeing a changing trend in dietary habits. As the standards are

improving people are eating more non-vegetarian food.

As people change from grain to meet, the worlds demand for feed for livestock, based




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on agriculture, increases as well.

This uses more land per unit of food produced and the result is that the worlds poor do

not get enough to eat.

In India there is a shortage of cultivable production land. Thus farm sizes are too small

to support a family on farm produce alone.

Globally 5 to 9 million of farmland is degraded each year.

The loss of nutrient and the over use of agricultural chemicals are major factors is landdegradation.

Water scarcity is an important aspect of poor agricultural outputs. Salinization and water

logging has affected a large amount of agricultural land worldwide.

The loss of genetic diversity in croplands is another issue that is leading to a fall in

agricultural produce.

Food security:

It is estimated that 18 million people worldwide, most of whom are children, die each

year due to starvation or malnutrition, and many other suffer a variety of dietary

deficiencies.

The earth can only supply a limited amount of food. If the worlds carrying capacity to

produce food cannot meet the needs of growing population, anarchy and conflict willfollow.

Thus food security is closely linked with population control through the family welfare

program.

It is also linked with the avaliability of water for farming.

Food security is possible if food is equilably distributed to all.

Many of us waste a large amount of food carelessly. This eventually places great stress

on our environmental resources.

Another major concern is the support needed for small farmers so that they remain

farmers rather than shifting to urban centers as unskilled industrial workers.

International trade policies in regard to an improved flow of food across national borders

from those whose who have surplus to those who have deficit in the developing world is

another issue that is a concern for planners who deal with international trade concerns.

Dumping of underpriced foodstuffs produced in the developed world onto markets in

undermines crop prices and forces farmers there to adopt unsustainable practices inorder to compete.

Fisheries: fish is an important source of protein in many parts of the world. This includes

both marine and fresh water fish.Losses of Genetic Diversity:

There are 50,000 known edible plants documented worldwide, of there, only 15 varieties

produce 90% of the worlds food. Modern agricultural parctices have resulted in a




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serious loss of genetic variability of crops.

Indias distinctive traditional varieties of rice alone are said to have numbered between30 to 50,000

Most of these have been lost to the farmer during the last few decads, as multinational

seed companies aggreively push a few commercial genotypes.

This creates a risk to our food security, as farmers can lose all their produce due to the

rapid spreading of diseses.

On the other hand, a cereal that has multiple varieties growing in different locations does

not permit the rapid spread of disease.

As the wilderness shrunks, these varieties are rapidly disappearing. Once they are

completely lost, their desirable characteristics cannot be introduced.

Ensuring long-term food security may depend on conserving the wild relatives of cropplants in national parks and wildlife sancturies.

The most ecological way to prevent the loss of plant genetic is by expanding the

network and coverage of our protected areas.

Green revolution must not only provide food for all, but also work out a more equitable

distribution of both food and water, reduce agricultural dependence on the use offertilizers and pesticides wild relatives of crop plants in protected areas.

The pollution of water sources, land degradation and desertification must be rapidly

reversed. Adapting soil conservation measures, using appropriate farming techniques,

especially on hill slopes, enhancing the soil with organic matter, rotating crops andmanaging watersheds at the micro-level are the keys to agricultural production to meet

future needs

MINERAL RESOURCES

Mineral is defined as a naturally occurring substance of definite chemical

composition and identifiable physical properties. These minerals are extracted by logging or digging deep into the earths crust.

The minerals located in the earths crust took millions and millions of years for their

formation.

Minerals are available in different forms. Out of which raw materials purpose for

many industries is served by iron, aluminium, zinc, manganese and copper.

Also there are a few non-metallic resources which include coal, calt, clay, cementand silica.

Now -a-days, theres a lot of use of granite, marble and limestone for building

purposes.

A few minerals having great ornamental value such as diamonds, emerald, and

rubies and also the luster of gold, silver, platinum also used.

Minerals in the form of oil, gas and coal are actually converted into fossil fuels.

TYPES OF MINERALS:-




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Metallic Minerals Uses

1) Uranium Nuclear bombs, electricity, tinting glass.

2) Thorium Nuclear bombs, electricity, gas mantles.3) Iron Steel.

4) Nickel Over 3000 alloys.

5) Lead Batteries, gasoline, paints, alloys.

6)Zinc Galvanizing, solder, chemicals.7) Gold Monetary purposes, jewellery, density.

Non-Metallic Minerals Uses

1) Phosphates Fertilizers, chemicals.

2) Salt Chemicals, glass, metallurgy.

3) Sulphur Fertilizers, acid, iron, steel industries

MINING OPERATION:-

The minerals present deep inside the earths crust are extracted by the process known as

Mining which is done through four stages namely,(a) Prospecting

(b) Exploration(c) Development(d) Exploitation

(a)Prospecting:-It is the process of searching for minerals.

(b)Exploration:-Assessing the size, shape, location and economic value of the deposit.

(c)Development:-The work of preparing access to the deposit so that the minerals can beextracted from it.

(d)Exploitation:-Extracting minerals from the mines.

Prospecting is done by a group of geologists, mining engineers and geophysicists.

For mining, the topography and physical nature of the ore is studied.

Mines are of two types. Surface

Deep

There exists different methods for mining depending upon the abovecriteria. The method chosen should also look upon the maximum yield with minimum cost

and most important thing is the safety to minimum personnel.

MINE SAFETY:-

Mining is generally a dangerous occupation.

Surface mining is less hazardous than underground mining.

For several times, large explosions also occurred in coal mines, killing many miningpersonnel.

The dust that is produced during mining is injurious to health and causes a lung

disease known as black lung.

The Methane gas, emanating from these coal mines is dangerous to health.

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS:-




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We can say that mining is one of the factors for the degradation of the environment.

Continuous usage of these non-renewable resources cause,

Side effects.

Depletion of available land.

Waste from industries.

Conversion of land into industries. .

Pollution of land, water and air through industrial wastes.

Hence, to avoid these problems, there are many governmental actions and global publicawareness programs set up so that we can prevent their adverse effect upon

environment.

CONSERVATION OF MINERALS:-

Certain steps can conserve the mineral resources:-

Use of minerals as raw material should be restricted to industries producing

essential materials only.

More efficient technologies should be adopted in the industries using minerals tocheck wastage.

The minerals should be recycled as far as possible. Proper substitutes should be found for minerals. For example, plastic wares are

replacing by alloys of other metals in coins. Glass, ceramics and synthetic fibers

are also being used as substitutes for exhaustible minerals. The untapped mineraldeposits should be exploited. Deep sea-mining may yield more minerals.

Designing smaller equipment can also reduce the use of minerals.

Triple R method i.e. Reduce, Reuse and Recycle of the resources is the major

tool to minimize the misuse of the resources

ENERGY RESOURCES

Definition: energy is defined as, any property which can be converted into work.

(Or)

Energy is defined as capacity to do work.

Energy is vital for social and economic development. The standard of living is related to per

capita consumption of energy. Necessity for energy is ever growing as the transformation of

energy is central to economic activity.

The rise in population.

Rapid industrialization.

Increased farming to produce more food and other development activities haveincreased the demand for energy in the last few decades.

Types of energy resources:




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The energy resources can be classified in many ways :

1. Primary energy resources:primary energy resources are those which are mined or

otherwise obtained from the environment. These include fossil fuels (coal, lignite, crude oil,

and natural gas), Nuclear fuels, hydro-energy, solar, wind, ocean and geothermal energy.

2.Secondary energy resources: secondary energy resources are those which do not occur in

nature; instead, they are derived from primary energy resources. These include petrol,

diesel, and electrical energy (from coal, diesel and gas)

3. Conventional energy resources: these include fossil fuels (coal, petroleum and natural

gas), water (hydel power) and nuclear energy.

4. Non-conventional energy resources: these include solar, wind, geothermal, ocean

(thermal, tidal and wave), biomass and hydrogen energy.

5. Non-renewable energy resources: non-renewable energy resources are those natural

resources which are exhaustible and cannot be replaced once they are used .These are

available in limited amount and develop over a long period. These include fossil fuels (such

as coal, oil and natural gas), and nuclear power.

6. Renewable energy resources: renewable energy resources are those natural resources

which are inexhaustible (i.e., which can be replaced as we use them) and can be used to

produce energy again and again. These are available in unlimited amount in nature and

develop in relatively short period of time. These include solar, wind, water, geothermal,

ocean, and biomass energy.

NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES:

These consist of mineral-based hydrocarbon fuels-coal, oil and natural gas (fossil Fuels)

that are formed from ancient prehistoric forests. These are called fossil fuels because they

are formed after the plant life is fossilized. Oil and gas resources, however are likely to be

used up within the next 50 years.

Environmental impacts:

When these fuels are burnt, they produce waste products that are released into

atmosphere as gases such as carbon dioxide, oxides of sulphur, nitrogen, carbon monoxide,

and all causes air pollution.




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These have led to respiratory tract problems in an enormous number of people all

over the world, have also affected historic monuments like tajmahal, and killed manyforests and lakes due to acid rain.

This is leading to global warming, a rise in global temperature, increased drought in

some areas, floods in other regions, melting of ice-caps, and rise in sea-levels, which

is slowly submerging coastal belts all over world. Warming of sea leads to death of

sensitive organisms like coral.

Coal is the worlds single largest contributor of greenhouse gases and is one of the

most important causes of global warming. Thermal power stations that use coalproduce waste in the form of fly-ash. Large dumps are required to dispose of this

waste material.

RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES:(Non conventional resources/ alternative energy resources)

Since non-renewable energy resources are limited and hence we need to depend on

alternative energy sources which are renewable in nature. These are also called as Non Conventional Energy Resources.

Solar energy:

It is the energy derived from sun. It is renewable energy source. Solar energy may be

used for heating (solar thermal) and for generating electric power (solar photovoltaic).

Main advantages of solar energy:

1. Source is inexhaustible

2. Can be produced from few watts to megawatts.3. It produces no gases or noise.4. Its modular nature enables to dismantle and to install at different sites.

In solar thermal path, solar heat provides energy which is used to heat water or to

generate electric power. Water heating is the most common application as the solar water

heaters are

Operationally sound

Environmentally benign

Economically viable

In contrast to electric water there is no fuel cost.

In solar photovoltaic, solar light is directly converted into electricity using a

device called solar cell. Several solar cells are connected in a particular design to form

a module and several modules forms solar array. This solar photovoltaic (SPV) system




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consists of photovoltaic array, charge regulators, battery, and inverter. This solar electric

power is used in lightning, water pumping, calculators, electric toys etc.

Wind energy:

Wind power is the kinetic energy of wind; this wind power is utilized to generate

electricity. Motion of air relative to surface of earth is wind energy. Wind turbines

convert kinetic energy in the wind to mechanical energy which is used to pump water

from the well. Mechanical power can be converted into electric power using wind

generators. For the wind generator to function, wind speed should be 5 to 8 meters per

second.

The change of seasons, change of day and night, coridis effect, irregular reflectivity

of land and water, humidity, friction of wind over difference terrain are some of factors

which complicate flow of wind over the surface.

Merits of wind energy:

1. It is non-polluting and environmental friendly source of energy.

2. Important renewable and sustainable source of energy, available free of cost.

3. Scope of wind source, globally is enormous and is less dependent on latitude than other

solar based renewable energy technologies.

Limitations of wind energy:

1. It has low energy density.2. It is generally favorable in geographical locations which are away from cities.

3. Wind turbine design, manufacture and installation have proved to be complex due to

widely varying atmospheric conditions in which they have to operate.

Tidal energy:

The tides occurring in the oceans are one such source of energy. Tidal power is often

thought of as a relatively new source of energy, yet it has been available as long as the

oceans have existed.

As fossil fuels prices rise, large tidal power schemes are now being considered in

many countries. The maximum potential for electric power generation by tidal action is

estimated at about 550 billion kilowatt hours per year. This seems impressive, but the

numbers of good sites in the world for the development of tidal power are very limited.




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Merits of tidal energy:

1. It is an inexhaustible and renewable source of energy.

2. Besides being inexhaustible, it is completely independent of uncertainty of precipitation.Even if there is a continuous dry spell for many years, there will be no effect whatsoever

on tidal power generation.

3. Pollution free source of energy, as it does not use any fuel and does not produce anyunhealthy waste.

4.Tidal power plants do not require large areas of the valuable land, as they are on the bays

or estuaries.

Limitations of tidal energy:

1. Tidal power schemes require low-head turbines, which are larger and more

expensive than high-head turbines of similar power.

2. Since tidal ranges are highly variable, the turbines have to work on a wide range of

head variation. This affects the efficiency of tidal plants.

3. Most onerous problem in the use of tidal power is those of barrage construction inthe areas of high tidal flow and corrosion of barrage, sluice ways and turbines by salt

water.4. Tidal power plants hamper the other natural uses of estuaries such as fishing,

migration of marine organisms or navigation.

Geothermal energy:

It is the energy stored in within earth. Geothermal energy starts with hot, molten rock

deep inside the earth, which surfaces at some parts of the earths crust. The heat rising from

magma warms underground pools of water known as geothermal reservoirs. Wells are

drilled deep below surface of earth to tap into geothermal reservoirs.

Merits of geothermal energy:

1. Geothermal energy is most versatile, least polluting, renewable energy source and

relatively inexpensive.

2. Geothermal power plants could be brought on line more quickly than most other

energy sources in case of an extended national emergency.3. Power generation levels is higher for geothermal than for solar and wind.

4. Geothermal energy can be used effectively and efficiently for direct uses such as

space and district heating, geothermal heat pumps, hot water bath resorts,aquaculture, enhanced oil recovery, industrial processes etc.

Limitations of geothermal energy:




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1. Geothermal hot spots are sparsely distributed and usually some distance away from

the areas needing energy.

2. Withdrawal of large amount of steam or water from a geothermal source may resultin surface subsidence.

3. Hot brine discharged into surface water bodies may be ecologically hazardous.

4. Drilling operations at geothermal sites cause noise pollution.

Biomass energy:

Biomass, defined as living matter or its residues, is a renewable source of energy. The

biomass includes all the new plant growth, residues and wastes, herbage, algae,

agricultural and forest residues, wastes, biodegradable organic effluents from industries

like sugar, slaughter house, meat packing plants, breweries, distilleries etc.

Main sources of biomass can be classified in to two types:

1. Waste material including those derived from agriculture, forestry, municipal and

industrial wastes.2. Growing energy crops involving short rotation forestry pollution.

The simplest way of using biomass energy sources is to allow them to dry out in

sun and burn them.

One alternative is fermentation, which is applicable to sugar or glucose from

starchy grains. The ethanol thus produced is a potential substitute for petrol,diesel as well as having a wide range of industrial uses.

Another processing route, most widely used is anaerobic digestion to yield

biogas, which is suitable treatment for animal manure. This approach isparticularly applicable to water-based plants and farm wastes and the residue

may be used as fertilizer.

Pyrolysis may also be used, particularly for wood, yieldingmethanol and hydrocarbons among other products. Methanol may be used as a

gasoline additive or modified chemically to provide a direct substitute for

gasoline.

Merits of biomass energy:

1. Plants ensure continuous supply of energy due to their continuous growth.

2. Cost of obtaining bio-energy through energy-plantations is of less cost and has

additional value in intensive agricultural systems as a method of avoiding

pollution.3.Biomass sources have advantage over many other renewable sources that they

provide a stored form of energy, and in many cases in a form suitable for

vehicular propulsion.




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4.Biomass energy sources will compete with synthetic liquid or gaseous fuels

manufactured from coal.

Limitations of bio-energy:

Except biogas production, the other biomass energy sources have yet to

establish a significant economic role.

Hydro energy: This uses water flowing down a natural gradient to turn turbines to

generate electricity known as hydro electric power by constructing dams across rivers. The

renewable nature of energy source, very low operating and maintenance costs and absence

of inflationary pressures as in fossil fuels, are some of its advantages.

Drawbacks:

1. Silting of reservoirs reduces the life of hydroelectric power installations.

2. Water is required for many other purposes besides power generation. This alsogives rise to conflicts over equitable allocation of water.

3. Use of rivers for navigation and fisheries becomes difficult once the water is

dammed to generate electricity.4.In certain seismically sensitive regions, large dams can induce increased seismic

activity, resulting in earthquakes and attendant loss of lives and properly.

Nuclear energy: Energy released during a nuclear reaction in accordance with mass-energy

equation is called nuclear energy. Nuclear or atomic energy is the most powerful kind of

energy known so far. A small quantity of radioactive material can produce an enormous

amount of energy. for instance one tonne of uranium would provide as much energy as 3

million tonnes or 12 million barrels of oil. The production of electricity through controlled

use of nuclear fission account for about 20% of world electricity.

Disadvantages:1. Nuclear energy generation has very adverse impacts on the environment due to

disposal of nuclear waste. the reaction releases very hot waste water that damagesaquatic ecosystems, even though it is cooled by water system before it is released.

2. The cost of nuclear power generation must include high cost of disposal of its waste

and decommissioning of old plants. These have high economic as well as ecologicalcosts that are not taken in to account when developing new nuclear installations.

3. There have been horrifying nuclear accidents at Chernobyl in USSR and three mile

island in USA. The radioactivity unleashed by such an accident can affect mankind

for generations. Nuclear energy can be produced by two types of reactors,

1. Nuclear fission2. Nuclear fusion




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Nuclear fission:

This is a nuclear chain in which heavier nucleus are split in to lighter nuclei, on

bombardment by fast moving neutrons and a large amount of energy is released througha chain reaction.

e.g.:- fission of U235

when U235 nucleus is hit by a thermal neutron, it undergoes the following reaction with

the release of 3 neutrons. Each of the 3 neutrons strikes another U 235 nucleus causing(3x3)9 subsequent reactions. These 9 reactions further give rise to (3x9)27 reactions.

This process of propagation of the reaction by multiplication in three at each fission iscalled chain reaction.

Nuclear fusion:

This is a nuclear chain in which lighter nucleus are combined together at extremelyhigh temperatures (1 billion oC) to form heavier and a large amount of energy is

released.

e.g.:- fusion of hydrogenTwo hydrogen-2(deuterium)atoms may fuse to form a helium at 1 billion 0^c with the

release of large amount of energy.

Nuclear power Plants in India:- Tarapur (maharastra), Ranapratap sagar (Rajasthan),

Kalpakkam(Tamilnadu) and Narora(U.P)

ENERGY CONSERVATION:

1. We should rapidly move into a policy to reduce energy needs and use cleaner energy

production technologies.

2. India must reduce its dependency on imported oil. At present, we are underutilizing our

natural gas resources. We could develop thousands of mini dams to generate electricity.

3. Alternative methods like biomass can be converted into biogas or liquid fuels i.e., ethanol

and methanol. Biogas digesters convert animal waste or an agricultural residue into gas.this

is 60% methane and 40% carbon dioxide generated by fermentation.

4. Small hydrogenation units must be developed which are environmental friendly.

5. It is easy to waste energy but cheaper to save it than generate it. We can conserve energy

by preventing or reducing energy waste and by using resources more efficiently.

DEFORESTATION




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Deforestation means destruction of forests .The destruction offorests is a serious threat to

the economy and environment of the country. Deforestation leads to many short term and

long term effects on the environment, land masses and animal species. Forests cover around

12% of the land India, but estimated value should be around 33%. It is a renewable resource

but over exploitation on destruction it becomes non-renewable resource.

The major causes of deforestation are: Forests are developed into agricultural lands.

Overgrazing of forest lands is also leading to deforestation.

Cutting of trees for firewood, paper and other building materials.

Building of roads, construction of dams, laying of pipelines.

The acid rains and forest fires contribute to deforestation.

Forests are exploited extensively for timber.

Mining has also led to destruction of forests extensively.

PROBLEMS

1. Deforestation leads to global warming because the trees that are cut and burnt release

carbon into the atmosphere.2. Contribute to green house effect due to increase concentration of carbondioxide intothe atmosphere.

3. Soil erosion.

4. Mining process also covered the ground water level.

CONSERVATION

1. Overgrazing of forests land should be prevented.

2. Recycling of forests products like paper should be practiced.3. Overexploitation of timber should be prevented.

4. Burning of forests should be strongly prevented so as to develop into pasture

lands.5. Plant an equal amount of samplings so as to compensate for the felled trees.

Thus equal balance should be maintained between the growth rate and felling

of trees.

SOIL EROSION

SOIL: - The loose superficial layer of the earths crust is the soil. The various components ofthe soil are mineral matter, soil water, soil organisms ,soil air.

SOILEROSION:- Removal of upper layer of the earth surface is called soil erosion.

1. The characteristics of natural ecosystems such as forests and grass landsdepends on the type of soil .




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2. The degradation of the soil is caused by agriculture and deforestation.

3. The mixture of an ecosystem leads to the loss of valuable soil through

erosion by the monsoon rains and wind.

Soil erosion by water:-

The flowing water and continuous rain erodes the soil from the surface of the

earth.

a. Sheet erosion :- Heavy rains cause the removal of the upper layer of the soil.

This is referred to as sheet erosion .

b. Rill erosion :- Small streams like structures are formed with the flow of

water resulting in loss of the soil profile.

c. Gully erosion :- The fast flowing water cause cuts in yhe soil to form narrow

channels having steep and sharp sides with depth of about 0.5m.

d. Rains :- During rainfalls the fine particles of

the soil gets detached from the ground and wash off with the runoff water.

The clay portion of the soil rich in nutrients is also lost.

Soil erosion by wind : Winds carry the fine soil particles and sand from one place to another

resulting in the formation of sand dunes. This is the loss of nutrients from top layer of the

surface.

Deforestation: The roots of the trees in the forest hold the soil. Deforestation or loss of

vegetation thus leads to rapid soil erosion.

Natural factors:

Heavy rain falls causes fine soil particles which are transported along

with runoff water.

When water drives up the soil particles loosen up which may be

carried away by wind or water.

Water flows along with soil particles along steep slopes due togravitational force.

Human induced factors:

The Intensive forming to increase agricultural produce.The fertile soilgets damaged by the excessive use of fertilizers and irrigation

methods.

Developing houses leads to loosening of soil particles.




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Construction of roads to contribute to soil degradation.The loose soil

along roadsides can be easily carried away by rain water or wind.

Salinization: Accumulation of salts in soils is called as Salinization. Soil salination leads to

degradation of soils and vegetation .The ions responsible for salination are Na+, K+, Ca2+,

Mg2+

and Cl

-

.

Chemical contamination: The chemical from industrial, mining and agricultural activites

causes degradation of the soils.

DESTRIFICATION

It is the process of formation of deserts due to climatic factors or due to human interference.

The loss of forest cover or vegetation can leads to soil erosion which accelerated the

conversion of fertile lands into deserts as soils lost their fertility and water holding capacity

due to soil erosion. This leads to the conversion of range lands or irrigated crop lands to

desert like conditions in which agricultural productivity falls. Desertification ischaracterized by devegetation, depletion of ground water, salination and soil erosion. In

recent ages around 80% of the productive land in the arid and semi arid regions are

converted into desert and around 600 million people are threatened by desertification.

Factors:

i. Deforestation

ii. Overgrazing of the lands

iii. Climatic factorsiv. Increase of atmosphere dust particles

v. Improper use age of land resources also leads to desertification.

Control of soil erosion:

i. Strip cropping: This involves planting of crops in the form of strips.

ii. Restoring of fertility of soil.

iii. Control of grazing.iv. Building of dams across streams or gullies controls erosion of soil by water.

v. Planting of trees and different type of plants in open areas which bind the soil and

prevent its erosion.

Conservation of Natural ResourcesConservation of natural resources the wise use of the earth's resources by humanity. The

term conservation came into use in the late 19th century and referred to the management,mainly for economic reasons, of such valuable natural resources as timber, fish, game,




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topsoil, pastureland, and minerals, and also to the preservation of forests, wildlife,

parkland, wilderness, and watershed areas. In recent years the science ofecology has

clarified the workings of thebiosphere ; i.e., the complex interrelationships among humans,other animals, plants, and the physical environment. At the same time burgeoning

population and industry and the ensuing pollution have demonstrated how easily delicately

balanced ecological relationships can be disrupted.

Hence there is an urgent need to conserve our nature and natural resources forourselves and even for the generations ahead to hand over the healthy and hygienic

biosphere which has a plenty of its goods and services.

Conservation of forest resources:

Teach others about the importance of the environment and how they can helpsave rainforests.

Restore damaged ecosystems by planting trees on land where forests have beencut down.

Encourage people to live in a way that doesn't hurt the environment.

Establish parks to protect rainforests and wildlife.

Support companies that operate in ways that minimize damage to the

environment. Recycling paper also saves forests

Conservation of water resources:

Water can also be conserved by landscaping with native plants and by changing behavior,

such as Shortening showers and not running the faucet while brushing teeth.

Rainwater harvesting.

Weather-based irrigation controllers.

Building several small reservoirs instead of few mega projects.

Developing small catchment dams and protecting wetlands.

Treating and recycling municipal waste water for agricultural use.

Preventing leakages from dams and canals.

Effective rainwater harvesting in urban environments.

Water conservation measures in agriculture, such as using drip irrigation.

Recharge pits, which capture rainwater and runoff and use it to recharge ground water

supplies. This helps in the formation of ground water wells etc. and eventually reduces soilerosion caused due to running water.

Conservation of mineral resources:

Some mineral resources may be substituted by other, more abundant resources.

Many metals can be successfully recycled.

Fallow the 3R method to reduce the demand on the resources.

Conservation of energy resources:

Using of fluorescent bulbs instead of the normal bulbs saves the energy.


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Public transportation is the best way to save energy. And we can also cycle short

distances rather than using motorcycles or cars.

Solar heaters and solar cookers can save energy up to 10 times than the ordinaryheaters and cookers.

Individual role in conservation of natural resources:

Turn off lights that arent being used.

Plug your TV into a surge protector or power strip and turn off the strip when the TV

is off (This is good for computers, stereo's etc.).

Walk or bike instead of driving if you can. Carpool when possible.

Don't waste food (in any way possible).

Make sure your house is well insulated.

Seal up cracks in your house envelope.

Grab a blanket or sweater instead of turning up the heat.

Open the windows before it gets too hot in the summer instead of using the AC.

Using cloth/jute bags instead of plastic bags.

By growing plants. By not wasting food.

Conservation of Energy:

Switch off lights, fans and other appliances when not in use.

Use solar heaters for cooking your food on sunny days, which will cut down yourLPG expenses.

Dry the clothes in sunlight instead of driers.

Grow trees near the houses and get a cool breeze shade. This will cut off yourelectricity charges on A/C and coolers.

Use always pressure cooker.

Ride bicycle or just walk instead of using car and scooter.

Conservation of Water:

Use minimum water for all domestic purposes.

Check for water leaks in pipes and toilets and repair them promptly.

Reuse the soapy water, after washing clothes, for washing off the courtyards, drive

says..

Use drip irrigation to improve irrigation efficiency and reduce evaporation.

The wasted water, coming out from kitchen, bath tubs, can be used for watering the

plants.

Build rainwater harvesting system in your house.

Conservation of Soil:




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Grow different types of plants, herbs, trees and grass in your garden and open areas,

which bind the coil and prevent its erosion.

While constructing the house dont uproot the trees as far as possible.

Dont irrigate the plants using a strong flow of water, as it will wash off the top soil.

Soil erosion can be prevented by the use of sprinkling irrigation.

Use green manure in the garden, which will protect the soil. Use mixed cropping, so that some specific soil nutrients will not get depleted.

Conservation of Food Resources:

Eat only minimum amount of food. Avoid over eating.

Dont waste the food instead give it someone before getting spoiled.

Cook only required amount of the food.

Dont cook food unnecessarily.

Dont store large amounts of food grains and protect them from damaging insects.

Conservation of Forest:

Use non-timber products. Plant more trees and protect them.

Grassing, fishing must be controlled.

Minimize the use of papers and fuel wood.

Avoid of executing developmental work like dam, road, construction in forest areas.



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