nbsp ecological _footprints
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Fundamentals of Environment Unit
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Unit 012 Ecosystems Servicesand
Ecological foot prints
Structure
012.1. Introduction
Objective
012.2. Over view of ecosystem services
Conceptual bases
Provisioning services
Regulatory services
Cultural services
Supporting Services
Self Assessment Questions
012.3. Ecological foot prints
Urban foot prints
Agricultural foot prints
Transportation foot prints
Water Prints
Self Assessment Questions
012.4. Summary
012.5. Terminal Questions
012.6. Answers
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012.1 Introduction
The previous chapters discussed about the various components of the earth
and their composition and functions. The world’s ecosystem and their
components provide myriad benefits to people. With the emergence of
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, the concept of ecosystem services
gained importance.large notice. Ecosystem services normally consist of
features of “public goods”, such that they are easily available to everybody.Therefore, private motivation to control ecosystem services never brings out
their entire value to the public and they are prone to many issues from
marketable product uses.
The concept of ecosystem services has received significant attention since
the appearance of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. Ecosystem
services generally have the characteristics of “public goods”, in that they are
freely accessible to everyone. As a result, private incentives to maintain
ecosystem services do not reflect their full value to society and they oftenface pressure from more marketable resource uses.
ForAround the past two decades, one third of the global mangrove marshes
are transformed to use by human beings, including many changed into
precious shrimp ranches. A shrimp ranch yielded a commercial profit per
hectare of $9,632 in Thailand in 2007. Over the past two decades around a
third of the world’s mangrove swamps have been converted for human use,
with many turned into valuable shrimp farms. In 2007 an economic study of
such shrimp farms in Thailand showed that the commercial profits per
hectare were $9,632. However, proper accounting of this figure showed that
for each hectare, the government subsidies amount to $to $8,412
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and8,412 and it also involved additional costs of $1,000 for pollution and$12,392 for losses to ecosystem services. (www.economist.com). This led
to the resulted in loss ofharm the supply of food and medicine which
humans gained from forests, loss of habitats for fish, and low buffering
against storms. As a particular shrimp ranch remains productive only for
three to four years, further money had to be spent on re-establishing them.
later. If it is donecase of for mangroves, put ian extra amount of $9,318 per
hectare would be needed.. Eventually the private sectors stand to gain by
such operations while people suffer from the burden imposed on them. The
overall message is that what advantages only looks so because the profits
stay with the private sector whereas problems are reflected on the people in
large size, which appears on no particular balance sheet. (The Economist,
Oct 2011). Thus nature provides us with countless services which can be
tapped for the benefit of mankind. Business provides both goods and
services, similarly nature provides us with countless services.
These comprised damage to the supply of foods and medicines that people
had taken from the forest, the loss of habitats for fish, and less buffering
against storms. And because a given shrimp farm only stays productive for
three or four years, there was the additional cost of restoring them
afterwards: if you do so with mangroves themselves, add another $9,318
per hectare. The overall lesson is that what beneficial only does looks sobecause the profits are retained by the private sector, while the problems
are spread out across society at large, appearing on no specific balance
sheet (The Economist, Oct 2011). Just as businesses manufacture both
goods and services, so too does nature providing us with innumerable
services.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
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•
discuss importance of natural capital and its role in economic,ecological and social function
• explain different kinds of ecosystem services
• conceptualize ecological foot prints of resource utilization
• describe how human activities contribute to ecological foot prints in
food production, transportation, agriculture etc.,
•
012.2 Over view of ecosystem services
Towards the end of 1990s, some ecologists and economists teamed up on
an attempt to estimategive value for nature’s services. In a total, tThey
calculated that the value of nature’s services were to be around $33 trillion
per year (Table 1). The value was almost two times that of the total gross
development product of all nations at that time. ($18 trillion in 1997). The
estimation created a buzz through the world and a liberal amount of
controversy. The term ecosystem services was started to be widely used in
the ensuing dialogueperiod., and officially recognized the term in a
publication iIn 1997, the Ecological Society of America officially clarified that
‘ecosystem services’, "refers to a wide range of conditions and processes
through which natural ecosystems, and the species that are part of them,help sustain and fulfillfulfil human life."1
In the late 1990s, a group of ecologists and economists collaborated on an
effort to assign value to nature's services. In sum, they estimated that
nature's services were worth some $33 trillion per year (Table 1). Since the
number was almost twice that of the total gross national products of all
countries at the time ($18 trillion in 1997). The finding generated a global
buzz and a generous dose of controversy. The term ecosystem services
came into widespread use in the ensuing dialogue and, formalizing the term
1 http://www.ecosystemmarketplace.com
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in a 1997 publication, the Ecological Society of America explained that'ecosystem services', "refers to a wide range of conditions and processes
through which natural ecosystems, and the species that are part of them,
help sustain and fulfill human life." (http://www.ecosystemmarketplace.com)
Every land use decision consists of implied supposition about land value,
yet no dollar based figure is assigned. The issue is that the value of services
offered by earth’s ecosystem cannot connect to present economic
equations, partially as many benefits are placed outside the marketplace.
Such services are regarded as public properties which add countless
benefits to human welfare without ever being drawn into the money
economy. For example, the production of essential nutrients such as
nitrogen and phosphorous, which is not reflected in any country’s GNP,
equals US$ 17 trillion of the US$33 trillion in annual ecosystem. (Table 1)
Every land use decision involves implicit assumptions about value, even
when no dollar figure is assigned. The problem is that the value of services
provided by the Earth's ecological infrastructure does not fit into current
economic equations, partly because most of the benefits fall outside the
marketplace. Such services are public goods that contribute immeasurably
to human welfare without ever being drawn into the money economy. For instance, the cycling of essential nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus,
which is not reflected in any nation's GNP, accounts for US$17 trillion of the
US$33 trillion in annual ecosystem (Table 1).
A series of goods and services offered by ecosystems stresses that the
biological diversity existing in them is necessary for our economic
development and other facets of benefits. In a wide sense, ecosystem
services indicate a series of conditions and processes out ofby which
natural ecosystems and their components organisms present there supports
human life. These services control the growth of ecosystem goods, the
natural products that are , harvested or used by humans. sSuch products
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include as wild fruit and nuts, timber, gumame, medicines, natural fiber es,forage and so on. lMost significantly, especially for those in least developed
grown economies , ecosystem services initiates help life by controlling
necessary processes, such as purification of water and air, pollination of
crops, nutrient cycling, production and renewal of soil, and decomposition of
wastes, moreover by temperate environmental conditions through stabilizing
climate, decreasing the risk of poor climatic conditions, preventing soil
erosion and lessening floods and droughts.
A stream of goods and services by ecosystems and the biological diversity
contained within them is essential to our economic prosperity and other
aspects of our welfare. In a broad sense, ecosystem services refer to therange of conditions and processes through which natural ecosystems, and
the species that they contain, help sustain and fulfill human life. These
services regulate the production of ecosystem goods, the natural products
harvested or used by humans such as wild fruit and nuts, forage, timber,
game, natural fibres, medicines and so on. More importantly, particularly for
those in less developed economies, ecosystem services support life by
regulating essential processes, such as purification of air and water,
pollination of crops, nutrient cycling, decomposition of wastes, and
generation and renewal of soils, as well as by moderating environmental
conditions by stabilising climate, reducing the risk of extreme weather events, mitigating droughts and floods, and protecting soils from erosion.
Conceptual Bases
Ecosystem services are categorized into six groups widely depending upon
both their ecological and economic functions. They are:
Ecosystem services have been grouped into six categories broadly based
on both their ecological and economic function. These are:
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Provisioning services – The products obtained derived fromecosystems, including genetic resources, food and fiberfibre, and
fresh water.
• Regulating services – The benefits obtained from the regulation
control of ecosystem processes, including the regulation of climate,
water, and some human diseases.
• Cultural services – The nonmaterial benefits people obtain derive
from ecosystems through spiritual enrichment, cognitive
development, reflection, recreation, and aesthetic experience,
including, knowledge systems, social relations, and aesthetic values.
• Supporting services – Ecosystem services that are necessary
essential for the production of all other ecosystem services.
Ecosystem services Value (Trillion $US)
Soil formation 17.1
Recreation 3.0
Nutrient cycling 2.3
Water regulation and supply 2.3
Climate regulation (temperature and
precipitation)
1.8
Habitat 1.4
Flood and storm protection 1.1
Food and raw materials 0.8
Genetic resources 0.8
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Atmospheric gas balance 0.7
Pollination 0.4
All other services 1.6
Total value of ecosystem services 33.3
Table 012.1 Total value of ecosystem services
(Source: Nature, 387(6230):255)
Provisioning services
These are the products obtained from ecosystems, including:
• Food and fiberfibre: This includes comprises of the vast wide range
of food products derived obtained from plants, animals, and
microbes, as well as and also materials such as wood, jute, hemp,
silk, and many other products derived obtained from ecosystems.
• Fuel: Wood, dung, and other biological materials serve act as
sources of energy.
• Genetic resources: This includes comprises of the genes and
genetic information used essential for animal and plant breeding andbiotechnology.
• Biochemicals, natural medicines, and pharmaceuticals: Many
medicines, biocides, food additives such as alginates, and biological
materials are derived obtained from ecosystems.
• Ornamental resources: Animal products, such as skins and shells,
and flowers are used as ornaments, although even though the value
of these resources is often frequently culturally determined. This is
an example of linkages bonding between the different
groupscategories of ecosystem services.
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Fresh water: Fresh water is another example of linkages bondingbetween different groupscategories— in this case, between
provisioning and regulating services.
Regulating Services
Regulating services provide offer variousmany direct and indirect benefits
advantages to humanshuman beings, includingwith clean fresh air and
water, pollination, climate weather regulation and disease control (Table
12.2). The maintenance protection of the earth’s biosphere isn depends
based on a delicate subtle balance between these regulating services.
Sustainable Persistent ecosystem service delivery relate to lease is
baseddepends on the health, integrity and resilience of the ecosystem. The
services got obtained from ecosystems should be open to economic
analysis such that they should support the productive and consumptive
aspects of human beings. This helps in economic valuation. Regulating
services consist of both final and intermediate services. The services are
discussed in detail below.
For economic valuation, the services flowing from ecosystems must be
amenable to economic analysis in that they should serve the consumptive
or productive purposes of humans. Regulating services of ecosystems can
be both final and intermediate services. Following are the details of theservices.
Air quality Regulation: Trees trap absorb airborne particulate matter and
help to improve develop air quality and human health. Air quality regulation
is particularly important in the urban context, with rising populations and
industrial growth. A study conducted in Tuscon, Arizona estimated that
planting 500,000 mesquite trees would remove 6,500 tonnes of particulate
matter annually once the trees reach maturity. Tuscon spends
approximately US$ 1.5 million on an alternative dust-control program. Thus,
the air quality regulation value of each tree in Tuscon is US$ 4.16.
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Biodiversity Regulation: The US Forest Service estimates that replacingthe pest control services of birds in forests with chemical pesticides would
cost more than US$ 17 per hectare. The cost to US agriculture of replacing
natural pest control services by ecosystems with chemical pesticides would
be approximately US$ 54 billion annually. Banana plantation in Costa Rica
which pays an adjacent forested conservation area US$ 1.00 per hectare
annually to provide natural pest control services. Because such costs have
not actually been incurred, these estimates represent only the cost of
replacing these regulating services and not the actual value of these
services.
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Table 012.2 Regulating services
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Pollination: Many economically important species require pollination toproduce marketable crops. Yet, hard figures on the economic value of
pollination are still lacking. Very few studies have specifically conducted
analyses that match the scales at which land-use decisions are made.
Estimates Calculations of the annual monetary financial value of pollination
vary widelyvastly, from US$120 billion annually for all every pollination
service.s.
Erosion control: Ecosystems such as forests, wetlands and mangroves
help to stabilize soils, reducing erosion. The vegetative cover shelters
prevents soil from the force of rain by intercepting rainfall while roots help to
maintain the soil structure. Plants growing along shorelines and submergedvegetation near coastal areas regions contribute support greatly extensively
in controlling regulating erosion and facilitating sedimentation. The costs
associated with erosion include loss of soil productivity for agriculture,
damage to roads and other infrastructure, filling in of ditches and reservoirs,
reduced water quality and impacts on fish populations. The value estimates
of this service primarily reflect the costs associated with sedimentation.
Water quality Regulation: Ecosystems such as forests and wetlands help
to purify water by stabilizing soils and filtering pollutants from water. The
quantity and quality of water flowing through the watersheds are important
inputs to agriculture, hydro-power plants, and municipal water supplies. The
cost of constructing and operating a water treatment plant to purify the
polluted water is a common measure of the value of water purification
service. Estimates of water quality values range from US$ 0.26 per acre-
foot for electricity generation to as high as US$50 per acre-foot for irrigation
and municipal use in US.
Waste treatment and processing: Ecosystems play an importanta
significant role in the treatment of wastes introduced discharged into the
natural environment, but there are some inherent limits restrictions to this
waste processing capability. For example, aquatic systems “cleanse” on
averagealmost 80 percent of their global incident nitrogen loading, but this
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intrinsic self-purification capability is being reduced lessened by the loss of wetlands across the globe. As the characteristics of both wastes and
ecosystems receiving these wastes vary, environments vary in their
capability to absorb and treat wastes.
Water-flow regulation: Watersheds capture arrest and accumulatestore
water, thereby contributing supportingto the quantity amount of water
available and the seasonal flow of water. The so-called “albedo” effect
refers to indicates the process by which vegetation increases raises
evaporation of water from the earth’s surface to causedevelop increased
more cloud formation and rainfall. Through this effect, ecosystems
dominated by vegetation, such as forest ecosystems, play a significant rolein determining rainfall patterns at a regional scale. Vegetation also acts as a
‘sponge’, soaking up and storing water when abundant and releasing it
slowly during the dry periods. This system of water regulation reduces the
impacts of flood and drought on downstream communities.
Disease regulation: Ecosystems play an important role in the emergence
or resurgences of infectious diseases. Modifications of ecosystems related
to infrastructure developments such as dam building or expansion of
agricultural irrigation, have sometimes increased the local incidence of
vector diseases such as malaria, schistosomiasis and arbovirus infections.
Natural Hazard regulation: This regulating service relates to the ability of
different ecosystems to mediate “natural” hazards and disruptive natural
events. For example, ecosystems regulate the effects of extreme events
such as floods, storms and fires by affecting both the probability and
severity of events. Soils store large amounts of water and help in preventing
or reducing floods and fires. Coral reefs buffer shields waves and protect
preserve adjacent coastlines from storm damage. Wetlands attenuate floods
by absorbing runoff peaks and storm surges. This regulating service
contributes to the safety of human life and protection of man-made
infrastructure.
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Carbon storage and sequestration:
Forest ecosystems play a crucial role in global carbon cycling acting as sink
and source. Forests form an active carbon pool that accounts for 60 per
cent of carbon storage in the earth’s land surface. Forests eliminate CO2
from the atmosphere and accumulate the carbon in wooden tissues while
growing actively. The rate of absorption of carbon and so the extent of
carbon sink, is highest in the beginning stages of regeneration and the rate
decreases as forests grow. Forests remove CO2 from the atmosphere and
store the carbon in woody tissue when actively growing. The rate of carbon
absorption and hence the magnitude of the carbon sink, is greatest in the
earliest stages of regeneration and the rate declines as forests mature.
Therefore, dynamics of carbon in forest vegetation and soils are significant
in terms of global climate change policy frame work. The tropical forests,
both moist and dry types, account for approximately 60% of global forests.
While covering only 22% of potential vegetation by area, tropical forests
have been estimated to account for 75% of the world’s terrestrial net
primary productivity.
Cultural Services
These are considered as the non-material profits human beings acquirefrom the ecosystem through cognitive development, recreation, reflection,
spiritual enrichment, aesthetic experiences, and alsosuch as the following:
These are the nonmaterial benefits people obtain from ecosystems through
spiritual enrichment, cognitive development, reflection, recreation, and
aesthetic experiences, including:
• Cultural diversity. The diversity of ecosystems is one factor that
creates impact oninfluencing the diversity of cultures. Spiritual and
religious values. Many religions attach connect spiritual and religious
values to ecosystems or their components.
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Knowledge systems (traditional and formal). Ecosystemsinfluence theimpact the types of knowledge systems developed
generated by different cultures.
• Educational values. Ecosystems and their components and
processes provide create the basis for both formal and informal
education in many societies.
• Inspiration. Ecosystems provide a rich source of inspiration for art,
folklore, national symbols, architecture, and advertising.
• Aesthetic values. Many people human beings find discover beauty
or aesthetic values in various aspects forms of ecosystems, asreflected in the support for parks, “scenic drives,” and the selection
of housing locations.
• Social relations. Ecosystems influence impact the types of social
relations that which are established found in particular cultures.
Fishing societies, for example, differ vary in many formsrespects in
their social relations from nomadic herding or agricultural societies.
• Sense of place. Many people value the “sense of place” that which
is associated connected with recognized features of their
environment, including aspects of the ecosystem.
• Cultural heritage values. Many societies place put high value on
the maintenance preservation of either historically important
significant landscapes (“cultural landscapes”) or culturally significant
species.
• Recreation and ecotourism. People often choose decide where to
spend their leisure time based in part on the characteristics of the
natural or cultivated landscapes in a particular specific area.
Cultural services are tightly firmly bound connected to human values and
behaviour, as well asand also to human institutions and patterns of social,
economic, and political organization. Thus Therefore, perceptions of cultural
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services areopinions of cultural services are possiblemore likely to differ vary among individuals andindividuals and communities concerned about
vastly compared to the opinion of than, say, perceptions of tthe importance
of food production.
Supporting Services
Supporting services are those that which are essentialnecessary for the
production generation of all other ecosystem services. They differ vary from
provisioningstipulating, controllingregulating, and cultural services in that
which their influenceimpacts on human beingspeople are either indirect or
occur happen over a very long time, whereas but changes in the other
categories have relatively direct and short-term impacts influence on
peoplehuman beings. (Some services, like erosion control, can be
categorized grouped as both a supporting and controllinga regulating
service, depending based on the time scale and immediacy closeness of
their impact influence on people.) For example, human beings do not
directly use utilize soil formation services, although even though
modificationschanges in this mightwould indirectly create an effect on affect
people through the impact influence on the provisioning service of food
production. SimilarlyIn the same way, climate regulation is
classifiedcategorized as a regulating service becausesince modification in
the ecosystem changes can have an influenceimpact on local or global
climate based onover time scales relatedrelevant to human decision-making
(decades or centuries), butwhereas the generationproduction of oxygen gas
(through photosynthesis) is categorized classified as a supporting service
assince any influenceimpacts on the concentration amount of oxygen in the
atmosphere might would happen only only occur over an extremelyvery long
time. Some other examples of supporting services are primary production,
production of atmospheric oxygen, soil formation and retention, nutrient
cycling, water cycling, and provisioning of habitat.
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Self Assessment Questions1. Biochemicals and natural medicines obtained from various ecosystems
categorized as_________________
(a) Provisioning services (b) Supporting Services (c) Cultural services
(d) Regulating services
2. The production of oxygen through photosynthesis is categorized as a
supporting service. Say true or false.
012.3. Ecological foot prints
The Ecological Footprint (EF) refers to a measure of humanity’s demand onnature. It calculates the amount of land and water area that a human
population needs to generate the resource it uses and to absorb its carbon
dioxide emissions, using existing technology. It determines the level to
which human beings are using nature’s resources than they can regenerate.
The components (variables) of sustainable consumption are combined
using weighting factors depending on the Earth’s regenerative capacities for
the measured resources. EF is normally provided combined with biocapacity
(BC) that determines the bio-productive supply (Figure 12.1). Reserve or
deficit (or overshoot for the globe) is the mathematical difference between
EF and BC.
The renewable resource accounting results in a deficit if the EF is larger
than the BC. Compensation of national ecological shortfall can be done
either through trade with nations that process ecological reserves or through
liquidation of national ecological assets. On the contrary, the compensation
of global ecological shortfall cannot be done through trade. Therefore, it is
equal to overshoot. From 1970s, humanity has been in ecological overshoot
with yearly demand on resources exceeding what Earth can reproduce each
year. Now the Earth takes one year and six months to reproduce what we
use in a year. Today, when humanity is crossing the terrestrial limits,
ecological assets are becoming more important. Every country has its
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individual ecological risk profile: Most of them are running ecologicaldeficits, with Footprints bigger than their own biological capacity. Some of
them depend greatly on resources from somewhere else, which are under
ever-increasing pressure. In several areas of the world, the implications of
ecological deficits can be destructive, and can lead to:
• resource loss
• ecosystem collapse
• debt
• poverty
• famine
• war The Ecological Footprint (EF) is a measure of humanity’s demand
on nature. It measures calculates how muchthe amount of land and
water area a human population requires needs to generateproduce the
resource it consumes uses and to absorb its carbon dioxide emissions,
using prevailing existing technology. It measures determines the extent
level to which humanity human beings areis using nature’s resources
faster than that they can regenerate. The components (variables) of
sustainable consumption are aggregated combined using weighting
factors dependingbased on the Earth’s regenerative capacities for the
considered measured resources. EF is usually normally presented
provided combined together with biocapacity (BC), which that measures
determines the bio-productive supply (Figure 12.1). Reserve or deficit
(or overshoot for the globe) is the mathematical difference between EF
and BC.The mathematical difference between EF and BC is called either
reserve or deficit (or overshoot for the globe).
The renewable resource accounting results in a deficit When if the EF is
larger than the BC the renewable resource accounting results in a deficit.
Compensation of A national ecological deficitshortfall can be compensated
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done either through trade with nations that process ecological reserves or through liquidation of national ecological assets. In contrastOn the contrary,
the compensation of global ecological deficitshortfall cannot be
compensated done through trade., and is tTherefore, it is equal to
overshoot. Since theFrom 1970s, humanity has been in ecological
overshoot with annualyearly demand on resources exceeding what Earth
can regeneratereproduce each year. It nNow takes the Earth takes one
year and six months to regenerate reproduce what we use in a year. In
todaythe present day’s world, where humanity is already exceeding
planetaryenvironmental limits, ecological assets are becoming more critical.
EachEvery country has its ownindividual ecological risk profile: Many of
them are running ecological deficits, with Footprints largerbigger than their
own biological capacity. OthersSome of them depend heavilygreatly on
resources from elsewheresomewhere else, which are under increasingever-
increasing pressure. In someseveral areas of the world, the implications of
ecological deficits can be devastatingdestructive, and can leading to:
• rResource loss,
• E ecosystem collapse
• , dDebt,
• P poverty
• , fFamine
• and wWar.
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Figure 12.1 Per-person resource demand (Ecological Footprint) and
resource supply
(Source:http://www.footprintnetwork.org/en/index.php/GFN/page/trends/
india/)
Figure 012.2 Ecological Footprint and Human Wellbeing: Africa Report
2006 (Source: http://www.footprintnetwork.org/)
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Urban Foot PrintsIt is estimated that by Eeach week more than one million people are added
to the world's cities. In a short span of time By the year 2000, more than a
half of the whole world’s population will be in urban areas. A North American
city that comprises 650,000 people may need 30,000 square kilometres of
land. That is, a region roughly the size of Vancouver Island present in
Canada to cope with only the domestic requirements without including the
environmental needs of industry. In the same way, a similar size city in India
may need 2,800 square kilometres. Urban density and city expansion have
substantial effect on the environment. Artificially created areas which are
linked to urban activity create an unusual form of biodiversity and theydirectly affect the quality of water, soil, air, and land. Rural areas are also
under the pressure exerted by urbanisation. The urban ecosystem
differentiates itself from natural eco-systems because of the design of
artificial environments that change, amongst others, the climate (bursts of
heat, less powerful winds) and disturbs the water cycle through water runoff.
Air pollution directly affects plants. Following factors harm the development
of trees:
• Noise
•
Vibrations
• Lack of light
• Space underground
Canada is one of the wealthiest countries in the world. Its inhabitants have
the benefit of enjoying very high material standards by any measure. In
reality, ecological footprint analysis illustrates that the total land required to
sustain current consumption levels by the average Canadian is no less than
4.3 hectares. It includes 2.3 hectares for carbon dioxide absorption alone
(Figure 12.2). Therefore, the per capita ecological footprint of Canadians is
about three times their "fair Earthshare" of 1.5 hectares.
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For instance, Bboth Japan and the Netherlands are proud of their positivetrade and current account balances that are measured in monetary terms.
Their populations are one among the most prosperous on the globe. These
countries are densely populated yet relatively resource- (natural capital)
poor. Therefore, they are known as stellar economic successes and
developing countries held up these countries as models for emulation. At
the same time, after estimation we have found that Japan has a 2.5 hectare
per capita, and the Netherlands a 3.3 hectare per capita ecological footprint.
This estimation presents Japan and Netherlands national ecological
footprints about eight and 15 times bigger than their total domestic territories
respectively. The noticeable dissimilarity between the physical and
monetary accounts of such economic success stories increases
complicated developmental questions in a world whose main strategy for
sustainability is economic growth. Worldwide sustainability cannot be
(ecological) deficit-financed. According to simple physics, all countries or
regions cannot become net importers of biophysical capacity.
The ecological footprint analysis describes that because of tremendous
raise in per capita energy and material consumption that is made possible
due to technology and globally increasing dependencies on trade, the
ecological positioning of high-density human settlements no longer coincide
with their geographic positioning. For survival and growth, twentieth-centurycities and industrial sectors bank on a huge and increasingly global
hinterland of ecologically productive landscapes. Cities essentially
"appropriate" the ecological output and life support functions of remote
regions all over the earth through commercial trade and natural
biogeochemical cycles. Perhaps the most vital insight from this result is that
not a single city or urban region can attain sustainability on its own. In spite
of local land use and environmental policies, a prerequisite for sustainable
cities is the sustainable utilisation of the global hinterland.
The other reason for this dependency is usually the effect of urban
populations and cities on the ecosphere and rural environments. In this
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century along with increasing material standards and the spread of consumerism, the huge migration of humans to the cities has turned urban
industrial regions into nodes of strong consumption. The richer the city and
the more linked they are to the rest of the world, the greater the load it is
able to impose on the ecosphere by trade and other types of economic
leverage. Seen in this light and contrary to popular wisdom, the apparent
depopulation of various rural regions does not indicate that they are being
deserted in any eco-functional sense. But, most of the citizens may have
shifted somewhere else and the rural lands and ecosystem functions are
being utilised in a more intensive manner than ever in the service of recently
urbanised human populations.Each week Mmore than one million people
populations are added to the world's cities. each week, Band by the year
2000, overmore than a half of the totalwhole world population will be urban.
In North American, aA typical North American city with a population of about
650,000 would require 30,000 square kilometres of land. —Thisan area is
roughly the size of Vancouver Island that is , Canada.— The land is required
to meet domestic needs alone without even includingcounting the
environmental demands of industry. In comparisonOn the other hand, in
India a similar size city in India would require 2,800 square kilometres. On
the environment, uUrban density and city expansion have
significantimportant consequences on the environment. Artificially created
areas which are linked to urban activity producecreates an atypicalunusual
form of biodiversity and they directly affect affects the quality of water, soil,
air, and land. Rural areas are also under the pressure exerted by
urbanisation. The urban ecosystem distinguishdifferentiatees itself from
natural eco-systems due tobecause of the creationdesign of artificial
environments that change, amongst others, the climate such as (bursts of
heat, less powerful winds) and disturbs the water cycle that is (water runoff.)
Air pollution directly affects pplants. Following factors harm the
development of trees:
•; nNoise
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•
, vVibrations• , lLack of light
• and sSpace underground harm the development of trees.
Canada is one of the world's wealthiest countries in the world. Its
citizeninhabitants enjoyhave the benefit of enjoying very high material
standards by any measure. IndeedIn reality, ecological footprint analysis
showillustrates that the total land required to supportsustain presentcurrent
consumption levels by the average Canadian is at leastno less than 4.3
hectares. It, includesing 2.3 hectares for carbon dioxide
assimilationabsorption alone (Figure 2). ThusTherefore, the per capitaecological footprint of Canadians is almostabout three times their "fair
Earthshare" of 1.5 hectares.?
For exampleinstance, Both Japan and the Netherlands both boastpossess
positive trade and current account balances that are measured in monetary
terms. , and tTheir populations are among two of thee most
prosperouswealthiest places on earth. These countries are densely
populated yet relatively resource- (natural capital) poor. Therefore, they are
known as stellar economic successes and developing countries held up
these countries as models for emulation. . Densely populated yet relatively
resource- (natural capital) poor, these countries are regarded as stellar
economic successes and held up as models for emulation by the developing
world. At the same time, after estimation we have found estimate that Japan
has a 2.5 hectare per /capita, and the Netherlands a 3.3 hectare per /capita
ecological footprint. This estimation which givepresents Japan and
Netherlands these countries national ecological footprints about eight and
15 times largerbigger than their total domestic territories respectively. (Note
that Table 2 is based on areas of ecologically productive land only.) The
markednoticeable contrastdissimilarity between the physical and monetary
accounts of such economic success stories raiseincreases
difficultcomplicated developmental questions in a world whose principalmain
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strategy for sustainability is economic growth. GlobalWorldwidesustainability cannot be (ecological) deficit-financed;. According to ssimple
physics, dictates that not aall countries or regions cannot becomecan be net
importers of biophysical capacity.
Ecological footprint analysis illustrates explains the fact that as a result of
the enormous increase in per capita energy and material consumption made
possible by (and required by) technology, and universally increasing
dependencies on trade, the ecological locations of high-density human
settlements no longer coincide with their geographic locations. For survival
and growth, twentieth-century cities and industrial sectors bank on a huge
and increasingly global hinterland of ecologically productive landscapes.Twentieth-century cities and industrial regions for survival and growth
depend on a vast and increasingly global hinterland of ecologically
productive landscapes. Cities necessarilyessentially "appropriate" the
ecological output and life support functions of distantremote regions all over
the worldearth through commercial trade and natural biogeochemical
cycles. Perhaps the most importantvital insight from this result is that not a
single city or urban region can achieveattain sustainability on its own.
RegardlessIn spite of of local land use and environmental policies, a
prerequisite for sustainable cities is the sustainable exploitationutilisation of
the global hinterland.
The other sidepart of this dependency coin is the impact urban populations
and cities have on rural environments and the ecosphere generally. In this
century Combined withalong with risingincreasing material standards and
the spread of consumerism, the mass huge migration of humans to the
cities in this century has turned urban industrial regions into nodes of
intensestrong consumption. The wealthierricher the city and the more
connectedlinked to the rest of the world, the greater the load it is
ablecapable to impose on the ecosphere through by trade and other
formtypes of economic leverage. Seen in this light and contrary to popular
wisdom, the seemingapparent depopulation of manyvarious rural
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arearegions does not meanindicate that they are being abandoneddesertedin any ecofunctional sense. Whereas But, most of the peoplecitizens may
have moveshifted elsewheresomewhere else, rural lands and ecosystem
functions are being exploitutilised more intenselyextremely than ever in the
service of newlyrecently urbaniszed human populations.
Box 1: Ecological Footprint of London
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Agricultural foot printFood production has successfully diverted many natural landscapes to aid
human purposes when compared to any other ecologically important human
economic activity. Some of the technology-based developments are:
• Spread of irrigation
• Extensive use of fertilizers
• Pesticides
• High-yielding crop varieties
• Field mechanisation
• Expanding trade
These developments succeeded in maintaining global food production
ahead of population rises through the last century, with the most impressive
results in the post-WW-II period. In the meantime, today the population has
increased to about 6.3 billion, that is, by 152 percent. In 1950, it was 2.5
billion.
Agriculture is the biggest component that contributes to a typical population
eco-footprint (EF). This should not be any surprise. After transportation,
food production such as meat, poultry, fruits, vegetables and grains causes
the maximum level of environmental impact related to the average
household transportation and food, along with household operations such
as heating of space and water, running appliances and lighting that involve
between 64 percent and 86 percent of the total ecological impact of
household consumption in the various impact categories. A chief component
of the food production impact is landscape shift. For instance, about 60
percent of the US land area is granted to crop production or livestock
grazing and 45 percent of the nation’s environment loss or alteration is
because of agriculture.
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Area of average cropland of the world used to produce the food items of today’s high-income consumers can be as high as 1.5 hectares that is 3.7
acres per capita, which would be four to eight times the cropland needed by
the world's poor population. The per capita demand for cropland in Canada
is about 1 hectare which is about twelve times that of a typical Bangladeshi
or Mozambican.
Countries such as Spain, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom that are
wealthy have agricultural eco-footprints that are many times larger than their
domestic farming land bases. In contrast with the poorer developing
countries, these prosperous countries have, so far, funded their extensive
food-based “ecological deficits” with the rest of the world. In fact, nationsthat are net food importers are more the rule than the exception. In the
world almost 183 nations are partly dependent on food imports. Five
countries such as the United States, Canada, Australia, France and
Argentina account for 80 percent of cereal exports and most of the safety
net in international food markets. These nations have remarkably high
cropland- to-population ratios and comparatively few soil constraints, and
utilise intensively mechanised, fossil-energy dependent production
techniques. It will be clear from this short discussion of cropland eco-
footprints relative to land supply that soil constraints signify a main obstacle
to increased food production in the future, mostly for those nations that needit the most. In some cases increasing the total area of cropland is feasible,
but may need expansion of agriculture into low-grade land and huge
damage to remaining wildlife natural habitat.
Transportation footprints
In general cars and trucks have a smaller carbon footprint than small
aircraft, but a greater carbon footprint than large aircraft (because the
amount of carbon dioxide per flight is spread over a greater number of
passengers). Rail transportation has a smaller carbon footprint than cars or
trucks, and ships have a smaller carbon footprint than rail.
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Personal Transport Footprint: A footprint analysis Southwest England statesthat computation of a personal transport ecological footprint considers
the energy that is essential for manufacturing, maintenance and fuel for
various types of transport such as aeroplanes, trains and cars. In 2001,
the personal transport ecological footprint for a Southwest
resident was 2.6 million Gha (0.53 Gha per person), and accounted
for 10 percent of the total ecological footprint of the area.
The largest element was car travel. It accounted for 79 percent of the
personal transport ecological footprint and 85 percent of the distance
covered. Air transport had the second largest ecological footprint at 15
percent, even though it was only 5 percent of the distance covered. The air transport ecological footprint is high because of the energy input required for
flying, mainly at take-off and landing
(http://www.steppingforward.org.uk/ef/perstrans.htm).
Utilisation of bio-diesel cuts down the discharge of carbon.
Companies should begin using bio-diesel to secure the surroundings
in addition to the life time of the vehicle.
Opting for regular servicing keep you informed about the energy
consumption and provides the benefit of extra mileage.
Utilisation of Electric, Diesel Hybrid and LPG vehicles decreases
carbon discharges.
Business should plan route such that it reduces traveling time.Food
production has effectivelysuccessfully divertedrerouted moreadditional
natural landscape to human purposereasons than any other ecologically
significantimportant human economic activity. Some of the technology-
based developments are:
• Spread of irrigation
• Extensive use of fertilizers
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•
Pesticides• High-yielding crop varieties
• Field mechanisation
• Expanding trade
These developments succeeded in maintaining global food production
ahead of population rises through the last century, with the most impressive
results in the post-WW-II period. In the meantime, today the population has
increased to about 6.3 billion that is by 152%. In 1950, it was 2.5 billion.
Meanwhile, of course, the human population has increased by 152% from2.5 billion in 1950 to about 6.3 billion today.
Agriculture is the biggest component that contributes to a typical population
eco-footprint (EF). Agriculture contributes one of the largest components to
a typical population eco-footprint (EF). This should not be be noany
surprise. Next toAfter transportation, food production such as (meat, poultry,
fruits, vegetables and grains) causes the greatestmaximum level of
environmental impact associaterelated with the average household
transportation and food, together along with household operations such as
(heating of space and water, running appliances and lighting)
compriseinvolve between 64% and 86% of the total ecological impact of household consumption in the several various impact categories. A
majorchief component of the food production impact is landscape
alterationshift. For exampleinstance, about 60% of the US land area is
dedicategranted to crop production or livestock grazing and 45% of the
nation’s habitatenvironment loss or alteration is due tobecause of
agriculture.
Area of world-average cropland of the world used to produce the diets crops
of today’s high-income consumers can be as high as 1.5 hectares that is
(3.7 acres) per capita,. TypicallyUsually the poorest of the world’s poor
people required that cropland four to eight times the cropland required by
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the poorest of the world’s poor. The per capita demand for cropland inCanada ’s per capita demand for cropland atis about 1 hectare which is
about twelve times that of a typical Bangladeshi or Mozambican.
WealthyProsperous countries such aslike Spain, the Netherlands and the
United Kingdom have agriculturalfarming eco-footprints up to several times
largerbigger than their domestic agricultural farming land bases. Unlike In
contrast with the poorer developing countries, these wealthyprosperous
nationcountries have, so far, financed funded their considerableextensive
food-based “ecological deficits” with the rest of the world. ActuallyIn fact,
countries nations that are net food importers are more the rule than the
exception. In the world Mostalmost of the world’s 183 nations arepartiallypartly dependent on food imports. FJust five countries such as —the
United States, Canada, Australia, France and Argentina— account for 80%
of cereal exports and most of the safety net in globalinternational food
markets. These countries nations have exceptionallyremarkably high
cropland- to-population ratios and relativelycomparatively few soil
constraints, and useutilise intensively mechaniszed, fossil-energy
dependent production methodtechniques. It should will be clear from even
this briefshort discussion of cropland eco-footprints relative to land supply
that land soil constraints representsignify a majormain barrierobstacle to
increased food production in the future, particularlymostly for thosecountries nations that need it the most. In some cases Iincreasing the total
area of cropland is possiblefeasible in some cases, but would may
requireneed expansion of agriculture into inferiorlow-grade land and
massivehuge damage to remaining wildlife natural habitat.
Transportation footprints
In general cars and trucks have a smaller carbon footprint than small
aircraft, but a greater carbon footprint than large aircraft (because the
amount of carbon dioxide per flight is spread over a greater number of
passengers). Rail transportation has a smaller carbon footprint than cars or
trucks, and ships have a smaller carbon footprint than rail.
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Personal Transport Footprint: A footprint analysis Southwest England Thecalculation of a personal transport ecological footprint takes into
consideration the energy required for manufacturing, maintenance and
fuel for different modes of transport, such as cars, aeroplanes and
trains. In 2001, Tthe personal transport ecological footprint for a
Southwest resident in 2001 was 2.6 million Gha (0.53 Gha per
person), and accounted for 10% of the total ecological footprint of the
regionarea.
The largest component element was car travel. It, which accounted for 79%
of the personal transport ecological footprint and 85% of the distance
travelledcovered. Air travel transport had the second largest ecologicalfootprint at 15%, althougheven though it was only 5% of the distance
travelledcovered. The air travel transport ecological footprint is high due
tobecause of the energy input required for flying, particularlymainly at take-
off and landing (http://www.steppingforward.org.uk/ef/perstrans.htm).
Utilisation Using of bio-diesel cuts down on carbon
emissiondischarge. Companies mustshould startbegin using bio-
diesel to safesecure the surroundings in addition to the life time of
the vehicle.
Opting for Rregular servicing. It will tell you about the energyconsumption and will benefitgain extra mileage.
Utiliszation of Electric, Diesel Hybrid and LPG vehicles will
reducedecrease carbon emissiondischarges.
Scheduling route to reduce traveling time. The businessCompanies
should schedule route in a fashion manner that it reduces the time of
travelingminimize traveling time.
Self Assessment Questions
3. Ecological footprint evaluates humanity’s demand on nature:
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say Yes or No4. Rapid land use changes in a city may leads to sharp rise in
____________.
a) Ecological foot prints b) regulatory services c) cultural services
d) supportive services
5. Hybrid vehicles and LPG vehicles usage may reduce ____________.
a) Carbon emissions b) water pollution c) soil pollution
d) business opportunity
Water Footprint
The concept of water footprint has been developed to have an indicator of
water use relative to its consumption by people. The volume of water
needed for the production of the goods and services consumed by the
inhabitants of the country is known as the water footprint of a country. The
virtual water concept is closely related to the water footprint concept. The
volume of water required to produce a commodity or service is called virtual
water. International trade of commodities implies flows of virtual water over
large distances. The water footprint of a country can be measured with the
help of domestic water resources, reduction of the virtual water flow thatgoes out of the country and addition of virtual water flow that come into the
country. The volume of water used from domestic water resources to
produce the goods and services consumed by the people of the country is
known as internal water footprint of a country. The volume of water used in
other countries to produce goods and services imported and consumed by
the people of the country is known as external water footprint of a country.
The study aims to compute the water footprint for each country of the world
for the period 1997-2001.
The use of domestic water resources includes water use in the sectors like:
• Agricultural
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•
Industrial• Domestic
The calculation of the total volume of water use in the agricultural sector is
done on the basis of total quantity of crop produced and its corresponding
virtual water content. The calculation of the virtual water content (m3/ton) of
prime crops is done on the basis of crop water requirement and produce.
The requirement of crop water for each crop is calculated with the help of
the method developed by FAO. The calculation of the virtual water content
of crop products is done on the basis of product fractions that include tons
of crop product obtained per ton of primary crop and value fractions that
include the market value of one crop product divided by the total market
value of all crop items for consumptions that is obtained from one main
crop. The calculation of the virtual water content (m3/ton) of live animals is
done on the basis of the virtual water content of their feed and the volumes
of drinking and service water consumed throughout their existence. The
calculation of the virtual water content of livestock products is again done on
the basis of product fractions and value fractions. Virtual water flows
between countries are obtained from statistics on international product trade
and the virtual water content per product in the exporting nation.
The worldwide volume of water used for crop production is 6390 Gm3
/yr. It includes both effective rainfall and irrigation water. Generally, livestock
products have higher virtual water content than crop products. For instance,
the worldwide average virtual water content of maize, wheat and rice
(husked) is 900, 1300 and 3000 m3/ton respectively, but on the other hand,
the virtual water content of chicken meat, pork and beef is 3900, 4900 and
15500 m3/ton respectively. But the virtual water content of products strongly
differs from place to place, depending upon:
• Climate
•
Technology adopted for farming
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•
Corresponding yieldsThe worldwide volume of virtual water flows associated with the
international trade in commodities is 1625 Gm3 per year. About 20 percent
of these virtual water flows is related to the industrial product trade and
remaining 80 percent is related to the trade in agricultural products. The
worldwide water footprint is about 7450 Gm3/yr, which is 1240 m3/cap/yr.
The dissimilarities between nations are large. For example, the USA has an
average water footprint of 2480 m3/cap/yr, whereas China has an average
footprint of 700 m3/cap/yr. Following are the four major factors that
determine the water footprint of a nation:
• Volume of consumption (related to the gross national income)
• Consumption pattern (for example, high versus low meat consumption)
• Climate (growth conditions)
• Agricultural practice (water use efficiency)
The nations with a comparatively high rate of evapotranspiration and a high
gross national income per capita have huge water footprints, such as:
• Portugal (2260 m3/yr/cap)
• Italy (2330 m3/yr/cap)
• Greece (2390 m3/yr/cap)
The above discussed case often results in large consumption of meat and
industrial goods. Some nations with a high gross national income per capita
can have a comparatively low water footprint because of favourable climatic
conditions for crop production. For example the United Kingdom has 1245
m3/yr/cap, the Netherlands has 1220 m3/yr/cap,, Denmark has 1440 m3/yr/ca
and Australia has 1390 m3/yr/cap. Some nations can demonstrate a high
water footprint due to high meat ratios in the diet of the people as well as
high consumption of industrial products, such as the USA (2480 m3/yr/cap)
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and Canada (2050 m
3
/yr/cap). Global water reliance is significant. About 16percent of the global water use is not for producing domestically consumed
products but for exporting products in the global market. Globalisation of
trade increases the global water interdependencies.The water footprint
conceptidea has been developed in order toto have an indicator of water
use in relation tocompared with consumption of people. The water footprint
of a country is defined as t The volume of water needed for the production
of the goods and services consumed by the inhabitants of the country is
known as the water footprint of a country. The virtual water concept is
Cclosely linkedrelated to the water footprint concept is the virtual water
concept. Virtual water is defined as tThe volume of water required to
produce a commodity or service is called virtual water. International trade of
commodities implies flows of virtual water over large distances. The water
footprint of a nationcountry can be assessmeasured by taking the usewith
the help of domestic water resources, subtractdeduct the virtual water flow
that leavedeparts the country and add the virtual water flow that entercome
intos the country. The internal water footprint of a nation is tThe volume of
water used from domestic water resources to produce the goods and
services consumed by the inhabitantspeople of the country is known as
internal water footprint of a country. The external water footprint of a country
is tThe volume of water used in other countries to produce goods and
services imported and consumed by the inhabitantspeople of the country is
known as external water footprint of a country. The study aims to
calculatecompute the water footprint for each nationcountry of the world for
the period 1997-2001.
The use of domestic water resources compriseincludes water use in the
sectors like:
• the aAgricultural
• , iIndustrial
• and dDomestic sectors.
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The calculation of Tthe total volume of water use in the agricultural sector iscalculatedis done on the basis of based on the total volumequantity of crop
produced and its corresponding virtual water content. The calculation of
Tthe virtual water content (m3/ton) of primaryprime crops is calculated done
on the basis ofbased on crop water requirements and yieldsproductions.
The requirement of crop water requirement ofor each crop is calculated with
the help of using the methodologymethod developed by FAO. The
calculation of Tthe virtual water content of crop products is calculated based
ondone on the basis of product fractions (that include ton of crop product
obtained per ton of primary crop) and value fractions that include (the
market value of one crop product divided by the aggregatetotald market
value of all crop productitems for consumptions deriveobtained from one
primarymain crop). The calculation of Tthe virtual water content (m3/ton) of
live animals is calculated based ondone on the basis of the virtual water
content of their feed and the volumes of drinking and service water
consumed duringthroughout their lifetimeexistence. The calculation of the
virtual water content of livestock products is again done on the basis
ofbased on product fractions and value fractions. Virtual water flows
between nationcountries are deriveobtained from statistics on international
product trade and the virtual water content per product in the exporting
countrynation.
The globalworldwide volume of water used for crop production, including
both effective rainfall and irrigation water, is 6390 Gm3/yr. It includes both
effective rainfall and irrigation water. In generalGenerally, livestock
products crop products have lower higher virtual water content than crop
products livestock products. For exampleinstance, the globalworldwide
average virtual water content of maize, wheat and rice (husked) is 900,
1300 and 3000 m3/ton respectively, whereasbut on the other hand, the
virtual water content of chicken meat, pork and beef is 3900, 4900 and
15500 m3/ton respectively. HoweverBut, the virtual water content of
products strongly varies differs from place to place, depending upon:
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•
tChe climate• , tTechnology adopted for farming
• and cCorresponding yields.
The globalworldwide volume of virtual water flows relatedassociated to the
international trade in commodities is 1625 Gm3 per /year. About 280% of
these virtual water flows is related to the industrial product trade and
remaining 80% trade in agricultural products., while the remainder is related
to industrial product trade. The globalworldwide water footprint is about
7450 Gm3/yr, which is 1240 m3/cap/yr. The differencedissimilarities between
countries nations are large. For example,: the USA has an average water footprint of 2480 m3/cap/yr, whilewhereas China has an average footprint of
700 m3/cap/yr. Following are Tthe four major factors that determineing the
water footprint of a countrynation are:
• V volume of consumption (related to the gross national income)
• ; cConsumption pattern (e.gexample. high versus low meat
consumption)
• ; cClimate (growth conditions); and
•
aAgricultural practice (water use efficiency).The countries nations with a relativelycomparatively high rate of
evapotranspiration and a high gross national income per capita (which often
results in large consumption of meat and industrial goods) have largehuge
water footprints, such as:
• Portugal (2260 m3/yr/cap)
• , Italy (2330 m3/yr/cap)
• and Greece (2390 m3/yr/cap).
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The above discussed case often results in large consumption of meat andindustrial goods. Some countries nations with a high gross national income
per capita can have a relativelycomparatively low water footprint due
tobecause of favourable climatic conditions for crop production. For
example, such as the United Kingdom has (1245 m3/yr/cap), the
Netherlands has (1220 m3/yr/cap,), Denmark has (1440 m3/yr/cap ) and
Australia has (1390 m3/yr/cap). Some countries nations can
exhibitdemonstrate a high water footprint because ofdue to high meat
proportionratios in the diet of the people and as well as high consumption of
industrial products, such as the USA (2480 m3/yr/cap) and Canada (2050
m3/yr/cap). InternationalGlobal water dependencyreliance is
substantialsignificant. About An estimated 16% of the global water use is
not for producing domestically consumed products but products for export in
the global market. With increasing gGlobalisation of trade will increase the,
global water interdependencies are likely to increase.
012.4 Summary
Let us recapitulate some important points discussed in this unit:
• Ecosystem services refer to the benefits got by people from
ecosystems.
• These services are broadly categorised into six classes based on
their ecological and economic function.
• Ecosystem service approach incorporates the value that humans
obtain from healthy ecosystems into decision making.
• It clearly links nature to the well-being of humans and other
structures conservation efforts in terms of the services, or benefits,
that an ecosystem gives under various scenarios.
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•
Once humanity identifies this link, and the value offered to them by agiven ecosystem, the impetus for conservation is realisedborn.
• Further, these services have the potential to affect the business
practices and policy for the populated regions of the world where
traditional conservation cannot work.
• Even though complete full conservation in most these regions may
not be unfeasible, key ecosystem services and function can be
sustainedEcosystem services are the benefitprofits people
obtainacquire from ecosystems.
• These services are broadly categorized into six classes based ontheir ecological and economic function.
• Ecosystem service approach incorporates the value that humans
deriveobtain from healthy ecosystems into decision making.
• It clearly links nature to human well-beingcomfort and
framestructures conservation efforts in terms of the services, or
benefits, that an ecosystem providegives under different various
scenarios.
• Once humanity recognizeidentifies this link, and the value
provideoffered to them by a given ecosystem, the impetus for
conservation is born.
• Further, these services have the capability to affect policy and
business practices for the populated areas of the world where
traditional conservation cannot work.
• Even ifEven though full conservation in these arearegions may be
impossible,unfeasible key ecosystem services and function can be
maintainsustained..
012.5 Terminal Questions
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1.Write a note on conceptual basics of ecosystem services.
2. Discuss in detail about role of regulating services on human health.
3. List out some of the provisional services.
4. Write short note on Ecological foot prints.
5. How water footprints would be helpful to attain sustainable
development.
012.5 Glossary
Ecological footprint (EF): It calculates how much bioproductive area
(whether land or water) the people would require to produce on asustainable basis the renewable resources it consumes, and to absorb the
waste it creates, using prevailing technology.
Biocapacity (BC): It calculates the bioproductive supply that is accessible
within a particular area (e.g. of arable land, pasture, forest, productive sea).
Virtual water : It is defined as the volume of water required to manufacture
a product or service.
Ecological footprint (EF): It measurecalculates how much bioproductive
area (whether land or water) thea populationpeople would require to
produce on a sustainable basis the renewable resources it consumes, andto absorb the waste it generatecreates, using prevailing technology.
Biocapacity (BC): It calculates measures the bioproductive supply that is
availableaccessible within a certain particular area (e.g. of arable land,
pasture, forest, productive sea).
Virtual water : It is defined as the volume of water required to
producemanufacture a commodityproduct or service.
012.6 Answers
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SAQ1. (a) Provisioning services
2. Yes
3. Yes
4. (a) Ecological foot prints
5. (a) Carbon emissions
Terminal Questions
1. Refer section 012.2.1
2. Refer section 12.2.3
3. Refer section 12.2.2
4. Refer section 12.3
5. Refer section 12.3.4
References
1. WEHAB (2002), “A Framework for Action on Biodiversity and
Ecosystem Management”, Water, Energy, Health, Agriculture and
Biodiversity Working Group Report, contribution to the World Summit
on Sustainable Development, Johannesburg, South Africa, 26
August – 4 September 2002. United Nations, New York.
2. UNEP (2010) Guidance Manual for the Valuation of Regulating
Services, ISBN: 978-92-807-3131-6, Publishing Services Section,
UNON, Nairobi-Kenya,
3. Ecosystems and their services,
http://www.maweb.org/documents/document.300.aspx.pdf
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4.Ecological Footprint and Biocapacity, Luxembourg: Office for OfficialPublications of the European Communities, 2006, (http://europa.eu)
5. A resource flow, and ecological footprint analysis of Greater London,
www. citylimitslondon.com
6. Rees W and M Wackernagei 1996, urban ecological footprints: why
cities cannot be sustainable and why they are a key to sustainability,
environ impact assess rev 1996;16:223-248
7. Rees W The Eco-Footprint of Agriculture:A Far-from-
Thermodynamic)-Equilibrium Interpretation In The Eco-Footprint of
Agriculture: A Far-from-(Thermodynamic)-Equilibrium Interpretation8. Water footprints of nations, Volume 1: Main Report 2004, UNESCO-
IHE Delft P.O. Box 3015, 2601 DA Delft, The Netherlands
9. http://www.economist.com/node/15321193
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