193

Notes

Introduction1 Quoted in David Reynolds, ‘The Origins of the Cold War: The European

Dimension, 1944–1951’, Historical Journal, 28 (1985), p. 499.2 D.C. Watt, ‘Rethinking the Cold War: Letter to a British Historian’, Political

Quarterly, 48 (1978).3 Anne Deighton (ed.), Britain and the First Cold War (London: Macmillan – now

Palgrave Macmillan, 1990) contains an admirable summary of the first raft ofwork.

4 Geoffrey Warner, ‘The Study of Cold War Origins’, Diplomacy & Statecraft 1(1990), pp. 17–18.

5 Public Record Office, Kew (henceforth PRO), CAB 134/1929, ‘Future Policy Study1960–70, Part III, The Main Objectives of the United Kingdom’s Overseas andStrategic Policy’, February 1960.

6 Quoted by Ronald Hyam, ‘Winds of Change: The Empire and Commonwealth’ inWolfram Kaiser and Gillian Staerck (eds), British Foreign Policy 1955–64:Contracting Options (London: Palgrave – now Palgrave Macmillan, 2000).

7 See, for example, Susan L. Carruthers, Winning Hearts and Minds: BritishGovernments, the Media and Colonial Counter-Insurgency, 1944–1960 (Leicester:Leicester University Press, 1995).

8 See Harriet Jones and Michael David Kandiah (eds), Myth of Consensus: New Viewsof British History, 1945–64 (London: Macmillan – now Palgrave Macmillan, 1996),who, while rejecting the thesis that a broad political consensus existed in the UKin the early post-war years, have suggested that if there was any sort of realconsensus among the governing political elites it concerned the Cold War strug-gle to preserve democracy and domestic and international capitalism.

9 See Michael Dockrill, British Defence Since 1945 (Oxford: Blackwell, 1988), pp. 151–2 for figures on British defence spending.

1 Britain and the Origins of the Cold War1 Quoted in Kenneth Bourne, Palmerston: The Early Years, 1784–1841 (London:

Allen Lane, 1982), p. 361, Palmerston to Melbourne, 1835.2 Papers of Lord Ponsonby of Shulbrede, MS.Eng.hst.c.669, Bodleian Library,

Oxford, O’Malley to Ponsonby (FO), 14 Aug. 1924.3 Randolph Churchill (ed.), Into Battle: Speeches of the Right Hon. Winston S.

Churchill (London: Cassell, 1941), Broadcast of 1 Oct. 1939, p. 131.4 Papers of Lord Howard of Penrith, Cumbria Record Office, Carlisle: DHW5/97,

Herbert to Howard, 6 May 1922.5 J.H. Gleason, The Genesis of Russophobia in Great Britain (Cambridge, MA:

Harvard University Press, 1950).6 John Vincent (ed.), A Selection from the Diaries of Edward Henry Stanley, 15th Earl

of Derby (1826–93) between September 1869 and March 1878, Camden 5th Series,vol. 4 (London: Royal Historical Society, 1994), p. 333.

7 M.S. Anderson, The Eastern Question, 1774–1923: A Study in International Relations(London: Macmillan – now Palgrave Macmillan, 1966), p. 91.

8 Quoted in J.B. Conacher, The Aberdeen Coalition, 1852–1855: A Study in Mid-nineteenth Century Party Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1968),p. 182.

9 Palmerston in 1853, quoted in J.A.R. Marriott, Anglo-Russian Relations,1689–1943 (London: Methuen, 1944), p. 140.

10 Lord Beaconsfield (Disraeli) to Queen Victoria, 22 July 1877, in George Buckle,The Life of Benjamin Disraeli: Earl of Beaconsfield, vol. VI, 1876–1881 (London:J. Murray, 1920), p. 155.

11 PRO, FO371/14352/f13/PC13, R.W.A. Leeper, ‘Memorandum on Russia’, 14 Nov.1918.

12 PRO, CAB23/4, War Cabinet 294, minute 13, 7 Dec. 1917. 13 Martin Gilbert, Winston S. Churchill, companion vol. IV, part I, January

1917–November 1922 (London: Heinemann, 1977), pp. 585–6.14 Birkenhead was speaking at a Conservative Party gathering, Loughborough, The

Times, 29 June 1925, p. 9, col. 1.15 Speech, 25 March 1949, Winston Churchill, In the Balance: Speeches 1949 and

1950, ed. Randolph Churchill (London: Cassell, 1951), p. 37.16 PRO, CAB23/42, Imperial War Cabinet 45, 23 Dec. 1918.17 Ibid. Milner at the time did not yet include Siberia as lying within the Bolshevik

sphere.18 Stephen White, Britain and the Bolshevik Revolution (New York: Holmes & Meier,

1980).19 Total British casualties in the Intervention killed in action numbered 329.

Martin Gilbert, Winston S. Churchill, vol. IV, 1916–1922 (London: Heinemann,1975), p. 383.

20 PRO, CAB23/42, Imperial War Cabinet 45, 31 Dec. 1918.21 House of Commons Debates, 5th series, vol. 125, col. 43, 10 Feb. 1920.22 Ibid., col. 46.23 M.V. Glenny, ‘The Anglo–Soviet Trade Agreement, March 1921’, Journal of

Contemporary History vol. 5, no. 2 (1970), pp. 63–82.24 See Andrew Williams, ‘The Genoa Conference of 1922: Lloyd George and the

Politics of Recognition’ in Carole Fink, Axel Frohn and Jürgen Heideking (eds),Genoa, Rapallo and European Reconstruction in 1922 (Washington and Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1991).

25 For a detailed analysis see Stephen White, Origins of Detente: The GenoaConference and Soviet Western Relations, 1921–22 (Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press, 1985) , esp. pp. 203–8.

26 G.N. Curzon, Russia in Central Asia and the Anglo–Russian Question (London:Longman’s, 1889).

27 Earl of Ronaldshay, The Life of Lord Curzon (London: Benn, 1928), vol. II, p. 114.28 PRO, CAB23/32/Cabinet 64(22), annex iv, Statement to the Cabinet by the

Foreign Secretary (Lord Curzon), 1 Nov. 1922.29 Ibid.30 Ibid.31 PRO, CAB32/46, 26 Oct. 1926.32 See White, Britain and the Bolshevik Revolution, chap.VI.33 PRO, FO371/9365/N3334, Minute, 15 Apr. 1923. 34 Keith Middlemas (ed.), Thomas Jones Diary, Whitehall Diary, vol. I, 1916–1925

(London: Oxford University Press, 1969), entry for 28 May 1923.

194 Notes

35 The Times, 9 Jan. 1924, p. 12, c. 4.36 Gabriel Gorodetsky, The Precarious Truce: Anglo–Soviet Relations, 1924–27

(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977), pp. 1–13.37 The immediate cause was when the Attorney-General decided to drop charges

against J.R. Campbell, a temporary editor of the communist Worker’s Weekly.38 PRO, CAB23/48 C49(24); PRO, CAB23/49 C59, C60.39 Hansard, House of Commons Debates, 5th series, vol. 125, col. 679, 15 Nov.

1924.40 PRO, FO371/11064/W1252/9/98; Minute by A. Chamberlain, 21 Feb. 1925. 41 PRO, FO371/11065/W2035/9/98, Nicolson, ‘Present Condition in Europe’,

23 Jan.1925. 42 PRO, FO371/11066/W6497/9/98, Minute by Tyrrell, 14 July 1925. 43 Memorandum by A. Chamberlain, 10 June 1925, in W.N. Medlicott and D. Dakin,

Documents on British Foreign Policy, 1919–39, 4th series, vol. 25 (London: HMSO,1984), p. 4, p. 677 (doc.317).

44 PRO, CAB23/50 C36(25).45 Erik Goldstein, ‘The Evolution of British Diplomatic Strategy for the Locarno

Pact, 1924–1925’ in Michael Dockrill and Brian McKercher (eds), Diplomacy andWorld Power: Studies in British Foreign Policy, 1890–1950 (Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press, 1996).

46 Tyrrell to Lloyd, 2 Mar. 1927. GLLD 13/5. Lord Lloyd Papers, Churchill College,Cambridge.

47 Bevin speaking off the record to reporters on 1 Jan. 1946, quoted in Alan Bullock,Ernest Bevin: Foreign Secretary, 1945–1951 (New York: W.W. Norton & Company,1983), p. 214.

2 Herbert Morrison, the Cold War and Anglo–American Relations,1945–1951

1 Herbert Morrison, An Autobiography (London: Odhams, 1960), p. 255.2 The fullest and most impressive study is Alan Bullock, Ernest Bevin: Foreign

Secretary, 1945–51 (London: Heinemann, 1983). But see also Francis Williams,Ernest Bevin: Portrait of a Great Englishman (London: Hutchinson, 1952) and PeterWeiler, Ernest Bevin (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1993).

3 For a critical verdict, see Avi Shlaim, Keith Sainsbury and Peter Jones, British ForeignSecretaries Since 1945 (London: David Charles, 1977). The only major study so far isBernard Donoughue and G.W. Jones, Herbert Morrison: Portrait of a Politician(London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1973). It offers a sympathetic treatment.

4 Donoughue and Jones, Herbert Morrison, p. 385.5 Leslie Hunter, The Road to Brighton Pier (London: Arthur Barker, 1959), p. 28.6 Kenneth O. Morgan, Labour in Power 1945–1951 (Oxford: Clarendon Press,

1984), pp. 50–51.7 Raymond Daniell, ‘Herbert Morrison: After Six Months’, New York Times

Magazine, 2 September 1951, p. 10.8 Williams, Ernest Bevin, pp. 231, 240, 241.9 Hunter, Road to Brighton Pier, p. 26.

10 Trevor Burridge, Clement Attlee: A Political Biography (London: Jonathan Cape,1985), p. 188.

11 Williams, Ernest Bevin, pp. 238–9; Donoughue and Jones, Herbert Morrison,pp. 340–4.

Notes 195

12 Quotation from Williams, Ernest Bevin, p. 240. See also Donoughue and Jones,Herbert Morrison, pp. 414–19.

13 Shlaim et al., British Foreign Secretaries Since 1945, p. 74.14 Kenneth Younger Diary, 22 July 1951.15 Weiler, Ernest Bevin, p. 74.16 Morrison, An Autobiography, p. 120.17 Williams, Ernest Bevin, pp. 186–7.18 Ibid., p. 187.19 Ibid., p. 228.20 Francis Williams, quoted in Henry Pelling, The Labour Governments, 1945–1951

(London: Macmillan – now Palgrave Macmillan, 1984), p. 43.21 Woodrow Wyatt, quoted in Pelling, The Labour Governments, 1945–1951, p. 75.22 Hugh Dalton; quoted in Pelling, The Labour Governments, 1945–1951, p. 44; FO

800/491, Bevin, in a note on Carol Johnson to Bevin, 11 December 1945,described the group as ‘very near communist’.

23 Morrison, An Autobiography, pp. 253, 254.24 Ibid., pp. 253, 254–5.25 Stefan Berger, ‘Labour in Comparative Perspective’, in Duncan Tanner, Pat

Thane and Nick Tiratsoo (eds), Labour’s First Century (Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press, 2000), p. 321.

26 Ian Mikardo, Back-Bencher (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1988), p. 90.27 Ibid., pp. 95–7, 100.28 Parliamentary Debates (House of Commons), Fifth Series, vol. 430, col. 526

(18 November 1946).29 Parl. Debs (House of Commons), Fifth Series, vol. 430, col. 578 (18 November

1946).30 Parl. Debs (House of Commons), Fifth Series, vol. 430, col. 591–592 (18 November

1946); Bullock, Bevin, p. 329.31 Mikardo, Back-Bencher, pp. 107, 109–10.32 Stephen Howe, ‘Labour and International Affairs’, in Tanner et al. (eds), Labour’s

First Century, p. 130.33 Stefan Berger, ‘Labour in Comparative Perspective’, p. 321.34 Morgan, Labour in Power, pp. 63–5.35 Mikardo, Back-Bencher, p. 117.36 Peter Weiler, British Labour and the Cold War (Stanford, CA: Stanford University

Press, 1988), pp. 9, 12.37 Donoughue and Jones, Herbert Morrison, pp. 433–4.38 Ibid., pp. 249, 252, 377–9.39 Documents on British Policy Overseas (hereafter DBPO, 1st, IV), First Series, vol. IV, ed.

Roger Bullen and M.E. Pelly (London: HMSO, 1987), pp. 186–90, 217–23, 227–31,285–8; Morrison, An Autobiography, pp. 255–6; Pelling, The Labour Governments,1945–1951, pp. 67–9; Donoughue and Jones, Herbert Morrison, pp. 380–3.

40 DBPO, 1st, IV, no. 98, Halifax to Bevin, 13 May 1946, pp. 300–301. The remarkabout arranging for Attlee to address a college was a jocular reference toChurchill’s March 1946 ‘iron curtain’, speech to Westminster College, Fulton,Missouri.

41 Ibid., no. 100, ‘Report by Mr Morrison on his Mission to the U. S. and Canada’,22 May 1946, pp. 309–14.

42 Donald Gillies, Radical Diplomat: The Life of Archibald Clark Kerr, Lord Inverchapel1882–1951 (London: I.B. Tauris, 1999), p. 192.

196 Notes

43 PRO, FO 800/513, US/46/73 contains Dixon to Inverchapel, 27 June 1946;Herbert Morrison, ‘Notes on Some Overseas Economic and Publicity Problems’,June 1946; and Bevin’s undated minute.

44 PRO, FO 800/277, Mis/46/1, Dixon to Sargent, 13 May 1946.45 PRO, FO 800/513, US/46/65, Bevin to Prime Minister, 10 June 1946.46 See Donoughue and Jones, Morrison, pp. 485–91; Morgan, Labour in Power,

pp. 444–5547 Christopher Mayhew, Time To Explain: An Autobiography (London: Hutchinson,

1987), p. 96 (extract from diary, 4 October 1946).48 Kenneth Younger Diary, 28 March 1951.49 PRO, FO 371/90931, AU 1054/11, Record of a Talk by Sir P. Dixon, 20 March 1951.50 PRO, FO 371/90936, AU1058/7, Franks to Morrison, 26 May 1951.51 Morrison, An Autobiography, p. 275.52 Bodleian Library, Oxford, Ms. Eng. c4518, Gore-Booth papers, Paul Gore-Booth

to Nigel (?Gaydon), 17 July 1951.53 PRO, FO 800/653, Pe/51/57, FO to Washington, Tel. No. 4804, 6 October 1951.54 Dean Acheson, Present at the Creation (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1970), p. 569.55 Shlaim et al., British Foreign Secretaries Since 1945, p. 75–76.56 Evelyn Shuckburgh, Descent to Suez: Diaries 1951–56 (London: Weidenfeld &

Nicolson, 1986), pp. 10–11.57 Lord Gladwyn, The Memoirs of Lord Gladwyn (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson,

1972), p. 251.58 Denis Greenhill, More By Accident (York: Wilton, 1992), p. 70.59 Kenneth O. Morgan, Labour People: Leaders and Lieutenants, Hardie to Kinnock

(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), p. 185.60 For a typical verdict, see T.E.B. Howarth, Prospect and Reality: Great Britain,

1945–1955 (London: Collins, 1985), p. 160: ‘During his seven months asForeign Secretary Morrison gave the impression of floundering from crisis tocrisis.’

61 On the Middle East see William Roger Louis, The British Empire in the Middle East,1945–1951: Arab Nationalism, the United States and Postwar Imperialism (Oxford:Clarendon Press, 1984).

62 On Iran see Mary Ann Heiss, Empire and Nationhood: The United States, GreatBritain and Iranian Oil, 1950–1954 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997);and J.A. Bill and W.R. Louis (eds.), Iranian Nationalism and Oil (London: I.B.Tauris, 1988).

63 On Japan see Peter Lowe, Containing the Cold War in East Asia: British PoliciesTowards Japan, China and Korea, 1948–54 (Manchester: Manchester UniversityPress, 1997), pp. 11–81; and Roger Buckley, Occupation Diplomacy: Britain, theUnited States and Japan 1945–1952 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,1982).

64 For a fuller treatment of Anglo–American relations on Iran and Japan seeMichael F. Hopkins, Oliver Franks and the Truman Administration:Anglo–American Relations, 1948–1952 (London: Frank Cass, forthcoming 2002),chap. 11.

65 PRO, FO 371/124968, ZP24/1G, Pierson Dixon, Record of a Conversation, 14 July1951.

66 John W. Young, Britain, France and the Unity of Europe 1945–1951 (Leicester:Leicester University Press, 1984), p. 177.

67 Ibid., pp. 178–9.

Notes 197

3 The Conservative Party and the Early Cold War: The Construction of ‘New Conservatism’

1 Peter Hennessy, The Secret State: Whitehall and the Cold War (London: Allen Lane,2002).

2 Dianne Kirby, Church, State and Propaganda: The Archbishop of York andInternational Relations: A Political Study of Cyril Foster Garbett, 1942–55 (Hull: HullUniversity Press, 1999) and ‘Harry S. Truman’s International Religious Anti-Communist Front, the Archbishop of Canterbury and the 1948 InauguralAssembly of the World Council of Churches’, Contemporary British History, 15: 4(Winter 2001).

3 See the special issue of Contemporary British History, 15: 3 (2001).4 ICBH sponsored conference, Britain and the Culture of the Cold War, to be held

in Sept. 2003.5 See David Marquand, Ramsay MacDonald (London: Rowman & Littlefield, 1977).6 There is an extensive literature on the Zinoviev Letter which discusses its prove-

nance and possible authorship. See Christopher Andrew, ‘The British SecretService and Anglo–Soviet Relations in the 1920s. Part I: From the TradeNegotiations to the Zinoviev Letter’, The Historical Journal, 20 (Sept. 1977), pp. 673–706. John Ferris, and Uri Bar-Joseph. ‘Getting Marlowe to Hold HisTongue: The Conservative Party, the Intelligence Services and the ZinovievLetter’, Intelligence and National Security, 8: 4 (Oct. 1993), pp. 100–37. Uri Bar-Joseph, Intelligence Intervention in the Politics of Democratic States: The UnitedStates, Israel, and Britain (University Park, PA: Penn State Press, 1995). GillBennett, ‘A Most Extraordinary and Mysterious Business’: The Zinoviev Letter of 1924(London: FCO Publications, 1998).

7 British Gazette, 5 May 1926.8 PRO, MEPO/38/70 and MEPO/38/71. Also see Harriette Flory, ‘The Arcos Raid

and the Rupture of Anglo–Soviet Relations, 1927’, Journal of ContemporaryHistory, 12 (1977).

9 However, the UK was not entirely immune. See ICBH witness seminar, ‘Battle ofCable Street, 1936’, Contemporary Record, 8: 1 (1994).

10 R.I. McKibbin, ‘Class and Conventional Politics: The Conservative Party and the“Public” in Inter-war Britain’, in Ideologies of Class (Oxford: Oxford UniversityPress, 1991).

11 Stuart Ball (ed.), Parliament and Politics in the Age of Churchill and Attlee: TheHeadlam Diaries, 1935–1951 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), p. 136.

12 This view was forcefully brought home to Churchill and others with regard toStalin’s installation of a pro-Soviet Lublin regime in Poland in 1944–5, ignoringthe claims of Mikolajczyk’s London-based government in exile. CarolineKennedy-Pipe, Stalin’s Cold War: Soviet Strategies in Europe, 1943–56 (Manchester:Manchester University Press, 1995), pp. 44–5 and 80.

13 Michael Balfour, Propaganda and War, 1939–1945: Organisations, Policies andPublic in Britain and Germany (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979), p. 230.

14 Richard Cockett, Thinking The Unthinkable: Think-Tanks and the Economic Counter-Revolution, 1931–1983 (London: Fontana, 1995), p. 94.

15 David Cannadine (ed.), The Speeches of Winston Churchill (London: Penguin,1989), p. 305.

16 John A. Ramsden, The Age of Churchill and Eden, 1940–1957 (London: Longman,1995), p. 152.

198 Notes

17 See Martin Longden’s chapter in this volume.18 Headlam Diaries, Diary entry, 24 Feb. 1948, p. 545.19 Ibid., Diary entry, 5 Mar. 1948, p. 546.20 Ibid., Diary entry, July 1948, p. 563. Also see Robert Rhodes James (ed.), Chips,

The Diaries of Sir Henry Channon (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1967), p. 431.21 Michael D. Kandiah, ‘The Conservative Party and the 1945 General Election’,

Contemporary Record, 9: 1 (1995).22 See John A. Ramsden, The Making of Conservative Party Policy (London: Longman,

1980), pp. 97–100, and see the Ball Memorandum in Conservative PartyArchives, Bodleian Library, Oxford [henceforward CPA], WHP1 and CCO500/1/18.

23 An early draft was leaked to the Press on 11 May 1947 and was published laterthat month. The rest were published at regular intervals over the next two years.J.D. Hoffman, The Conservative Party in Opposition, 1945–1951 (London:MacGibbon & Kee, 1964), p. 148.

24 Andrew Taylor, ‘The Party and the Trade Unions’, in Anthony Seldon and StuartBall (eds.), Conservative Century: The Conservative Party Since 1900 (Oxford:Oxford University Press, 1994), p. 514.

25 Alan Booth, ‘Britain in the 1930s: A Managed Economy?’, Economic HistoryReview, 40: 3 (1987).

26 John A. Ramsden, The Age of Churchill and Eden, 1940–1957 (London: Longman,1995), p. 152.

27 Harriet Jones, ‘New Conservatism?’, The Industrial Charter, Modernity and theReconstruction of British Conservatism after the War’, in Becky Conekin, FrankMort and Chris Waters (eds), Moments of Modernity: Reconstructing Britain,1945–1964 (London: Rivers Oram Press, 1999), pp. 171–88.

28 Evening Standard, 8 Mar. 1948.29 R.A. Butler, The Art of the Possible. The Memoirs of Lord Butler (London: Hamish

Hamilton, 1971), pp. 146–7.30 Hansard, House of Commons Debates (HC Debs), 5th series, vol. 458,

cols 218–19, and 227–8.31 CPA CCO 4/3/202. In letters to various firms the Party Chairman assured them

that the Conservative Party would not support schemes to nationalise water (6 Dec. 1949), insurance (12 Aug. and 25 Oct. 1949) and cement.

32 CPA, CCO 3/1/65. Alfred Hall-Davies, Director of Massey’s Burnley Brewery Ltd,to Woolton, 29 Nov. 1948.

33 The Third Earl of Woolton’s Private Collection. Draft, Woolton to Douglas-Home, 10 Sept. 1964.

34 See Papers of the First Earl of Woolton, Bodleian Library Oxford, MS Woolton21, passim.

35 The National Liberals or Liberal Nationals (they changed their name to theformer in 1948) were a splinter of the Liberal Party under the leadership of JohnSimon. They were that faction of the Liberal Party that continued to cooperatewith the National Government after Liberal ministers had resigned from theCabinet in Sept. 1932 and eventually moved into opposition in Nov. 1933. Afterthe break-up of the Wartime Coalition Government, they continued to supportChurchill’s caretaker administration. Chris Cook, A Short History of the LiberalParty, 1900–1984 (London: Macmillan (2nd edn) – now Palgrave Macmillan1984), pp. 118–19.

36 The Times, 10 May 1947.

Notes 199

37 Anthony Eden, Days for Decision, Selected Speeches (London: Faber, 1949), p. 126.38 CPA, CCO 500/24/3817. Tactical Committee Minutes, Feb. 1950, para. 208.39 See H.G. Nicholas, ‘La grande presse et les élections de 1951’, Revue Française de

Science Politique, vol. 2 (1952), pp. 278–9.40 David Butler, The British General Election of 1951 (London: Macmillan – now

Palgrave Macmillan, 1952), p. 119. For similar examples, see Alan Sked andChris Cook, Post-War Britain: A Political History (London: Penguin, 1979), pp. 111–12.

41 Daily Telegraph and Morning Post, 20 Oct. 1951.42 Butler, General Election of 1951, pp. 110–12.43 Daily Mirror, 23 to 25 Oct. 1951. Churchill sued the newspaper for libel but

settled out of court later when he obtained a full apology and substantialdamages. See Martin Gilbert, ‘Never Despair’, Winston Churchill, 1945–1965(London: Heinemann, 1988), p. 648.

44 CPA, CCO 500/24/86. See passim Office Committee Minutes.45 F.W.S. Craig (ed.), British General Election Manifestos 1900–1974 (London:

Macmillan – now Palgrave Macmillan, 1975), pp. 196–73.46 See, for instance, Paul Addison, The Road to 1945, British Politics and the Second

World War (London: Quartet Books, 1977); Peter Hennessy and Anthony Seldon(eds), Ruling Performance: British Governments from Attlee to Thatcher (London:Blackwell, 1987); Dennis Kavanagh and Peter Morris, Consensus Politics fromAttlee to Thatcher (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1989); T.F. Lindsay and MichaelHarrington, The Conservative Party, 1918–1979 (London: Macmillan (2nd edn) –now Palgrave Macmillan, 1979); Peter Kellner, ‘Adapting to the PostwarConsensus’, Contemporary Record, 3 (1989).

47 Ina Zweiniger-Bargielowska, ‘Rationing, Austerity and the Conservative PartyRecovery After 1945’, Historical Journal, 37: 1 (1994), pp. 70–84 and Austerity inBritain: Rationing, Controls and Consumption, 1939–1955 (Oxford: OxfordUniversity Press, 2000).

4 Waging the Economic Cold War: Britain and CoCom, 1948–1954NB. Because of replication within the files of documents of a similar nature, sub-filenumbers have been omitted as superfluous.

1 Examples of studies which deal with Anglo–American relations in CoCominclude Frank M. Cain, ‘Exporting the Cold War: Britain’s response to theUSA’s establishment of CoCom, 1947–51’, Journal of Contemporary History, 29(1994), pp. 501–22; Alan P. Dobson, The Politics of the Anglo–AmericanEconomic Special Relationship, 1940–87 (Brighton: Wheatsheaf, 1988), pp. 125–36 and pp. 155–61; Tor Egil Forland, ‘Cold Economic Warfare: TheCreation and Prime of CoCom, 1948–54’ (unpublished DPhil. thesis:University of Oslo, 1991); Vibeke Sorensen, ‘Economic Recovery versusContainment: The Anglo–American Controversy over East–West Trade,1947–51’, Co-operation and Conflict, XXIV (1989), pp. 69–97; Yoko Yasuhara,‘Myth of Free Trade: The Origins of COCOM and CHINCOM,1945–52’(unpublished Ph.D dissertation: University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1984); andJohn W. Young, ‘Winston Churchill’s Peacetime Administration and theRelaxation of East–West Trade Controls, 1953–54’, Diplomacy and Statecraft, 7:1 (March, 1996), pp. 125–40.

200 Notes

2 Foreign Relations of the United States [henceforward FRUS], 1948, IV, p. 512,‘Control of Exports to the USSR and Eastern Europe’, paper approved by the NSCon 17 Dec. 1947.

3 FRUS, 1948, IV, pp. 489–97, ‘US Exports to the USSR and Satellite States’, paperprepared by the Policy Planning Staff, State Department, 26 Nov. 1948. See alsoPhilip J. Funigiello, American–Soviet Trade in the Cold War (Chapel Hill, NC:University of North Carolina Press, 1988), pp. 25–49.

4 FRUS, 1948, IV, pp. 564–8, telegram from Marshall and Hoffman, ECA, toHarriman, 27 Aug. 1948.

5 PRO, FO371/71933, telegram from FO to British Embassy, Washington DC, 2 Sept. 1948.

6 PRO, FO371/71884, memorandum containing points to be made to the ECAadministrator by P.H. Gore-Booth, 23 April 1948.

7 The effect of the dollar gap crisis on the British economy during 1945–51 isexamined comprehensively in Alec Cairncross, Years of Recovery: British EconomicPolicy, 1945–51 (London: Methuen, 1985), pp. 61–83.

8 PRO, CAB134 (216), memorandum of meeting of the Economic PolicyCommittee (EPC) on the UK position to be adopted with respect to US propos-als, 23 Nov. 1948.

9 PRO, FO371/71926/UR7793, report of EPC meeting, 20 Nov. 1948; PRO,CAB134(216)40, minutes of cabinet meeting, 14 Dec. 1948.

10 PRO, FO371/77789, telegram from UK delegation to OEEC, Paris, to FO, 17 Jan.1949.

11 PRO, FO371/77790/UR820, telegram from UK delegation, Paris, to FO, 29 Jan.1949.

12 PRO, FO371/77790, telegram from UK delegation, Paris, to FO, 3 Feb. 1949.13 PRO, FO371/77791, minutes of OEEC meeting to discuss Anglo–French List sent

by UK delegation Paris, to FO, 14 Feb. 1949; PRO, FO371/77791, telegram fromUK delegation, Paris to FO, 14 Feb. 1949.

14 PRO, FO371/77797, report of the Working Group of the Ministry of Defence, 25 May 1949; PRO, FO371/77797, report of the London Committee by C.B. Duke, FO, 1 June 1949.

15 PRO, FO371/77797, report of the Economic Intelligence Department, FO, 8 June1949.

16 PRO, FO371/77808, telegram from UK delegation, Paris, to FO, 26 Sept. 1949;PRO, FO371/77808, telegram from UK delegation, Paris, to FO, 30 Sept. 1949.

17 PRO, FO371/77815, report by UK delegation on meetings in Paris of 14–21 and29 Nov. 1949.

18 FRUS, 1949, IV, pp. 177–8, telegram from Acheson to Harriman, 7 Dec. 1949.19 NARA, RG59 460.509/4–2150, office memo prepared in State Department,

21 Apr. 1950.20 NARA, RG59 460.509/5–450, paper on economic situation for May foreign

ministers’ meeting prepared by State Department, 20 Apr. 1950.21 FRUS, 1950, IV, pp. 128–30, telegram from Bruce to Webb, 17 May 1950.22 Michael Mastanduno, Economic Containment: CoCom and the Politics of East–West

Trade (New York: Cornell University Press, 1992), pp. 86–91. 23 Vibeke Sorensen, ‘Defence without Tears: US Embargo Policy and Economic

Security in Western Europe, 1947–51’ in Francis H. Heller and John R.Gillingham (eds), NATO: The Founding of the Atlantic Alliance and the Integrationof Europe (New York: St Martin’s Press, 1992), pp. 263–6.

Notes 201

24 PRO, FO371/87197, HMG aide memoire on the extension of the 1-B List, 1 Aug.1950.

25 PRO, FO371/87203, memorandum by Mutual Aid Department, FO, on UK tradewith Soviet bloc, 23 Nov. 1950.

26 FRUS, 1950, IV, p. 240, agreed report on the London tripartite conversations onsecurity export control, 17 October to 20 Nov., 20 Nov. 1950; FRUS, 1951, I, p. 1012, editorial note.

27 PRO, FO371/94310, telegram from Franks to FO, 23 July 1951.28 PRO, FO371/100214, notes for opening remarks of speech by leader of UK

delegation in CoCom, undated.29 PRO, FO371/105864, copy of Truman’s letter to six congressional committees on

UK exceptions to Battle Act, 31 Dec. 1952.30 Alan P. Dobson, ‘Informally Special? The Churchill–Truman talks of Jan. 1952

and the state of Anglo–American relations’, Review of International Studies,23 (1997), p. 37.

31 See Tor Egil Forland, ‘ “Selling Firearms to the Indians”: Eisenhower’s ExportControl Policy, 1953–54’, Diplomatic History, 15 (Spring, 1991), pp. 221–44 andRobert Mark Spaulding, ‘ “A Gradual and Moderate Relaxation”: Eisenhower andthe Revision of American Export Control Policy, 1953–55’, Diplomatic History,17 (Spring, 1993), pp. 223–49.

32 NARA, RG59 460.509/10–653, aide memoire from US Government to BritishEmbassy, Washington DC, 6 Oct. 1953.

33 PRO, CAB134/887, ES(53), note by secretary of ESC, 25 Aug. 1953; PRO,CAB134/848 EA(53)113, report by Mutual Aid Committee on East–West trade, 2 Oct. 1953.

34 FRUS, 1952–54, I, pp. 1040–3, report of pre-bilateral meetings of 3–6 Nov., 10 Nov. 1953.

35 FRUS, 1952–54, I, pp. 1132–3, letter from Churchill to Eisenhower printed intelegram from Dulles to Aldrich, London, 27 Mar. 1954.

36 NARA, RG59 460.509/3–1954, letter from Eisenhower to Churchill, 19 Mar.1954.

37 PRO, FO371/111304, record of first plenary meeting of Anglo/US/French talks onEast–West trade, 29 Mar. 1954.

38 NARA, RG59 460.509/3-3154, telegram from Stassen to Dulles, 31 Mar. 1954;NARA, RG59 460.519/5–1354, report by Brown, London, to State Department oneconomic developments, 13 May 1954.

39 NARA, RG59 46.509/7–2454, telegram from Hughes, Paris, to Dulles, 24 July1954; NARA, RG59 460.509/8–2454, advance press release by Foreign Operationsadministrator, 26 Aug. 1954.

5 Fight Against Peace? Britain and the Partisans of Peace, 1948–19511 Guiliano Procacci (ed.), The Cominform: Minutes of the Three Conferences,

1947–1948/1949 (Milan: Fondazione Giangiacomo, 1984), p. 651; DavidHolloway, Stalin and the Bomb: The Soviet Union and Atomic Energy (New Haven:Yale University Press, 1994), pp. 288–90; Wittner, One World or None, pp. 180–2;Marshall Shulman, Stalin’s Foreign Policy Reappraised (Boulder, CO: WestviewPress, 1985), pp. 80–103.

202 Notes

2 PRO, CAB130/65/GEN341/1, Ministerial Meeting on World Peace Congress, 30 Oct. 1950; FRUS, 1950, vol. IV, International Information Programme,‘Information Policy Guidance Paper: The Betrayal of Peace’, 27 July 1950, pp. 320–8.

3 For US attitudes see Robbie Liberman, ‘“Does That Make Peace a Bad Word?”American Responses to the Communist Peace Offensive, 1949–1950’, Peace &Change, 17: 2 (1992).

4 PRO, CAB130/65/GEN341/1 (PM/50/65), Bevin to Attlee, 25 Oct. 1950. See also,PRO, FO371/86758/NS1052/85, Summary of Indications Regarding SovietForeign Policy (RC127/50), No. 62. 25 Aug. 1950.

5 Lawrence Wittner, The Struggle Against the Bomb, Volume One: One World or None,A History of the World Nuclear Disarmament Movement Through 1953 (Stanford:Stanford University Press, 1993), pp. 319–20.

6 Vera Brittain, Testament of a Generation: The Journalism of Vera Brittain andWinifred Holtby (London: Virago, 1985), p. 261.

7 Wittner, One World or None, pp. 319–23.8 Martin Ceadel, ‘The First Communist “Peace Society”: The British Anti-War

Movement, 1932–1935,’ Twentieth Century British History, 1: 1 (1990).9 Willie Thompson. The Good Old Cause: British Communism, 1920–1991 (London:

Pluto Press, 1992), pp. 68–70.10 Ritchie Calder, News Chronicle, 25 Aug. 1948.11 PRO, FO1110/112/PR1221/760/G, Working Party on Subversive Movements;

Briefing of British Delegates to International Non-Governmental Congresses.Note by Joint Secretaries, 13 Jan. 1948, and CAB130/17/GEN168/4th Meeting,Briefing of British Delegates to International Non-Governmental Conferences,30 Jan. 1949.

12 PRO, FO1110/108/PR693/693, Cloake minute, 14 Oct. 1948.13 MGA, R/T19, Taylor to Wadsworth, 19 Aug. 1948. For Taylor’s reaction, see

‘Intellectuals at Wroclaw: A Strange Congress’, A.J.P. Taylor, ManchesterGuardian, 2 Sept. 1948; and A.J.P. Taylor, A Personal History (London: HamishHamilton, 1983), pp. 192–3.

14 PRO, FO1110/108/PR693/693. For examples of coverage, see ‘A Man NamedTaylor Raps the World Intellectuals’, Daily Express, 27 Aug. 1948; and ‘Loud Blowthe Dons’, Evening Standard, 31 Aug. 1948.

15 PRO, FO1110/271/PR749/92/G, Hankey minute, 18 Mar. 1949; PRO,FO1110/114/PR785/785. Murray note, 18 Sept. 1948.

16 Papers of Ivor Montagu, Communist Party of Great Britain Archives, NationalMuseum of Labour History, Manchester: 5/2, Draft Minute: Reunion ofSignatories to the Main Wroclaw Resolution held 8 Nov., 1948 at Society forVisiting Scientists.

17 Procacci, The Cominform, p. 651.18 Marshall Shulman, Stalin’s Foreign Policy Reappraised (Boulder, CO: Westview

Press, 1985), p. 89.19 Peter Coleman. The Liberal Conspiracy: The Congress for Cultural Freedom and the

Struggle for the Mind of Postwar Europe (New York: Free Press, 1989), pp. 5–6.20 PRO, FO1110/271/PR749/92/G, Hankey minute, 18 Mar. 1949.21 PRO, FO1110/271/PR749/92/G, Mayhew minute, 22 Mar. 1949.22 PRO, FO1110/112/PR760/760, Circular, 23 Sept. 1948; FO1110/117/PR815/815,

Notes on Recent Tactics Experienced by United Kingdom Representatives orIndividuals at Certain International Conferences, n.d.

Notes 203

23 ‘Czechs Protest to France,’ Manchester Guardian, 19 April 1949.24 British Broadcasting Corporation, Written Archives Centre, Caversham Park,

Berkshire [henceforward BBC/WAC]: Transcript, Home Service News Bulletin,22 April 1949.

25 ‘Reds Say it With a Picasso Pigeon’, Daily Mail, 22 April 1949. See also ‘LedCheers for Nanking’s Fall’, Observer, 24 April 1949.

26 Michael Cockerell, Peter Hennessy and David Walker, Sources Close to thePrime Minister: Inside the Hidden World of the News Manipulators (London:Macmillan – now Palgrave Macmillan, 1984); John Black, Organising thePropaganda Instrument: The British Experience (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff,1975).

27 The PRO began releasing IRD files in 1995. They can be found in the FO1110classification.

28 The sociology of journalism is best represented by Jeremy Tunstall, Journalists atWork: Specialist Correspondents: Their News Organisations, News Sources andCompetitor Colleagues (London: Constable, 1971).

29 See Helen Mercer, ‘Industrial Organisation and Ownership, and a NewDefinition of the Postwar “Consensus”’ in Harriet Jones and Michael DavidKandiah, The Myth of Consensus: New Views of British History (London: Macmillan– now Palgrave Macmillan, 1996).

30 Paul Lashmar and James Oliver, Britain’s Secret Propaganda War (Stroud: SuttonPublishing, 1998).

31 PRO, FO1110/277/PR2919/112/G, Warner memorandum, 26 Sept. 1949.32 ‘Archbishop on the Peace Petition’, The Times, 29 July 1950; PRO,

FO1110/353/PR104/1, Sheridan to Ridsdale n.d. For a discussion about how theChurch of England was drawn into Cold War battles see Dianne Kirby, ChurchState and Propaganda: The Archbishop of York and International Relations (Hull: HullUniversity Press, 1999).

33 PRO, FO1110/10/PR442/1/G, Mayhew to Warner, 6 May 1948.34 PRO, FO1110/258/PR1217/69, Mayhew to Bevin, 7 May 1949.35 PRO, FO1110/202/PR2960/17/G, Foreign Office Report to the Colonial

Information Policy Committee, 3 Oct. 1949.36 For representative IRD briefing papers, see PRO, FO975/33, ‘The Communist

“Peace offensive,”’ 30 Aug. 1949; FO975/49, ‘The Soviet Peace Campaign,’[1950]; and FO975/68, ‘“Congress of the Peoples for Peace”: An Examination ofCommunist Tactics,’ [1953].

37 See Trade Unionists Stand Firm for Peace ([London]: TUC Pamphlet [1950]), p. 15;Labour Party Archives, National Museum of Labour History, Manchester [hence-forward LPA]: International Department, Peace and Propaganda 1950, ‘End theVeto on Peace’ (Labour Party leaflet).

38 BBC/WAC: Transcript of Home Service News Bulletin, 9 Nov. 1950.39 Time and Tide, 25 Nov. 1950, p. 1177.40 Manchester Guardian, 24 Mar. 1953; News Chronicle, 15 Dec. 1952.41 ‘Pocket Cartoon by Osbert Lancaster,’ Daily Express, 13 Nov. 1950.42 ‘Reds at Schools Inquiry Opens’, Daily Mail, 25 July 1950.43 ‘London Girl Ran Red Peace Plea at School’, Sunday Chronicle, 23 July 1950.44 ‘A House Divided – By the Reds’, Daily Express, 25 July 1950. ‘Mother Blames the

Reds, Brenda Blames the Press’, Daily Mail, 31 July 1950.45 ‘Petition Joke by School Boys’, Daily Telegraph, 25 July 1950.46 Daily Express, 31 July 1950.

204 Notes

47 LPA: International Department, Peace and Propaganda, 1950, Stockholm PeacePetition.

48 FRUS, 1950, vol. IV, International Information Program, Information PolicyGuidance Paper: The Betrayal of Peace, pp. 320–8.

49 PRO, FO1110/346, PR87/34, Warner Note, 18 May 1950; Undated, UnsignedNote of Bevin’s Conversation.

50 ‘An Important Issue’, One World, Aug.–Sept. 1949; ‘NPC Notes and News’, OneWorld, June–July 1952; ‘Red Letter Boys’, Daily Worker, 26 July 1950. See alsoWittner, One World or None, p. 320.

51 PRO, FO371/86758/NS1052/85, Summary of Indications Regarding SovietForeign Policy (RC127/50), no. 62. 25 Aug. 1950.

52 PRO, FO953/639/P1013/120, Ashley-Clarke to Hoyer Millar, 11 Sept. 1950.53 For example, see the Daily Telegraph, 6 Dec. 1950, and the Daily Herald, 30 Nov.

1950.54 ‘Bevan Asks Stalin: “Are You Faithful?”’, Observer, 23 July 1950.55 Conservative Party Archives, Bodleian Library , Oxford: CCO, 3/2/66. British

Peace Committee, Scott-Atkinson to Mann, 31 Oct. 1950; and Maxse to Mann, 3 Nov. 1950.

56 National Executive Committee: Minutes of the Labour Representation Committee,1900–06, and the Labour Party Since 1906 (microfiche) (Hassocks: Harvester Press),Card 391, ‘Report on International Socialist Conference, Copenhagen,’ June 1–3,1950.

57 PRO, FO1110/346, PR87/28, Watson note, ‘Action to Counteract the CommunistPeace Offensive’, 18 Mar. 1950.

58 PRO, FO1110/346, PR87/244, Shinwell to Attlee, 12 Oct. 1950.59 ‘Among the Organisations’, One World, Aug.–Sept.1950. Also, Papers of the 1st

Baron Noel-Baker, Churchill Archives Centre, Cambridge: 4/121, Notes onCommunism, Noel-Baker to Paul Cadbury, 8 Nov. 1950, and Bailey to PaulCadbury, 2 Nov. 1950.

60 PRO, FO371/86762/NS1053/26/G, Russia Committee minutes, 12 Sept. 1950;PRO, FO1110/348/PR87/234/G, D.P. Reilly minute, 11 Oct. 1950.

61 NARA, RG 59, Decimal File 740.5/9–2850 (Box 3429), Memorandum ofConversation (Bevin and Acheson), 28 Sept. 1950. The Americans believed thatthe emergence of a “London Peace Appeal” while the West was rearming wouldcause ‘incalculable harm’. See, FRUS, 1950, vol. IV, International InformationProgram, Perkins to Acheson, 22 Sept. 1950 and Holmes to Acheson, 28 Sept.1950, pp. 328–31.

62 PRO, CAB128/18, CM 56(50)3, 6 Sept. 1950.63 Ilya Ehrenburg, Post-War Years, 1945–54 (London: MacGibbon & Kee, 1966),

p. 224.64 Communist Party of Great Britain Archives, National Museum of Labour History,

Manchester: [henceforward CPGBA], CENT/EC/01/01. Report to Oct.1950Executive Committee Meeting.

65 PRO, CAB130/65/GEN344/1(P.M./50/65), Bevin to Attlee, 25 Oct. 1950.66 PRO, CAB130/65/GEN341/1, Ministerial Meeting. 30 Oct. 1950.67 ‘Bogus Peace Congress/Prime Minister Warns’, The Times, 2 Nov. 1950.68 Papers of the 1st Earl Attlee, Bodleian Library, Oxford: Box 111, Jordan to Attlee,

27 Oct. 1950.69 PRO, PREM8/1150, Attlee to Morrison, 17 Oct. 1950.70 PRO, CAB128/18/CM72(50)/8, 9 Nov. 1950.

Notes 205

71 The Times, 15 Nov. 1950.72 ‘“Peacemakers” Call it a Day at Sheffield’, News of the World, 12 Nov. 1950.73 ‘An “Iron Curtain” at Sheffield’, Manchester Guardian, 14 Nov. 1950.74 ‘The Peace Men Crash Into Reverse’, William Connor, Daily Mirror, 15 Nov.

1950; and ‘Red Congress Switch Brings Fog and Confusion’, William Connor,Daily Mirror, 13 Nov. 1950.

75 WPA Film Library, Orland Park, IL, Pathé Newsreel, Cannister 50/92, 16 Nov.1950.

76 Hansard, House of Commons Debates, 5th Series, vol. 480, cols. 1561–2, 16 Nov.1950.

77 Ibid., cols. 1559–70, and 1648–92.78 ‘The Illiberal Mr Ede’, Manchester Guardian, Nov. 13, 1950, p. 4; and the Papers

of the 1st Baron Beaverbrook, House of Lords Record Library, London:H/141,Christiansen to Beaverbrook, 17 Nov. 1950.

79 PRO, FO1110/349, PR87/446, Peck minute, 1 Dec. 1950.80 Papers of Sir Walter Layton, Trinity College Library, Cambridge [henceforward

MS Layton]: Box 9, Gordon-Walker to Layton, 20 Dec. 1950.81 The Partisans claimed some 500 million signatures, most from the Communist

bloc. However, 14 million signed in France, 17 million in Italy and 2.5 million inthe USA. For signature totals, see Wittner, One World or None, p. 183.

82 ‘No Champion for Peace Petition’, Manchester Guardian, 8 Dec. 1950; ‘PetitionPresented to Commons’, Daily Worker, 13 Dec. 1950. Also House of CommonsDebates, vol. 482, cols. 951–2, 12 Dec. 1950.

83 See, ‘High-Powered Propaganda of Hate at “Peace” Congress’, Hugh Chevins,Daily Telegraph, 29 Nov. 1950; and ‘Warsaw Orgy of Propaganda’, Sunday Times,19 Nov. 1950.

84 ‘I Might Have Been the Dean Himself!…’, Sefton Delmer, Daily Express, 20 Nov.1950.

85 Ibid.86 BBC/WAC, Transcript, Home Service News Bulletin, 19 Nov. 1950. Also, see

‘“Peace” Congress in Warsaw,’ The Times, 20 Nov. 1950; and ‘Reds Boo as RoggeScores Cominform’, New York Times, 20 Nov. 1950.

87 NARA, RG59, Miscellaneous Records of the Bureau of Public Affairs, Lot 61 D 53(Box 72), John O. Rogge file, Memorandum of Conversation (Rogge andMacKnight), 1 Nov. 1950, and MacKnight to Rogge, 3 Nov. 1950.

88 Papers of J.D. Bernal, British Library of Political and Economic Science, London:Box 3, Report to the Bureau of the World Peace Congress Meeting in Geneva,10–11 Jan. 1951.

89 CPGBA, CENT/EC/02/03, Minutes of Enlarged (CPGB) Executive Committee,14–15 Oct. 1951.

90 Papers of William Clark, Bodleian Library, Oxford: Box 93, Clark to Martin, 13 Jan. 1951.

91 MS Layton, Box 88, George Cadbury to Laurence Cadbury, 22 Feb. 1951, andLaurence Cadbury to George Cadbury, 1 Mar. 1951.

92 PRO, CAB 129/50/C(52) 85, World Peace Movement, 26 Mar. 1952; andCAB128/24/CM(52)35(8).

93 James Oliver, ‘Britain and the Covert War of Words: The Information ResearchDepartment and Sponsored Publishing’, unpublished MA thesis, University ofKent at Canterbury, 1995.

94 W.N. Ewer, Communists on Peace (London: Batchworth Press, 1953).

206 Notes

95 The original quotations in question can be found in PRO, FO975/33 andFO975/68.

96 News Chronicle, 15 Dec. 1952; Manchester Guardian, 24 Mar. 1953; Wittner, OneWorld Or None, pp. 328–9.

97 Lawrence Wittner, The Struggle Against the Bomb, Vol. Two: Resisting the Bomb: AHistory of the World Nuclear Disarmament Movement, 1954–1970 (Stanford, CA:Stanford University Press, 1997), pp. 121–4; and Thompson, The Good Old Cause,p. 116.

6 ‘Our Staunchest Friends and Allies in Europe’ Britains’s SpecialRelationship with Scandinavia, 1945–1953

1 A good introduction to the general Scandinavian perspective is Helge Pharo,‘Scandinavia’, David Reynolds (ed. ), The Origins of the Cold War in Europe:International Perspectives (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994), pp. 194–222.Other central works in English are: Geir Lundestad, America, Scandinavia, and theCold War 1945–1949 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1980); Rolf Tamnes,The United States and the Cold War in the High North (Aldershot: Dartmouth,1991); Magne Skodvin, Nordic or North Atlantic Alliance? The Post-warScandinavian Security Debate (Oslo: Institute for Defence Studies, 1990); CharlesSilva, Keep Them Strong, Keep Them Friendly: Swedish–American Relations and thePax Americana, 1948–1952 (Stockholm: Akademitryck AB, 1999).

2 Skodvin, Nordic or North Atlantic Alliance?, Carsten Holbraad, Danish Neutrality: AStudy in the Foreign Policy of a Small State (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991), pp. 86–114; Knut E. Eriksen and Magne Skodvin, ‘Storbritannia, NATO og etskandinavisk forbund’, Internasjonal Politikk, 39: 3 (1981), pp. 437–511.

3 On Swedish threat scenarios in particular, see the studies in Kent Zetterberg (ed.),Hotet från öster. Svensk säkerhetspolitik, krigsplanering och strategi 1945–1958(Stockholm: Försvarshögskolan, 1997).

4 PRO, FO371/56959/N14836, Hankey minute, 22 Nov. 1946. 5 PRO, FO371/77403/N1387/G, Bevin minute, 4 Feb. 1949. 6 Alex Danchev has set up ten criteria for a ‘special relationship’: (1) Transparency;

(2) Informality; (3) Generality; (4) Reciprocity; (5) Exclusivity; (6) Clandestinity;(7) Reliability; (8) Durability; (9) Potentiality; (10) Mythicality. Alex Danchev,‘On Specialness’, International Affairs, 72: 4 (1996), p. 743.

7 Phrase by Colonel J.H. Magill (Allied Control Commission, Helsinki), PRO,FO371/47450/N15473, Magill’s note 30 Oct. 1945.

8 On the ‘grand design’, PRO, FO371/49069/Z9595, Hoyer Millar minute, 13 Aug.1945; John W. Young, Britain and European Unity, 1945–1992 (London:Macmillan – now Palgrave Macmillan, 1993), p. 1. On British foreign policytowards Scandinavia after the war see: Juhana Aunesluoma, ‘Britain, Sweden andthe Cold War, 1945–54’ (unpublished DPhil. thesis, University of Oxford, 1998);Eriksen and Skodvin, ‘Storbritannia, NATO og et skandinavisk forbund’; NikolajPetersen, Britain, the United States and Scandinavian Defence 1945–1949 (Aarhus:Institute of Political Science, University of Aarhus, 1980); Nikolaj Petersen,‘Britain, Scandinavia and the North Atlantic Treaty 1948–49’, Review ofInternational Studies, vol. 8, no. 4 (1982), pp. 251–68; Mats Berdal, British NavalPolicy and Norwegian Security. Maritime Power in Transition, 1951–60 (Oslo:Institute for Defence Studies, 1992); Knut Einar Eriksen, Storbritannia og

Notes 207

Baseproblematikken i Norden 1945–1947 (Oslo: Forsvarhistorisk Forskningssenter,1981); Clive Archer, Uncertain Trust: The British–Norwegian Defence Relationship(Oslo: Institute for Defence Studies, 1989).

9 Aunesluoma, ‘Britain, Sweden and the Cold War’, pp. 209–30. 10 The argument put forward here is developed in full in Aunesluoma, ‘Britain,

Sweden and the Cold War’. 11 Riksarkivet (Swedish State Archive), Stockholm [henceforward RA]:

Utrikesdepartement (Foreign Ministry), Hp 1 Ba, Hägglöf to N. Quensel, 19 Feb.1949.

12 ‘The Position of the United States with Respect to Scandinavia and Finland’, areport to the National Security Council, NSC 121, 8 Jan. 1952, Om kriget kommit… Förberedelser för mottagande av militärt bistånd 1949–1969. Betänkande avNeutralitetspolitikkommissionen. Bilagor (Stockholm: SOU, 1994: 11), pp. 111–16.

13 Archer, Uncertain Trust, pp. 7–11. 14 Lundestad, America, Scandinavia, and the Cold War, pp. 43–4.15 Ibid., pp. 52–3, 57–8, 63. 16 Olav Riste, ‘London-Regjeringa’: Norge i krigsalliansen 1940–1945, vol. 1,

1940–1942: Prøvetid (Oslo: Det Norske Samlaget, 1973); vol. 2, 1942–1945: Vegenheim (Oslo: Det Norske Samlaget, 1979); Peter Ludlow, ‘Britain and NorthernEurope, 1940–1945’, Scandinavian Journal of History, 4 (1979), pp. 123–62.

17 Alan Bullock, Ernest Bevin: Foreign Secretary, 1945–51 (London: Heinemann,1983), p. 192.

18 An observation by the Finnish political representative in London.Ulkoministeriön Arkisto (Archives of the Finnish Ministry of Foreign Affairs),Helsinki: Microfilm 5 C, Eero A. Wuori to Foreign Minister Carl Enckell, 23 Nov.1945; Bullock, Ernest Bevin, p. 192.

19 PRO, FO371/48042/N7460, Sir Victor Mallet to Eden, 17 June 1945. 20 Papers of Sir Stafford Cripps, Nuffield College, Oxford [henceforward MS Cripps],

File 420, Cripps’s speech at a lunch with Myrdal, undated (1946). 21 Cripps’s speech, undated (spring 1946), MS Cripps File 420; Papers of Clement

Attlee, Bodleian Library, Oxford [henceforward MS Attlee]: vol. 69, Attlee’selection speech, undated (summer 1945); vol. 102, Attlee’s speech in the Houseof Commons, 23 Jan. 1948.

22 PRO, FO371/94986/NW11994/39, Morrison to Lambert, 6 Sept. 1951 (Record ofConversations with the King and Prime Minister of Sweden).

23 See further, Aunesluoma, ‘Britain, Sweden and the Cold War’, chapters 6 and 7. 24 PRO, FO371/100946/NW1194/29G, Hohler minute, 22 July 1952, Strang

minutes, 25 and 29 July 1952, Makins minute, 28 July 1952, Mason to Stevens, 5 Aug. 1952; PRO, FO371/106636/NW1194/29G, Hohler minute, 11 Sept. 1953.

25 A.H. Halsey, Foreword to Malcolm B. Hamilton, Democratic Socialism in Britainand Sweden (London: Macmillan – now Palgrave Macmillan, 1989), p. ix.

26 Denis Healey, The Time of My Life (London: Michael Joseph, 1989), p. 95. 27 PRO, FO371/86907/NW1011/1, ‘Sweden: Annual Review for 1949’, Lambert to

McNeil, 31 Jan. 1950. 28 Kaj Björk, Kallt Krig. Männsikor och idéer (Stockholm: Tidens Förlag, 1990),

pp. 103–4. 29 Alan S. Milward, The Reconstruction of Western Europe 1945–51 (London:

Routledge, 1992), p. 316. 30 PRO, CAB129/23, CP(48)8, Bevin memorandum ‘Future Foreign Publicity

Policy’, 4 Jan. 1948.

208 Notes

31 Ibid.32 PRO, FO371/77727/N8928, P. Mennell minute, 6 Oct. 1949. 33 PRO, FO371/77399/N4187, Bevin to Crowe (Oslo), 6 May 1949. 34 Hansard, House of Commons Debates, 5th Series, vol. 446, cols. 561–9, 23 Jan.

1948; MS Attlee, vol. 102, Attlee’s speech in the House of Commons, 23 Jan.1948.

35 Ibid.36 RA, HP 1 Ba, vol. HP 248, Hägglöf to Undén, 27 Oct. 1951; PRO,

FO371/86142/N1017, Anthony Lambert to Geoffrey Harrison, 1 Mar. 1950; PRO,FO371/99082/UES1281/142, Sir Michael Wright (Oslo) to Anthony Eden, 18 June 1952.

37 PRO, FO371/86142/N1017, Anthony Lambert to Geoffrey Harrison, 1 Mar. 1950. 38 PRO, FO371/86909/NW1016/4, Lambert to McNeil, 1 Mar. 1950. 39 Ibid.40 RA, HP 1 Ba, vol. 248, Hägglöf to Hammarskjöld, 5 Dec. 1951. 41 PRO, FO371/100946/NW1194/13G, C(52)65, Eden memorandum, ‘Swedish

Defence’, 6 Mar. 1952. 42 Gunnar Hägglöf, Engelska År, 1950–1960 (Stockholm: P.A. Norstedt & Söners

Förlag, 1974), pp. 215–16. 43 PRO, FO371/94968/NW1011/1, ‘Sweden: Annual review for 1950’, Harold

Farquhar, 17 Feb. 1951. 44 PRO, FO371/77710/N3506, Farquhar memorandum, untitled, 13 April 1949. 45 Lord Gladwyn, Memoirs of Lord Gladwyn (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson,

1971), pp. 256–7. 46 PRO, FO371/99082/UES1281/142, Wright to Eden, 18 June 1952. 47 PRO, FO371/78136/UR11040, J.P.E.C. Henniker minute, 1 Nov. 1949. 48 PRO, FO371/78136/UR11569, C.A. Duke minute, 15 Nov. 1949. 49 PRO, FO371/78137/UR12265, Henniker memorandum, ‘Closer Economic

Association between Scandinavia and the Sterling Area’, 30 Nov. 1949. 50 PRO, FO371/94444/N1052/5, Makins’s memorandum, ‘Impressions of

Scandinavia’, 28 June 1951. 51 Ibid.52 Ibid.53 PRO, FO371/94444/N1052/5, Strang minute, 28 June 1951. 54 Aunesluoma, Britain, Sweden and the Cold War, pp. 152–202. 55 PRO, T236/2606, Playfair to Makins, 21 Oct. 1949. 56 Ingemar Hägglöf, Drömmen om Europa (Värnamo: Norstedts, 1987), p. 56; Birger

Steckzén, Svenskt och Brittiskt: Sex essayer (Uppsala: Gebers, 1959). 57 PRO, FO371/94444/N1052/5, Makins’s memorandum, ‘Impressions of

Scandinavia’, 28 June 1951. 58 PRO, FO371/111337/N1052/1, ‘British policy towards Scandinavia’, FO memo-

randum, 4 May 1954. 59 Ibid.60 PRO, FO371/106109/N1891/16G, Minutes of the Meeting of the British

Ambassadors to Scandinavia, 17–18 June 1953. 61 PRO, FO371/94968/NW1011/1, ‘Sweden: Annual Review for 1950’, Farquhar to

Bevin, 15 Feb. 1951; Bengt Nilson, ‘No Coal without Iron Ore: Anglo–SwedishTrade Relations in the Shadow of the Korean War’, Scandinavian Journal ofHistory, 16: 1 (1991), pp. 45–72.

62 PRO, FO371/94981/NW1151/25, ‘Sweden’, a brief to Lord Lucas, 15 Mar. 1951.

Notes 209

63 PRO, FO371/106109/N1891/16G, Minutes of the Meeting of the BritishAmbassadors to Scandinavia, 17–18 June 1953.

64 PRO, FO371/116861/NW1011/1, ‘Sweden: Annual Review for 1954’, Hankey toEden, 31 Dec. 1954.

65 PRO, FO371/111337/N1051/1, ‘British Policy towards Scandinavia’, FO memo-randum, 4 May 1954.

66 Ibid.67 Danchev, ‘On Specialness’, p. 740. 68 PRO, FO371/77394/N1151, Bevin minute, undated. 69 Phrase used in Dean Acheson’s speech in 1952, quoted in Danchev, ‘On

Specialness’, p. 739.

7 Revisiting Rapallo: Britain, Germany and the Cold War, 1945–19551 PRO, FO371/109571/CW1052/17 Kirkpatrick minute, 29 May 1954 in Roberts to

Kirkpatrick, 28 May 1954. 2 Zara Steiner, The Foreign Office and Foreign Policy 1898–1914 (Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, 1969) pp. 55–76; Paul Kennedy, The Rise ofAnglo–German Antagonism 1860–1914 (London: The Ashfield Press, 1980) p. 253.

3 Quoted in Anne Deighton, ‘The Frozen Front: The Labour Government, TheDivision of Germany and the Origins of the Cold War 1945–7’, InternationalAffairs, vol. 63 (1987), p. 458.

4 Ben Pimlott, Hugh Dalton (London: Jonathan Cape, 1985), p. 568. 5 Hansard, House of Commons Debates, 5th series, vol. 473, col. 323. 6 Alec Cairncross, The Price of War (Oxford: Blackwell, 1986), p. 151. 7 PRO, CAB128/1, CM(45)31st mtg., minute 5, 13 Sept. 1945; CAB 129/2,

CP(45)160, 10 Sept. 1945. 8 Roger Bullen and M.E. Pelly (eds), Documents on British Policy Overseas:

Conferences and Conversations: London, Washington and Moscow, series I, vol. II,(London: HMSO, 1985). Memorandum by Clark Kerr, 1 Oct. 1945, p. 447,Memorandum by Dixon, 1 Oct. 1945, pp. 448–9, Record by Clark Kerr of conver-sation at the Soviet Embassy, 1 Oct. 1945, pp. 449–55.

9 Geoffrey Warner, ‘Ernest Bevin and British Foreign Policy’, The Diplomats1939–1979 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994), pp. 107–8.

10 Brian White, Britain, Détente and Changing East–West Relations (London:Routledge 1992), chapter 3.

11 Victor Rothwell, Britain and the Cold War (London: Jonathan Cape, 1982), p. 57. 12 Alan Bullock, Ernest Bevin: Foreign Secretary, vol. 3 (London: Heinemann, 1983),

p. 358. 13 Sean Greenwood, ‘Bevin, the Ruhr and the Division of Germany’, Historical

Journal, vol. 29 (1986), pp. 204–6. 14 Bullock, op. cit., pp. 662–664. 15 PRO, FO371/85058/W6201, ‘The Problem of Germany’ (PUSC(62)Final), Nov. 1949.16 Quoted in Barbara Schwepke, ‘The British High Commissioners in Germany’

(Unpublished PhD thesis, University of London, 1991), p. 75. 17 PRO, FO371/85058, C18165/27/18, Aide–Memoire from Paris, 18 Dec. 1950. 18 Bullen and Pelly, Document on British Policy Overseas: German Rearmament Series

II, vol. III, (London: HMSO, 1989), Brief by Dixon for Bevin, 17 Dec. 1950, pp. 376–380, Note by Dixon, 21 Dec. 1950, p. 396.

210 Notes

19 PRO, FO371/94842/NS1053/2, Draft telegram to Washington, 2 Jan. 1951, NS1053/4, Minutes of Russia Committee Meeting, 3 Jan. 1951.

20 Kenneth Younger Diaries (in private possession), entry for 9 Jan. 1951. I wouldlike to thank Professor Geoffrey Warner for access to the Younger papers andLady Younger for permission to quote them.

21 PRO, PREM11/1857, Hoyer Millar’s valedictory despatch, 23 Jan. 1957. 22 PRO, FO371/97760, C1017/458, FO Brief on Alternative Policies on Germany,

9 Aug. 1952. 23 PRO, FO371/109576, C10723/3, Hoyer Millar to FO, 21 June 1954 with

Kirkpatrick, Hancock and Roberts minutes, 23 June 1954. 24 PRO, PREM11/666, Colville to Brooke, 16 June 1954. 25 PRO, T225/413, Roberts to Brownjohn, 30 June 1954. 26 FRUS 1952–4, vol. V, memoranda of two conversations between Eisenhower,

Churchill, Dulles and Eden, 27 June 1954, pp. 984–5.27 FRUS 1955–7, vol. 5, Telegram from Ambassador in the Soviet Union (Bohlen) to

the State Department, p. 583. 28 PRO, FO371/118181/WG10338/108, Moscow (Hayter) to FO, 14 Sept. 1955, PRO,

FO371/118181/WG10338/120, Johnston memo, 14 Sept. 1955; FO371/118182,Wright minute 21 Sept. 1955; FO371/118183/WG 10338/151, Harrison minute,22 Sept. 1955.

29 Spencer Mawby, ‘Détente Deferred: German Rearmament and Anglo–SovietRapprochement’, Contemporary British History, vol. 12 no. 2, 1998.

30 PRO, FO371/97757/C1017/386, Roberts to Strang, 21 June 1952. 31 John Lewis Gaddis, We Now Know (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997) p. 127. 32 PRO, FO371/109271, C1071/89, Nutting to Eden, 30 Dec. 1953. 33 PRO, FO371/102030/WU1197/17, Harrison memorandum, 2 Jan. 1953. 34 PRO, DEFE4/76/COS(55)28th mtg., minute 1, 22 Apr. 1955. 35 PRO, FO1008/346, Allen and Hoyer Millar minutes, 13 Apr. 1955. 36 PRO, FO371/118204/W61071/278, FO to Washington, 26 Mar. 1955.

8 Defence or Deterrence: The Royal Navy and the Cold War,1945–1955

1 For a fuller examination of these issues see Ian Speller, The Role of AmphibiousWarfare in British Defence Policy, 1945–1956 (London: Palgrave – now PalgraveMacmillan, 2001).

2 The analysis, opinions and conclusions expressed or implied in this chapter arethose of the author and do not necessarily represent the views of the JSCSC, theUK Ministry of Defence or any other government agency.

3 For example see, G. Douhet, The Command of the Air (London: Faber & Faber,1943) and J.C. Slessor, The Central Blue (London: Cassell, 1956).

4 A. Cecil Hampshire, The Royal Navy Since 1945: Its transition to the Nuclear Age(London: William Kimber, 1975), p. 14.

5 According to current Maritime Doctrine, maritime power projection can bedefined as ‘The use of seaborne military forces to influence events on the landdirectly’.

6 PRO, DEFE2/1709. Also see PRO, WO216/202, PRO, DEFE2/1727 and PRO,DEFE2/1608.

Notes 211

7 Bryan Ranft and Geoffrey Till, The Sea in Soviet Strategy (Annapolis: NavalInstitute Press, 1989), chap. 5; Norman Polmar and Jurrien Noot, Submarines ofthe Russian and Soviet Navies, 1718–1990 (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1991).

8 The distinction between offensive and defensive forces is somewhat artificial. Idefine ‘offensive’, forces as those designed to actively carry the fight to the enemyashore.

9 Andrew D. Lambert, The Crimean War: British Grand Strategy, 1853–56(Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1990).

10 Stephen Roskill, Naval Policy Between the Wars – Vol. 1 (London: Collins, 1968), p. 150.

11 PRO, ADM239/242, PRO, DEFE2/764, PRO, DEFE2/1799. 12 PRO, CAB80/44, COS(44)166.13 Ibid.14 Ibid.15 PRO, DEFE11/276, Folio 534.16 Capable of embarking 6,000 troops and 750 vehicles. PRO, CAB79/44,

COS(46)18 mtg.17 PRO, DEFE 5/29, COS (51)146.18 Combined Operations [Later Amphibious Warfare] Headquarters.19. PRO, DEFE5/4, COS(47)129(O). PRO, DEFE5/5, COS(47)157(O).20 PRO, DEFE5/34, COS(51)601. PRO, DEFE6/20, JP(52)1. PRO, DEFE4/53,

COS(52)45 mtg.21 Speller, Role of Amphibious Warfare, pp. 110–11.22 Julian Thompson, The Royal Marines: From Sea Soldiers to a Special Force (London:

Sidgwick & Jackson, 2000), part 5. 23 Corelli Barnett, Engage the Enemy More Closely: The Royal Navy in the Second World

War (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1991), p. 879.24 Hampshire, Royal Navy Since 1945, p. 1.25 Norman Friedman, British Carrier Aviation: The Evolution of the Ships and Their

Aircraft (London: Conway Maritime Press, 1988), chaps 12 and 14.26 Conway’s All the World’s Fighting Ships (London: Conway’s Maritime Press, 1983),

pp. 144–5.27 Eric Grove, Vanguard to Trident: British Naval Policy Since World War II (London:

Bodley Head, 1987), p. 37. The navy usually had three or four operational carri-ers. These were often small Colossus class light fleet carriers. These ships werepreferred to larger fleet carriers as, despite a much smaller manpower require-ment, they could deploy much the same-size air group owing to their large liftsand hangars.

28 Plus a Commonwealth contribution of 2 light fleet carriers, 5 cruisers, 16destroyers and 16 escorts.

29 Grove, Vanguard to Trident, p. 7.30 PRO, DEFE2/1438, COS(47)173(O).31 PRO, DEFE5/5, COS(47)166(O).32 Grove, Vanguard to Trident, pp. 32–3.33 William James Crowe, The Policy Roots of the Modern Royal Navy, 1946–1963 (Ann

Arbor, MI: University Microfilms Inc., 1965), pp. 116–19.34 N. Polmar, Soviet Naval Power: Challenge for the 1970s (New York: Crane, Russak

& Co. Ltd, 1974), p. 26.35 Polmar and Noot, Submarines of Russian and Soviet Navies, chaps 12 and 13.36 Ranft and Till, The Sea in Soviet Strategy, p. 99 and pp. 123–4.

212 Notes

37 Crowe, Policy Roots of Modern Royal Navy, pp. 77–9.38 In 1950 the Reserve Fleet consisted of a total of 296 vessels, including 4 battle-

ships, 10 cruisers, 61 destroyers and 123 frigates. Brassey’s Annual: The ArmedForces Year-Book, 1950 (London: William Clowes & Sons, 1950).

39 Grove, Vanguard to Trident, pp. 136–50.40 Peter Thomas, 41 Independent Commando RM: Korea 1950–52 (Southsea Royal

Marines Historical Society, 1990).41 See James Cable, Intervention at Abadan: Plan Buccaneer (London: Macmillan –

now Palgrave Macmillan, 1990).42 PRO, DEFE5/59, COS(55)176.43 Cmnd 1629, Explanatory Statement on the Navy Estimates 1962–1963 (London:

HMSO, 1962).44 PRO, DEFE4/71, COS(54)82 mtg.45 Desmond Wettern, The Decline of British Seapower (London: Jane’s, 1982), p. 398.46 British forces were not in any position to undertake an opposed landing until

September 1956 at the earliest. PRO, ADM202/455. PRO, ADM116/6209.47 PRO, CAB79/54, COS(46)173 mtg. The 1947/8 New Construction Programme

included one Landing Ship, Dock at an estimated cost of £690,000. The ship wascancelled for a mixture of financial and operational reasons. PRO, ADM167/129,Board of Admiralty Memorandum B616.

48 Cmnd 6743, Statement Relating to Defence, Feb. 1946 (London: HMSO, 1946).49 Wettern, The Decline of British Seapower, p. 43.50 Speller, Role of Amphibious Warfare, pp. 201–11.51 PRO, DEFE2/1438, COS(47)173(O).

9 From ‘Hot War’ to ‘Cold War’, Western Europe in British GrandStrategy, 1945–1948

1 The opinions expressed in this article are the author’s own and are not to betaken as those of Her Majesty’s Government.

2 Peter Weiler, Ernest Bevin (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1993), p. 184; Elisabeth Barker, The British Among the Superpowers, 1945–50 (London:Macmillan – now Palgrave Macmillan, 1983), p. 127; John Baylis, ‘Britain andthe Dunkirk Treaty: The Origins of NATO’, Journal of Strategic Studies, 5: 2 (1982),p. 236; John Young, Britain, France and the Unity of Europe, 1945–51 (Leicester:Leicester University Press, 1984), p. 107.

3 Documents on British Policy Overseas [DBPO], Series I, vol. I, no.119, annex 1A, 12 July 1945, pp. 234–51.

4 PRO, FO371/49068/U5419, Minute by Reconstruction Department, 10 July 1945.5 See Francois Kersaudy, Churchill and de Gaulle (London: Collins, 1981).6 Cited in John Baylis, The Diplomacy of Pragmatism, Britain and the Foundation of

NATO, 1942–49 (London: Macmillan – now Palgrave Macmillan, 1993), p. 50.See also DBPO, Series I, vol. V, no.4, pp. 19–21.

7 PRO, FO371/59911/Z18754, ‘Record of Meeting’, [n.d. Jan. 1946].8 DBPO, Series I, vol. II, no. 308, 19 Dec. 1945, pp. 779–84.9 See John Young, France, the Cold War and the Western Alliance: French Foreign

Policy and Post-War Europe, 1944–49 (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1990).10 Cited in Sean Greenwood, ‘Return to Dunkirk: The Origins of the Anglo–French

Treaty of Mar. 1947’, Journal of Strategic Studies, 6: 4 (1983), p. 50.

Notes 213

11 PRO, FO371/59911/Z2410, Ronald to Roberts, 9 Dec. 1946.12 Sean Greenwood, The Alternative Alliance: Anglo–French Relations Before The

Coming of NATO, 1944–48 (London: Minerva, 1996).13 PRO, FO371/67670/Z723, FO to Paris, 23 Jan. 1947.14 PRO, CAB 129/17, CP(47)64, 26 Feb.1947.15 PRO, FO371/67670/Z723, Minute by Harvey, 13 Feb. 1947; /Z1215, Harvey to

Duff Cooper, 3 Feb.1947.16 PRO, FO371/67571/Z1662, Waterfield to Harvey, 10 Feb. 1947.17 PRO, FO371/67670/Z225, Sargent to Bevin, 21 Dec. 1946.18 PRO, DEFE4/1, JP(47)14, 7 Feb. 1947. The text of the Treaty is reproduced in

Appendix I of Baylis, The Diplomacy of Pragmatism.19 PRO, FO371/49135/Z13379, British Military Mission to France, Monthly Report

no. 8, 2 Dec. 1945; /59950/Z7104, Monthly Report no. 12, 1 July 1946.20 PRO, FO371/59950/Z10543, British Military Mission to France, Monthly Report

no. 16, 1 Dec. 1946.21 Cited in Julian Lewis, Changing Direction: British Military Planning for Post-war

Strategic Defence, 1942–1947 (London: Sherwood Press, 1988), p. 312.22 PRO, DEFE4/4/JP(47)55, 7 May 1947.23 PRO, FO371/67674/Z9882, Harvey to Sargent, 11 Nov. 1947.24 PRO, FO371/67663/10, Minute by Hoyer Millar, 17 Mar. 1947.25 PRO, FO371/67674/Z9883, Salisbury Jones to DMI, 15 Oct. 1947.26 PRO, FO371/67673/Z9054, Minute by Sargent, 13 Oct. 1947.27 PRO, FO800/465, ‘Visit to London of Secretary-General …’, 20 Oct. 1947.28 PRO, FO371/67674/Z10271, Bevin to Duff Cooper, 28 Nov. 1947.29 PRO, FO371/67674/Z11010, ‘Anglo–French Conversations’, 17 Dec. 1947.30 PRO, DEFE4/9/COS(47)156th, 13 Dec. 1947.31 PRO, DEFE4/9COS(47)158th, 16 Dec. 1947.32 See Paul Cornish, British Military Planning for the Defence of Germany, 1945–50

(London: Macmillan – now Palgrave Macmillan, 1996), pp. 102–3.33 PRO, DEFE4/9COS(47)162nd, 23 Dec. 1947; COS1547/24/12/7, Letter from

Secretary of the COs Committee to FO, 24 Dec. 1947. 34 PRO, FO371/72979/Z212, Memo by Kirkpatrick, 5 Jan.1948.35 PRO, DEFE4/10COS(48)3rd, 7 Jan. 1948.36 PRO, FO371/73045/Z323, Implementation of the Secretary of State’s Cabinet

Paper on ‘Foreign Policy’, 9 Jan. 1948.37 PRO, FO371/73045/Z354, Memo by Bevin, 12 Jan. 1948.38 PRO, FO371/73045/Z273, FO to Washington, 13 Jan. 1948.39 PRO, FO371/73045/Z809, Minute by Sargent, 19 Jan. 1948.40 PRO, FO371/73045/Z353, Minute by Kirkpatrick, 16 Jan. 1948.41 PRO, FO371/73045/Z323, Jebb to Sargent, 21 Jan. 1948.42 PRO, FO371/73045/Z561, FO to Washington, 26 Jan. 1948.43 PRO, FO800/452, Paper enclosed in Montgomery to Bevin, 26 Jan. 1948. 44 PRO, DEFE4/10, JP(48)16, 27 Jan. 1948.45 Cited in Montgomery, The Memoirs of Field Marshal the Viscount Montgomery

(London: Collins, 1958), p. 447. 46 PRO, DEFE4/10COS(48)16th, 2 Feb. 1948.47 PRO, DEFE4/10COS(48)18th, 4 Feb. 1948.48 PRO, FO371/73046/Z896, Washington to FO, 2 Feb. 1948.49 PRO, FO371/73046/Z937, FO to Washington, 5 Feb. 1948.50 PRO, FO371/73046/Z1060, FO to Washington, 10 Feb. 1948.

214 Notes

51 PRO, FO371/73046/Z894, Rendel to FO, 3 Feb. 1948.52 PRO, FO371/73050/Z1779, Kirkpatrick to Berkeley Gage, 27 Feb. 1948;

/73048/Z1318, FO to Paris, 16 Feb. 1948.53 PRO, FO371/73069/Z2642, ‘Record of a Conversation with the US Ambassador’,

26 Feb. 1948.54 PRO, FO371/73050/Z1178, Minute by Crosthwaite, 4 Mar. 1948.55 PRO, FO371/73050/Z1865, Memo by Jebb, 3 Mar. 1948.56 PRO, FO371/73050/Z1864, Minute by Jebb, 1 Mar. 1948.57 PRO, DEFE4/11COS(48)35th, 9 Mar. 1948.58 Cornish, p. 129.59 PRO, FO800/465, ‘Record of a conversation …’, 18 Mar. 1948.60 PRO, FO371/73053/Z2557, ‘Record of a Private Conversation …’, 17 Mar. 1948.61 PRO, DEFE4/11COS(48)39th, 17 Mar. 1948.62 PRO, DEFE4/11COS(48)42nd, 19 Mar. 1948.63 Ibid.

10 Whatever Happened to the Fourth British Empire? The Cold War,Empire Defence and the USA, 1943–1957

1 Peter Hounam and Steve McQuillan, The Mini-Nuke Conspiracy: Mandela’s NuclearNightmare (London: Faber & Faber, 1995), p. 43.

2 The classic work is Margaret Gowing’s Independence and Deterrence: Britain andAtomic Energy 1945–1952 (London: HMSO, 1974). See also Ian Clark andNicholas Wheeler, The Origins of Nuclear Strategy, 1945–1955 (Oxford: Clarendon,1989); Ian Clark, Nuclear Diplomacy and the Special Relationship: Britain’s Deterrentand America, 1957–62 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1994).

3 Peter Hennessey, Never Again: Britain, 1945–1951 (London: Vintage, 1993). 4 David Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994),

p. 197. 5 FRUS, 1955–57, vol. XIX (Washington DC: USGPO, 1986), p. 174, Report by

ODM, 20 Dec. 1955. 6 Papers of David Lilienthal Papers, Princeton, NJ, Box 106, Amery to Heindel,

n.d. [1944]. 7 C. John Kent, British Imperial Strategy and the Origins of the Cold War, 1944–49

(Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1993), pp. 8, 100, 148. 8 PRO, CAB127/38, APW(44)17, ‘Post–War Defence Organisation’, 9 May 1944.

There were far-reaching plans for air communication. In 1946 modern air com-munications promised to open Africa to Empire as never before. R. McCormack,‘Imperialism, Air Transport and Colonial Development: Kenya, 1920–46’, Journalof Imperial and Commonwealth History, 62: 3 (1989), p. 389.

9 PRO, DO(46) 22nd meeting, 19 July 1946. 10 A mission from Britain to Australia prior to the 1946 Commonwealth

Conference had launched significant initiatives here. Australian Archives,Canberra [henceforward AA]: A5954/1, 1662/1.

11 AA, A5954/1, 1634/6. 12 PRO, PREM 8, 753, Attlee to Tizard, 3 May 1946. 13 Tizard chaired the scientific committee that recommended in July 1945 that Britain

should undertake large-scale development of atomic energy and delivery systems.Humphrey Wynn, RAF Nuclear Deterrent Forces (London: HMSO, 1994) pp. 1–2.

Notes 215

14 PRO, DO35/1759/ICCDS, 1st meeting, 3 June 1946. 15 PRO, POWE14/HTC(47)14, ‘Civil Defence: Electricity: Underground Hydroelectric

Power Stations, 1947–50’, 7 Oct. 1947. 16 PRO, CAB131/5, ‘Civil Defence Policy’, DO(47) 24th meeting, 14 Nov. 1947. 17 National Archives of South Africa, Pretoria: BTS, 46/10; Wayne Reynolds,

‘Atomic War, Empire Strategic Dispersal and the Origins of the SnowyMountains Scheme’, War and Society, 14: 1 (1996).

18 PRO, DO35, 5704. 19 AA, A4231, Australian High Commission, Pretoria, 14 June 1947. 20 PRO, DO35, Alexander to Addison, 9 July 1947, and 249, File Note by Richard

Wood, 16 July 1947. 21 PRO, CAB124/552, DSIR to Inverchappel, 24 Nov. 1947. 22 PRO, DEFE4/19/JP(48)122 (Final) 7 Jan. 1949. 23 PRO, DEFE4/21/COS(49)55th meeting, 13 April 1949 and JP(49)18(Final

[Revise]), 22 April 1949; Ritchie Ovendale, The English Speaking Alliance: Britain,the United States, the Dominions and the Cold War, 1945–51 (London: Allen &Unwin, 1985), p. 255.

24 Ken Buckley, Barbara Dale and Wayne Reynolds, Doc Evatt: Patriot,Internationalist, Fighter and Scholar (Melbourne: Longman Cheshire, 1994), Parts 3and 4.

25 AA, A5954/1, 1662/4. 26 Papers of Sir John Cockcroft, Churchill College, Cambridge [henceforward MS

Cockcroft]: Box 2/5, CHAD1, Atomic Energy Technical Committee, 3rd meeting,25 June 1947.

27 Alice Cawte, Atomic Australia, 1944–1990 (Kensington: NSW University Press,1992), p. 3.

28 MS Cockcroft, Box 19/3, CHAD 1, Oliphant to Chadwick, 10 Mar. 1943. 29 Sydney Morning Herald, 17 Oct. 1945. 30 PRO, PREM 8, 112, Gen 75/7, Evatt to Attlee, 14 Oct. 1945. 31 AA, A2618/1. The report had been prepared by the Snowy River Committee

which had been set up after the Commonwealth Prime Ministers’ Conferenceand at the same time as the Defence Science Conference, in June 1946.

32 The Snowy Mountain scheme was among a small number of pioneers in thisrespect. In 1964 Guthrie Brown published his weighty account of Hydro-ElectricEngineering Practice (London: Blackie & Son, 1964) and concluded then that suchpractices were the exception. They were, however, ‘bomb-proof’ and allowed thepossibility of developing much larger plants.

33 Australia, Commonwealth Parliamentary Debates [henceforward CPD], 202 (1949),p. 247.

34 Senator Murray from Tasmania drew this argument out in debate later when heargued that ‘dispersal amongst inaccessible mountains will offset, to a consider-able degree, the efficacy of the rocket propelled missile’. CPD, 202 (1949), p. 1769.

35 Reynolds, ‘Atomic War’, pp. 142–3. 36 PRO, DO35/5704. 37 AA, A2700, Submission 12/1946’, Future Management of Aircraft Production in

Australia’, 14 Jan. 1946. 38 PRO, AIR 20/3825, ‘RAF Target Force for 31 Dec. 1946 – Plan D’, Air Ministry to

RAFLIA, Melbourne; ‘Post-War RAAF’. 39 John Baylis, Ambiguity and Deterrence: British Nuclear Strategy, 1945–1964 (Oxford:

Clarendon, 1995), p. 114.

216 Notes

40 Peter Edwards, Crises and Commitments: The Politics and Diplomacy of Australia’sInvolvement in Southeast Asian Conflicts, 1948–1965 (North Sydney: Allen &Unwin, 1992), p. 16.

41 PRO, DEFE4/8/COS(47)134th meeting, 31 Oct. 1947. 42 PRO, DEFE 11/324, COS(50)91st meeting, 19 June 1950; JP(50)80(Final) 30 June

1950; MISC/M(50) 34. 43 Leonard Beaton and John Maddox, The Spread of Nuclear Weapons (London:

Institute for Strategic Studies, 1962), p. 26. 44 PRO, AIR 20/6502, Hardman to DD Pol(AS)1, 15 Nov. 1948. 45 Brian Cathcart, Test of Greatness: Britain’s Struggle for the Atom Bomb (London:

John Murray, 1994), p. 263. 46 Peter Dennis and Jeffrey Grey, Emergency and Confrontation: Australian Military

Operations in Malaya and Borneo 1950–1966 (Canberra: Allen and Unwin, 1996),p. 35.

47 Humphrey Wynn, RAF Nuclear Deterrent Forces: Their Origins, Roles andDeployment 1946–1969 (London: HMSO, 1994), ch. 7.

48 Lorna Arnold, A Very Special Relationship: British Atomic Weapons Trials inAustralia (London: HMSO, 1987), p. 178.

49 Wayne Reynolds, ‘Menzies and the Proposal for Nuclear Weapons’, in FrankCain (ed. ), Menzies in War and Peace (Canberra: Allen & Unwin, 1997), p. 125.

50 PRO, EG1/119, How to Cherwell, 25 Nov. 1953. 51 PRO, DO35/2542. 52 PRO, CAB129/66/C(54)52, 11 Feb. 1954. 53 PRO, EG1/64, Overseas Trade Memorandum 9/56, 10 Feb. 1956. 54 PRO, EG1/64,’Advisory Council on Overseas Construction’, 1 July 1955. 55 AA, A4906/XM1, Submission 117, 20 Sept. 1954. 56 PRO, CAB129/66, Schonland to Cockcroft, 28 Dec. 1953, EG1/126; C(54)52,

11 Feb. 1954. 57 PRO, EG1/126, Snelling (Capetown) to Protchard, 5 Mar. 1954. 58 PRO, EG1/126, CRO to British High Commission, Pretoria, 2 June 1954. 59 PRO, EG1/126, Snelling to CRO, 15 Sept. 1954. 60 PRO, CAB128/30/CM(56)37th conclusions, 17 April 1956. 61 PRO, EG1/115, ‘Advisory Council on Overseas Construction’, 27 June 1956. 62 PRO, CAB128/30, Part 2, CM(56)47th conclusions, 5 July 1956. 63 Kenneth Condit, History of the Joint Chiefs of Staff: The Joint Chiefs of Staff and

National Security Policy, vol. 6 (Washington: Historical Division, JCS, 1992), p. 11;S.J. Ball, ‘Military Nuclear Relations Between the United States and Great Britainunder the Terms of the McMahon Act, 1946–1958’, The Historical Journal, 38: 3(1995), pp. 439–54.

64 Robert Bothwell, Eldorado: Canada’s National Uranium Company (Toronto:University of Toronto Press, 1994), p. 398; PRO, EG 1/117, ’Briefs for BermudaConference’.

65 PRO, CAB128/31/Part 2/CC(57)/46th conclusions, 24 June 1957; C(57)143, 146and 151.

66 NARA, RG59, Box 3199, US Embassy, London, to Department of State, 24 May1957.

67 FRUS, vol. XIX, 1955–57, pp. 403, 474, 479, 499, NSC Meetings, 309(11 Jan.1957); 319(11 April 1957); 325(27 May 1957).

68 NARA, RG59, Box2504, ‘Presidential Directives on National Security’, NationalSecurity Archive; ‘Development of a Defense Production Base in Australia; Rangeof Possible Programs’, [1957].

Notes 217

69 CPD, 26, 2 May 1957, p. 985; Jeffrey T. Richelson and Desmond Ball, The Tiesthat Bind (Boston: Unwin Hyman, 1990), p. 47.

70 PRO, EG1/152, Press release, 12 July 1957; Cawte, Atomic Australia, p. 108. 71 New York Times, 20 Sept. 1957; CPD, 16, 19 Sept. 1957, p. 798. 72 Pringle and Spigleman, The Nuclear Barons, p. 247. 73 Cawte, Atomic Australia, p. 109. 74 AA, A1209/79, Report by Technical Committee on the Use of Blue Streak, 2 Sept.

1960, 61/20. 75 Phillip Darby, British Defence Policy East of Suez, 1947–1968 (Oxford: Oxford

University Press, 1973), p. 207.

11 Coal and the Origins of the Cold War: The British Dilemma overCoal Supplies from the Ruhr, 1946

1 See Sean Greenwood, The Alternative Alliance: Anglo–French Relations Before theComing of NATO 1944–48 (London: Minerva, 1996).

2 PRO, FO371/59959/Z2875/21/17, dispatch from Duff Cooper, 23 Mar. 1946. 3 John W. Young, France, the Cold War and the Western Alliance 1944–49 (Leicester:

Leicester University Press, 1990), p. 18; J. Gillingham, Coal, Steel and the Rebirthof Europe, 1945–1955: The Germans and the French from Ruhr Conflict to EconomicCommunity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), pp. 141–2.

4 PRO, CAB65(48); WM(44)149, 13 Nov. 1944. Visiting Washington in Aug. 1945,de Gaulle and Bidault had both impressed upon the Americans France’s need forRuhr coal. FRUS, 1945, IV, pp. 707 and 714.

5 PRO, FO371/49114/Z13208/103/17, dispatch from Duff Cooper, 30 Nov. 1945. 6 FRUS, 1945, The Conference of Berlin,1, pp. 614–21. 7 PRO, FO37/49114/Z13208/103/17, Rumbold minute, 5 Dec. 1945. 8 PRO, FO371/51493/UR4182/3244/852, FO to Strang, 9 Nov. 1945. 9 PRO, FO371/49114/Z13422/103/17, Hoyer Millar minute, 8 Dec. 1945.

10 PRO, FO371/46724/C7401/22/18, conversation between Bevin and Montgomery,24 Oct. 1945.

11 PRO, FO371/51493/UR4164/3244/851, Warner minute, 9 Nov. 1945. 12 PRO, FO371/51493/UR4183/3244/851, minute by Strang, 11 Nov. 1945. 13 PRO, FO371/58179/UR5561/17/851, memorandum by Hasler on ‘The Economic

and Political Alignment of Europe’, 27 Mar. 1946. 14 PRO, FO371/58400/UR3771/3034/851, conference report. The conference met

12–14 April. The British delegation included Hynd, Ronald, Turner and Warner.French representatives included Marcel Paul, Minister of Industrial Production,and Alphand.

15 PRO, FO371/58400/UR4084/3034/851, Fraser minute, 4 May 1946. 16 PRO, FO371/58410/UR8249/3034/851, conversation between Massigli and

Strang, 3 Oct. 1946. 17 PRO, FO371/58400/UR4084/3034/851, Fraser minute, 4 May 1946. 18 PRO, FO371/59962/Z5515/21/17, dispatch from Duff Cooper, 8 June 1946. 19 Sean Greenwood, ‘Return to Dunkirk: The Origins of the Anglo–French Treaty of

March 1947’, The Journal of Strategic Studies, 6: 4 (1983), pp. 49–50. 20 PRO, FO371/59962/Z5515/21/17, dispatch from Duff Cooper, 8 June 1946. 21 PRO, FO800 (274) , vol. 3 , Fr/46/1, letter from F. Savery, in France, to Sargent,

20 Sept. 1946.

218 Notes

22 PRO, FO371/59975/Z4055/65/17, Hoyer Millar minute, 14 May 1946. 23 PRO, FO371/59951/Z2780/20/17, memorandum by Rumbold, 29 Mar. 1946. 24 PRO, FO371/58399/UR3034/3034/851, Harvey minute, 3 April 1946. 25 Ibid. , Warner minute, 2 April 1946; Hasler minute, 2 April 1946. 26 PRO, FO371/58179/UR5561/17/851, memorandum by Hasler, 27 Mar. 1946. 27 PRO, FO371/55587/C5181/131/18, Attlee to Bevin, 7 May 1946. 28 Ibid. ; also, PRO, FO371/58400/UR4326/3034/851, Warner minute, 17 May 1946;

PRO, FO371/58401/UR4443/3034/851 Turner minute, 15 May 1946; PRO,FO371/58401/UR4409/3034/851 Bevin to Hynd, 23 May 1946.

29 PRO, FO371/58402/UR4841/3034/851, Byrnes to Bevin, 28 May 1946. ForAmerican apprehensions see FRUS, 1946, vol. V, Caffery to Byrnes, 4 April 1946,pp. 421–2; Caffery to Byrnes, 8 April 1946, p. 423; Caffery to Byrnes, 2 May1946, p. 434.

30 Warner put this argument most forcefully but it was accepted even by Harveywho wished to see the French obtain a generous increase. PRO,FO371/58401/UR4409/3034/851, Warner minute, 18 May 1946; ibid., Harveyminute, 20 May 1946.

31 PRO, FO371/58402/UR5010/3034/851, 31 May 1946. 32 PRO, FO371/58402/UR5008/3034/851, conversation between Duff Cooper and

Alphand, 3 June 1946. 33 Ibid. , dispatch from Duff Cooper, 3 June 1946; Warner minute, 4 June 1946. 34 PRO, FO371/58401/UR4443/3034/851, conversation between Bevin and Robertson

15 May 1946. For a critical appraisal of British organisation of Ruhr coal productionsee J. Gillingham, Coal, Steel and the Rebirth of Europe, pp. 179–182.

35 PRO, FO371/58402/UR5058/3034/851. 36 PRO, FO371/58402/UR5008/3034/851, FO to British Element in Berlin, 5 June

1946.37 PRO, FO371/58402/UR5058/3034/851, Warner minute, 7 June 1946. 38 PRO, FO371/58403/UR5419/3034/851, FO brief for Attlee dated 20 June 1946. 39 PRO, FO371/58403/UR5382/3034/851, Bevin to FO, 18 June 1946. 40 PRO, FO371/58403/UR5382 5383/5383/3034/851, Bevin to FO, 18 June 1946. 41 PRO, FO371/58403/UR5371/3034/851, statement by Fraser of the Commercial

Department of the British Embassy in Paris, 13 June 1946. 42 See PRO, FO371/58403/UR5408/3034/851, dispatch from Duff Cooper, 19 June

1946.43 PRO, FO371/58403/UR5805/3034/851, Warner minute 28 May 1946; also ibid. ,

Stevens minute, 6 June 1946; Alan S. Milward, The Reconstruction of WesternEurope 1945–51 (London: Methuen, 1984), p. 137.

44 PRO, FO371/58403/UR5437/3034/851, Turner to Galbraith of the StateDepartment, 11 June 1946. The ORC agreed on 21 June that Britain shouldrefuse any suggestion of French technicians being employed in the Ruhr mines,PRO, CAB134 , 595, ORC(46)9.

45 PRO, FO371/58403/UR5600/3034/851, Hall-Patch to Harvey, 22 June 1946. 46 PRO, FO371/58405/UR6000/3034/851, record of Anglo–Franco–American talks

on coal 8 July 1946; ibid. , James minute, 12 July 1946. 47 PRO, FO371/58403/UR5419/3034/851, FO brief for Attlee for the ORC meeting

of 21 June 1946. 48 PRO, FO371/58403/UR5408/3034/851, Hoyer Millar minute, 24 June 1946; PRO,

FO371/58403/UR5656/3034/851, Warner minute, 18 June 1946; PRO,FO371/58403/UR5382/3034/851, Warner minute, 18 June 1946.

Notes 219

49 PRO, FO371/58403/UR5382/3034/851, Troutbeck to Harvey, 19 June 1946. 50 PRO, FO371/58403/UR5542/3034/851, Harvey to Alphand, 21 June 1946. 51 PRO, FO371/58403/UR5586/3034/851, Harvey to FO, 25 June 1946. 52 PRO, FO371/55589/C8643/131/18; 58405,UR6243/3034/851 Hall–Patch minute,

5 July 1946. 53 PRO, FO371/58405/UR6170/3034/851. 54 PRO, FO371/58406/UR6529/3034/851, FO to Berlin, 29 July 1946. It was

suspected that the Russians would try to make ‘political capital out of social con-ditions in the Ruhr’, FRUS, 1946, vol. V, Murphy to Byrnes, 28 July 1946, p. 78.

55 PRO, FO371/58408/UR7721/3034/851, British delegation in Paris to the FO, 12 Sept. 1946.

56 By now it was clear that the French experts had joined forces with the Russiansin criticising the ‘inadmissible backwardness’ of the Ruhr areas, FRUS, 1946, vol. V, Murphy to Byrnes, 10 Sept. 1946, p. 791.

57 PRO, FO371/58408/UR7867/3034/851, conversation between Alphand and Hall-Patch, 18 Sept. 1946.

58 PRO, FO371/58409/UR7954/3034/151, Strang minute, 21 Sept. 1946. 59 Ibid.60 PRO, FO371/58410/UR8116/3034/851, conversation between Bevin and Bidault,

25 Sept. 1946. 61 PRO, FO371/58411/UR8423/3034/851, letter from Bidault to Bevin, 12 Oct.

1946.62 Ibid., Hall-Patch minute 17 Oct. 1946. The minute was signed by Bevin. 63 PRO, FO371/58411/UR8414/3034/851, record of a meeting held on 11 Oct. 1946

in Paris. 64 PRO, FO371/58412/UR8800/3034/851, conversation between Hall-Patch and

Alphand, 22 Oct. 1946. 65 PRO, FO371/58411/UR8423/3034/851, Fraser to Warner, 22 Oct. 1946. 66 PRO, CAB 128(6)/CM(46)104, 10 Dec. 1946. 67 PRO, FO371/58415/UR10057/3034/851, Bevin to Hynd, 10 Dec. 1946. 68 PRO, FO371/59978/Z7116/65/17. 69 PRO, FO371/59980/Z9082/65/17. 70 For an outline of Bevin’s European schemes see, Sean Greenwood, Britain and

European Co-operation Since the Second World War (Manchester: ManchesterUniversity Press, 1996), pp. 14–29.

12 The Algerian War, De Gaulle and Anglo–American Relations, 19581 Alistair Horne, A Savage War of Peace (London: Macmillan – now Palgrave

Macmillan, 1977), pp. 242–247; and Maurice Vaïsse, ‘La Guerre Perdue àl’ONU?’ in La Guerre d’Algérie et les Français, ed. Jean-Paul Rioux (Paris: Fayard,1991), p. 452.

2 For a full examination of the Anglo–American relationship in the late 1950s see‘Reliable Allies: Anglo–American Relations’ by Michael David Kandiah andGillian Staerck in Wolfram Kaiser and Gillian Staerck (eds), British Foreign Policy,1955–64: Contracting Options (London: Macmillan – now Palgrave Macmillan,1999).

3 De Gaulle understood very well that the geographic position of France ensuredprotection by the NATO defence umbrella which could scarcely be withdrawn

220 Notes

without making a nonsense of Western defence strategies. Consequently hecould make ‘unreasonable’ demands of NATO allies while seeking an importantglobal role for France to re-establish ‘grandeur’.

4 PRO, FO371/137821/WUN10719/60, Roberts to FO, 14 Oct. 1958, Tel. 345. DeGaulle had instructed the French High Command to prepare four plans to takethe Algerian war to NATO.

5 PRO, CAB21/3257, record of meeting between Eisenhower and Macmillan, 9 June 1958. Eisenhower said, ‘It might even be expedient that in public thereshould on occasion appear to be some difference in the respective approach ofour two governments to some problems’ as it was ‘important that the processesof consultation should continue to be kept secret, although he was anxiousthat co-operation between the two governments should in practice be as closeas it could be made.’

6 French prestige had been damaged by the Second World War and the loss ofIndo-China after the fall of Dien Bien Phu in 1954. Algeria’s importance to theFrench economy was more debatable.

7 Alfred Grosser, The Western Alliance: European–American Relations since 1945(London: Macmillan – now Palgrave Macmillan, 1980), p. 149.

8 A detailed account of the May 1958 events can be found in A Savage War ofPeace, chap. 13, pp. 273–98. There is also a discussion of the situation and‘Gaullism in action’ in Jean Lacouture, De Gaulle: The Ruler 1945–70 (Englishtranslation London: Harvill, 1992) chapter 14, pp. 166–181.

9 US National Archives (hereafter USNA) RG59 State Department Central Files,651s.61/2–13556, Department of State secret instruction No.CA-6127 of 13 Feb.1956.

10 Pierre Melandri, ‘La France et le “Jeu Double” des États-Unis’ in La Guerred’Algérie et les Français, ed. Rioux, p. 431.

11 Horne, Savage War, p. 317.12 USNA, RG59 State Department Central Files, 611.51/9–557, memorandum of

conversation of 5 Sept. 1957 between Alphand, Lucet and Elbrick.13 Macmillan, Riding the Storm, p. 748.14 PRO, FO371/131678/JR1051/1, Malcolm to FO, 8 Feb. 1958, Tel. 12. See also

PRO, FO371/131703, in which the JR2291 series of jackets cover British supportfor France in the UN.

15 USNA, RG59 State Department Central Files, 651s.72/8–2158, Tunis to Dulles, 2 Aug. 1958, No. 252.

16 Macmillan, Riding the Storm, p. 748 – although the diary entry in question waswritten in August 1959, the FO Briefing in CAB130/166/GEN. 695/2 of 20 Aug.1959 states that British policy ‘should be following more or less the samecourse as last year’.

17 PRO, FO371/131685/JR1193/15, Brown Minute 27 Oct. 1958.18 PRO, FO371/131678/JR1051/2 Brief for Lloyd, 11 Feb. 1958.19 PRO, FO371/131679/JR1071/32, Jebb to Ross, 6 May 1958.20 Macmillan, Riding the Storm, p. 331.21 Ibid., p. 442.22 Kandiah and Staerck, ‘Reliable Allies’.23 Access to oil supplies was a key British and American foreign policy goal. De

Gaulle would always listen to rumours that US oil companies wanted to gettheir hands on Saharan oil, Melandri, ‘La France et le “Jeu Double”’, p. 430.

24 Ibid., p. 434.

Notes 221

25 Ibid., p. 432.26 USNA, RG59 State Department Central Files, 651–72/4–1158, Dulles to

Merchant, 11 April 1958.27 PRO, FO371/131679/J1071/4, Manila to FO, 11 Mar. 1958, Tel. 104.28 Following French disengagement from Indo–China the Americans sent military

advisers to assist the South Vietnamese struggle against North Vietnameseinsurgents. In 1958 their number incurred accusations that the Americans wereinvolved in a colonialist war in Vietnam.

29 Melandri, ‘La France et le “Jeu Double”’, p. 443.30 Ibid., p. 441.31 Royal Institute of International Affairs, Survey of International Affairs, 1956–7,

p. 475.32 Melandri, ‘La France et le “Jeu Double”’, p. 429.33 USNA, RG59 State Department Central Files, 611.51/12–957, memorandum of

conversation of 9 Dec. 1957 between Herter, Devinat and Dillon.34 PRO, FO371/143690/ZP13/1 Steering Committee Paper SC(59)4 Revise, 2 Feb.

1959.35 John Newhouse, De Gaulle and the Anglo-Saxons (New York: Viking Press, 1970)

p. 27.36 Horne, Savage War, pp. 249–50.37 USNA, RG59 State Department Central Files, 651s.2–958, Elbrick to Dulles,

9 Feb. 1958 gives a full account of the Sakhiet incident.38 Frédéric Bozo and Pierre Melandri, ‘La France devant l’opinion américaine: le

rétour de Gaulle début 1958 – printemps 1959’, Rélations Internationales,vol. no. 58, été 1989, pp. 195–215.

39 Melandri, ‘La France et le “Jeu Double”’, p. 439.40 Lacouture, De Gaulle, p. 163, The Gaillard Government was overturned when the

Gaullist Soustelle ‘denounced French government involvement in the “GoodOffices” mission which could lead to internationalisation of the Algerian affair’.

41 Macmillan and Murphy became friends in North Africa during the SecondWorld War.

42 Melandri, ‘La France et le “Jeu Double”’, p. 439.43 PRO, FO371/131679/JR1071/20, Jebb to Lloyd, 22 Apr. 1958.44 PRO, FO371/131679/JR1071/18, Costar to Cumming Bruce, 23 Apr. 1958.45 PRO, FO371/131679/JR1071/5, Malcolm to FO, 13 Mar. 1958, Tel. 125.46 PRO, FO371/131679//JR1071/6, Jebb to FO, 13 Mar. 1958, Tel. 111.47 PRO, FO371/131679/JR1071/20, Beeley Minute, 24 Apr. 1958.48 PRO, FO371/131679/JR1071/18, Costar to Cumming Bruce, 23 Apr. 1958.49 PRO, FO371/131679/JR1071/5, Malcolm to FO, 12 Mar. 1958, Tel. 125.50 PRO, FO371/131679/JR1071/5, FO to Tunis, 13 Mar. 1958, Tel. 254.51 PRO, FO371/131679/JR1071/11G, Jebb to Hoyer Millar, 24 Apr. 1958.52 PRO, FO371/131679/JR1071/20, Jebb to Lloyd, 22 Apr. 1958.53 PRO, FO371/131679/JR1071/21, Jebb to FO, 24 Apr. 1958.54 PRO, FO371/131679/JR1071/5, Jebb to FO, 13 Mar. 1958, Tel. 111.55 PRO, FO371/131679/JR1071/6, FO to Paris, 24 Mar. 1958, Tel. 498.56 PRO, FO371/131679/JR1071/20A, Lloyd to Jebb, 30 Apr. 1958.57 PRO, FO371/131679/JR1071/21, FO to Jebb, 30 Apr. 1958.58 PRO, FO371/131679/JR1071/22, Lloyd conversation with Smith, 2 May 1958.59 For a lucid account of the plots and counter-plots which immediately preceded

the Fourth Republic’s demise see Lacouture, de Gaulle, chap. 14, pp. 164–81.

222 Notes

60 Horne, Savage War, p. 315.61 Ibid., p. 304.62 PRO, FO371/137259/WF1053/3, Rumbold Minute, 6 June 1958.63 PRO, FO371/137276/JR1071/38, CRO to FO 3 July 1958.64 PRO, FO371/131680/JR1071/38, Briefing VI for Lloyd, 26 June 1958.65 PRO, FO371/137259/WF1023/2G, Caccia to FO, 9 June 1958, Tel. 1396.66 Wilfred L. Kohl, French Nuclear Diplomacy (Princeton: Princeton University

Press, 1971), p. 63.67 PRO, FO 371/137266/WF10345/7, Jebb to FO, 7 July 1958, Tel. 264.68 PRO, FO371/137258/WF1022/3, Roberts to FO, 31 Dec. 1957, Tel. 933.69 Kohl, French Nuclear Diplomacy, p. 64.70 Ibid., pp. 54–61.71 PRO, FO 371/131679/JR1071/27, Gore-Booth minute, 30 April 1958.72 Charles de Gaulle, Memoirs of Hope: Renewal, 1958–62 (London: Weidenfeld &

Nicolson, 1971), p. 137.73 Horne, Savage War, p. 232.74 De Gaulle, Lettres, Notes et Carnets (Paris: Plon, 1988), p. 456.75 PRO, FO371/137272/WF1051/62, Lloyd to Jebb, 20 Oct. 1958.76 Horne, Savage War, p. 304.77 De Gaulle, Lettres, p. 76.78 Horne, Savage War, p. 304.79 PRO, FO 371/131679/JR1071/20a, Lloyd to Jebb, 13 Apr. 1958.80 Horne, Savage War, p. 319.81 Ibid., p. 315.82 Ibid., p. 317.83 Ibid., p. 318.84 Ibid., p. 315.85 A July 1958 draft of the memorandum was found in the French Marine archives

by this chapter’s author.86 De Gaulle, Lettres, p. 83 footnote.87 Ibid., p. 85.88 Horne, Savage War, p. 331.89 PRO, FO371/131685/JR1193/1, Sarell to Watson, 5 Mar. 1958.90 Horne, Savage War, pp. 330–31. French birth rates had been low since 1900.91 De Gaulle, Lettres, pp. 30–33.92 Jacques Soustelle, ‘The Wealth of the Sahara’, Foreign Affairs, 37: 4, July 1959,

p. 635.93 In June 1958 Lebanese President Chamoun asked America for military assis-

tance because Syrian insurgents were infiltrating, and seeking to destabilise, theLebanon, allegedly at the instigation of Egyptian President Nasser, believed bythe Americans to be a Soviet cats-paw in the Middle East. At the same time KingHussain of Jordan requested British military assistance.

94 PRO, FO371/125955/JR1193/1 Roberts to Ross, 1 Oct. 1957, which also dis-cusses the nature and effect of Soviet destabilising initiatives in North Africa.See also PRO, FO371/131679/JR1071/12 and 13, Lloyd Briefing, 20 Mar. 1958and FO371/131679/JR1071/20a, Cheetham to Hancock, 25 Mar. 1958.

95 De Gaulle, Lettres, pp. 77–8.96 PRO, FO 371/137259/WF1053 Caccia to FO, 13 June 1958, Tel. 1362: Dulles

was certain that de Gaulle would dislike the relationship existing betweenBritain and America ‘which they most certainly would not give up, especially as

Notes 223

it was not achieved without difficulty’. De Gaulle was convinced that thisrelationship constituted a ‘bipartite directorate’; see also Kandiah and Staerck,‘Reliable Allies’.

97 PRO, PREM11/3002, de Gaulle to Macmillan, 17 Sept. 1958, T. 503A/58.98 See Frédéric Bozo, Deux Stratégies pour l’Europe: De Gaulle, les États-Unis et

l’Alliance Atlantique, 1958–69 (Paris: Plon et Fondation Charles de Gaulle, 1996),chap. 1, for an exposition of de Gaulle’s dissatisfactions with NATO.

99 PRO, PREM11/3002, de Gaulle to Macmillan, 17 Sept. 1958.100 De Gaulle, Memoirs, p. 200.101 Ibid., p. 166.102 Newhouse, De Gaulle and the Anglo-Saxons, p. 32.103 PRO, FO371/137266/WF10345/8, Dulles conversation with de Gaulle, 5 July 1958.104 PRO, FO371/131679/JR1071/13, Cheetham to Hancock, 25 Mar. 1958.105 PRO, FO371/137269/WF1051/32, Macmillan conversation with Chauvel,

15 June 1958.106 FRUS, 1955–57, vol. IV, pp. 137–8.107 Ibid., p. 139.108 De Gaulle, Memoirs, p. 202.109 PRO, PREM11/3002, Jebb to FO, 2 Oct. 1958, Tel. 451.110 De Gaulle, Lettres, pp. 82–3.111 Horne, Savage War, p. 316.112 Ibid., p. 319.113 De Gaulle, Lettres, p. 91.114 PRO, FO371/137266/WF10345/8, Dulles meeting with de Gaulle, 5 July 1958.115 PRO, PREM11/3002, Lloyd and Dulles conversation, 26 Sept. 1958.116 PRO, PREM11/3002, FO to Paris, 2 Oct. 1958, Tel. 2167.117 PRO, PREM11/3002, FO to Rome, 3 Oct. 1958, Tel. 1334.118 PRO, PREM11/3002, Caccia to FO 17 Oct. 1958, Tel. 2797.119 PRO, PREM11/3002, Roberts to FO, 1 Oct. 1958, Tel. 269.120 PRO, PREM11/3002, Jebb to FO, 2 Oct. 1958, Tel. 451.121 PRO, PREM11/3002, Macmillan to de Gaulle, 20 Oct. 1958 and Eisenhower to

de Gaulle, 20 Oct. 1958. 122 PRO, PREM11/3002, Jebb to FO, 21 Oct. 1958, Tel. 485.123 Horne, Savage War, p. 305.124 PRO, FO371/137821/WUN10719/60 Roberts to FO, 14 Oct. 1958, Tel. 345,

reporting that, under de Gaulle’s instructions, his Chiefs of Staff were preparingfour plans to cover NATO involvement in the Algerian war.

125 Kandiah and Staerck, ‘Reliable Allies’.

13 The Transfer of Power? Britain, the Anglo–American Relationshipand the Cold War in the Middle East, 1957–1962

1 Ritchie Ovendale, Britain, the United States and the Transfer of Power in the MiddleEast, 1945–1962 (London: Leicester University Press, 1996); William Roger Louisand Ronald Robinson, ‘The Imperialism of Decolonization’, Journal of Imperialand Commonwealth History, 22: 3 (Sept. 1994), pp. 462–511. See also ToreTingvold Petersen, ‘Review Article: Transfer of Power in the Middle East’,International History Review, XIX: 4 (Nov. 1997), pp. 852–65. For a sceptical view

224 Notes

that emphasises American realpolitik in its relations with Britain during the SuezCrisis see Steven Z. Freiberger, Dawn Over Suez: The Rise of American Power in theMiddle East (Chicago: Ivan Dee, 1992).

2 David Reynolds, ‘A ‘Special Relationship’? America, Britain and the InternationalOrder Since the Second World War’, International Affairs, 62: 1 (winter 1985–6),pp. 1–20.

3 Cited from Alex Danchev, ‘On Specialness’, International Affairs, 72: 4 (autumn1996), p. 710.

4 Harold Macmillan, Memoirs, 1956–59: Riding the Storm (London: Macmillan –now Palgrave Macmillan, 1971), p. 240.

5 Dwight D. Eisenhower Library, Abilene, Kansas (henceforth cited as DDEL),Aldrich to Eisenhower and Dulles, 14 Jan. 1957, Whitman File, AdministrationSeries, Box 2.

6 PRO, CAB129/84, C(57)4, ‘The State of the Economy’, Memorandum byMacmillan, 3 Jan. 1957; PRO, CAB 128/30, CC(57)2, 8 Jan. 1957.

7 Gore-Booth Papers, Western Manuscripts Department, Bodleian Library, Oxford,MSS.Eng.C.4599, Letter from Paul Gore-Booth to Mrs Evelyn Gore-Booth, 9 Dec.1956.

8 Alistair Horne, Macmillan 1957–1986: The Official Biography, Volume Two(London: Macmillan – now Palgrave Macmillan, 1989), p. 21; PRO:PREM11/1835,no.309, Caccia to Lloyd, 12 Feb. 1957.

9 Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1957(Washington DC: US Government, 1958), pp. 6–16; Macmillan, Riding the Storm,p. 213.

10 DDEL, State Department Summary Briefing Papers, [undated] Mar. 1957, WhiteHouse Central Files, Confidential Series, Box 9.

11 DDEL, C.D. Jackson Log, 24 Jan. 1957, Jackson Papers, Box 69.12 Andrew Rathmell, Secret War in the Middle East: The Covert Struggle for Syria,

1949–1961 (London: I.B. Tauris, 1995), p. 147; Wilbur Eveland, Ropes of Sand:America’s Failure in the Middle East (London: W.W. Norton, 1980), pp. 231–46.

13 PRO, CAB 134/2338, OME(57)3rd Meeting, 1 Feb. 1957.14 Victor H. Feske, ‘The Road to Suez: The British Foreign Office and the Quai

d’Orsay, 1951–57’, from Gordon A. Craig and Francis L. Loewenheim (eds.), TheDiplomats 1939–1979 (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1994), pp. 186–93;Roger Stevens Papers, Churchill College Archive Centre, Cambridge, Stevensletters to parents, 10 & 19 Jan. 1957, File 1/36.

15 PRO, CAB130/122, GEN572/1st Meeting, Note on a Ministerial Meeting, 11 Feb.1957.

16 Horne, Macmillan 1957–1986, p. 24.17 PRO, PREM11/1838, BC(P)2, Minutes of the Second Plenary meeting held at the

Mid-Ocean Club, Bermuda, 21 Mar. 1957; Papers of the 1st Earl of Avon,Birmingham University Library, AP 23/48/3, Macmillan to Eden, 28 April 1957.

18 Papers of the 1st Earl of Stockton, Bodleian Library, Oxford, Harold MacmillanDiary (henceforth cited as HMD) MSS.Macmillan.dep.d.29, 18 July 1957; PRO,CAB134/2340, OME(57)71, ‘Muscat and Oman: Future Policy’, Note by theForeign Office, 6 Dec. 1957.

19 Macmillan, Riding the Storm, p. 271.20 PRO, CAB158/29/JIC(57)86(Revise), ‘The Situation in Syria’, Report by the JIC,

22 Aug. 1957.

Notes 225

21 David Lesch, Syria and the United States: Eisenhower’s Cold War in the Middle East(Boulder, CO: Westview, 1992), pp. 138–72.

22 PRO, CAB128/31/CC(57)63, 27 Aug. 1957.23 PRO, PREM11/2116, Macmillan to the Prime Ministers of Canada, Australia and

New Zealand, 13 Sept. 1957; HMD.MSS.Macmillan, dep.d.30, 22 Sept. 1957;Stephen Blackwell, ‘Britain, the United States and the Syrian Crisis, 1957’,Diplomacy & Statecraft, 11: 3 (Nov. 2000), pp. 145–51.

24 David W. Lesch, ‘Gamal Abd al-Nasser and an Example of Diplomatic Acumen’,Middle Eastern Studies, 31: 2 (April 1995), pp. 362–74.

25 PRO, PREM11/2329, Bishop to Caccia, 18 Sept. 1957; HMD.MSS.Macmillan,dep.d.35, 20 Mar. 1959.

26 DDEL, C.D. Jackson Papers, Jackson Log, ‘Near East Crisis’, 24 July to 13 Aug.1958, p. 9.

27 FRUS, 1955–57, vol.XXVII, no. 320, Memorandum of a Conversation, 24 Oct.1957, pp. 816–21.

28 DDEL, Eisenhower to Dulles, 13 Nov. 1957, Dulles-Herter Series, Box 9. 29 FRUS, 1958–60, vol.XI, no. 6, Irwin to Murphy, 6 Feb. 1958, pp. 9–10.30 FRUS, 1958–60, vol.XII, no. 311, Memorandum from Rountree to Dulles, 14 Mar.

1958, p. 719.31 Macmillan, Riding the Storm, p. 506.32 PRO, PREM11/2689, Record of a Conversation between Lloyd and Whitney,

28 May 1958. 33 PRO, PREM11/2403, No. 1469, Macmillan to Lloyd and Heathcoat-Amory,

10 June 1958. 34 PRO, CAB128/32, CC(58)55, 14 July 1958.35 Dwight D. Eisenhower, Waging Peace: The White House Years 1956–61 (London:

Heinemann, 1965), p. 270. 36 Macmillan, Riding the Storm, pp. 511–12; PRO, FO371/134158/VL1092/1,

No. 1891, Hood to Lloyd, 14 July 1958. 37 FRUS, 1958–60, vol. XII, no. 26, Memorandum of Conference with President,

20 July 1958, pp. 81–87.38 PRO, CAB128/32, CC(58)59, 16 July 1958; Macmillan, Riding the Storm,

pp. 516–9.39 FRUS, 1958–60, vol. XIII, no. 35, Memorandum of Conversation, 3 Aug. 1958,

pp. 82–3.40 PRO, PREM11/2368, no. 4795, Macmillan to Lloyd, 18 July 1958.41 PRO, PREM11/2380, no. 4723, Macmillan to Eisenhower, 17 July 1958.42 Macmillan, Riding the Storm, p. 534. 43 Horne, Macmillan 1957–86, pp. 93.44 Richard Lamb, The Macmillan Years 1957–1963: The Emerging Truth (London:

John Murray, 1995), pp. 34–5.45 FRUS, 1958–60, vol. XI, no. 196, Memorandum of Telephone Conversation

between Eisenhower and Dulles, 19 July 1958, p. 332.46 FRUS, 1958–60, vol. XII, no. 138, Gallman to Dulles, 14 October 1958,

pp. 344–6. 47 FRUS, 1958–60, vol. XII, no. 51, ‘US Policy toward the Near East (NSC 5820/1)’,

4 Nov. 1958, pp. 187–99.48 PRO, PREM11/2735, no. 8516, Lloyd to Caccia, 30 Nov. 1958.49 PRO, CAB134/2230, ME(M)(59)1st Meeting, 16 Jan. 1959.50 DDEL, Ann Whitman File, International Series, Box 24, ‘Anglo–American Talks:

Mar. 1959’, Agreed Minute.

226 Notes

51 FRUS, 1958–60, vol. XII, no. 356, Rountree and Smith to Dillon, 30 June 1959,pp. 788–9.

52 PRO, DEFE4/123/COS(59)76, 10 Dec. 1959. 53 DDEL, ‘US Policy Towards the Near East’, NSC Planning Board, 1 June 1960,

White House Office Series, Office of the Special Assistant for NSC Affairs, NSCSeries (Briefing Notes), Box 13.

54 FRUS, 1958–60, vol. XII, no. 89, NSC Report no. 6011, ‘U.S. Policy Toward theNear East’, 19 July 1960, pp. 262–73; Papers of the 1st Earl Mountbatten ofBurma, Hartley Library, University of Southampton, MB1/J453, Twining toMountbatten, 7 Sept. 1960.

55 Douglas Little, ‘The New Frontier on the Nile: JFK, Nasser, and ArabNationalism’, Journal of American History, 75 (Sept. 1988), pp. 501–27.

56 PRO, CAB131/24, D(60)48, ‘Military Strategy for Circumstances Short of GlobalWar’, Macmillan to Watkinson, 10 Oct. 1960; PRO, PREM11/3427, ‘Interventionin Kuwait’, Geraghty to Macmillan, 26 April 1961.

57 Mustafa M. Alani, Operation Vantage: British Military Intervention in Kuwait, 1961(Surbiton: LAAM, 1990), pp. 93–118 and 133; Nigel J. Ashton, ‘A Microcosm ofDecline: British Loss of Nerve and Military Intervention in Jordan and Kuwait,1958 and 1961’, The Historical Journal, 40: 4 (1997), pp. 1075–9.

58 PRO, PREM11/3428, No. 4424, Rusk to Home, 1 July 1961; PRO, PREM11/3428No. 1606, Caccia to Home, 1 July 1961; PRO, PREM11/3428 No.4483, Home toCaccia, 3 July 1961.

59 Harold Macmillan, Pointing the Way: Memoirs, 1959–1961 (London: Macmillan –now Palgrave Macmillan, 1972), p. 386; PRO:PREM11/3429, Caccia to Home, 25 July 1961; PRO, DEFE5/115/COS(61)244, ‘Security of Kuwait’, Note by theCOS Secretary, Top Secret Annex, 27 July 1961.

60 PRO, FO371/156670/B1019/2, Luce to Home, 21 Nov. 1961; Philip Darby, BritishDefence Policy East of Suez 1947–1968 (Oxford and New York: Oxford UniversityPress, 1971), pp. 223–7.

61 PRO, FO371/162812/B1195/1, Ormsby Gore to Stevens, 2 Jan. 1962; PRO,FO371/162812/B1195/2, Walmsley to Bushell, 2 Mar. 1962.

62 PRO, CAB131/27/DC(62)1st Meeting, 12 Jan. 1962. 63 PRO, FO371/143705/ZP19/58, Minute by Dean, 15 Aug. 1959. 64 PRO, CO968/545/JIC(58) 15 (Final) (Revise), ‘Likely Developments in the

Arabian Peninsula over the Next Five Years’, Report by the JIC, 11 Feb. 1958.65 R.H.S. Crossman, Diaries of a Cabinet Minister: Volume 1 (London: Hamish

Hamilton & Jonathan Cape, 1975), p. 95.

14 The origins of Konfrontasi: Britain, the Cold War and theCreation of Malaysia, 1960–1963

1 PRO, FO371/152141/D1022/16, Selkirk to Lloyd, 17 June 1960. 2 PRO, PREM11/3737, Selkirk to Macmillan, 12 Sept. 1961. 3 At the peak of the 1951 emergency more than 1200 people were killed in over

6,000 incidents. See: Peter Lowe, Britain and the Far East (London: Longman,1981), p. 216. Anthony Short, The Communist Insurrection in Malaya, 1948–1960(London: Muller, 1975), p. 507.

4 PRO, FO371/152124/ZP16/3/G, SC(59)25/2nd Revise, 19 May 1960. See also:James A.C. Mackie, Konfrontasi (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1974), p. 95.

Notes 227

5 Merle C. Ricklefs, A History of Modern Indonesia: c. 1300 to the present (London:Macmillan – now Palgrave Macmillan, 1981), p. 261.

6 PRO, PREM13/392, Record of 3.45am telephone conversation between HaroldWilson and Lyndon Johnson on 11 Feb. 1965; David Reynolds, BritanniaOverruled (London: Longman, 1991), p. 228.

7 Peter Boyce, Malaysia and Singapore in International Diplomacy: Documents andCommentaries (Sydney: Sydney University Press, 1968), p. 70; Roger Hilsman, ToMove a Nation (New York: Doubleday, 1967), p. 384, supported this Indonesianaccusation.

8 USNA, RG59, State Department Central Files, POL3 MALAYSIA, Jones toSecretary of State, 12 Feb. 1963.

9 Boyce, Malaysia and Singapore, p. 8; James Ongkili, Nation–building in Malaysia(Singapore and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985), p. 152.

10 PRO, PREM11/3422, Selkirk to Macmillan, 3 Oct. 1961. Most scholars supportthis view. See: Chin Kin Wah, The Defence of Malaysia and Singapore (Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1983), p. 50; Michael Leifer, Indonesia’s ForeignPolicy (London: Allen & Unwin, 1983), p. 76; and Mackie, Konfrontasi, p. 37. Fora contemporary account see: Gordon Means, ‘Malaysia – A New Federation inSoutheast Asia’, Pacific Affairs, vol. 36, no. 2 (1963), p. 139.

11 PRO, FO371/152141/D1022/16, Lord Perth’s report of conversation with theTunku, 10 June 1960. See also: Mohamed N. Sopiee, From Malayan Union toSingapore Separation (Kuala Lumpur: Penerbit Universiti Malaya, 1974), p. 125.After interviewing members of the Malayan cabinet of 1961 Sopiee concludedthat the Tunku was pursuing expansionist aims.

12 PRO, PREM11/3418, Colonial Office (CO) memorandum for Macmillan, 6 July1961.

13 PRO, PREM11/4188, Macmillan to Selkirk, 5 Aug. 1963. 14 Mackie, Konfrontasi, p. 37. 15 PRO, FO371/152141/D1022/24, Blue Foreign Office (FO) Minute by Warner,

26 July 1960. 16 PRO, FO371/152141/D1022/21, Wilford to Lloyd, 4 July 1960. 17 PRO, DO169/25, Selkirk to Macleod, 4 May 1961; PRO, PREM11/3418, Selkirk to

Macleod, 27 June 1961. 18 Ernest C.T. Chew and Edwin Lee, A History of Singapore (Oxford: Oxford

University Press, 1991), p. 140. 19 Ibid., p. 141. 20 Mackie, Konfrontasi, p. 40. 21 In 1887 Lord Brassey of the North Borneo Chartered Company proposed the

merger of British Malaya with British territories in Borneo. Ongkili, Nation-building,p. 151. British Commissioner-General Malcolm MacDonald had called, unsuccess-fully, for a Greater Malaysia in 1951. PRO, CAB134/1560/CPC(61)9, 17 April 1961.

22 Papers of Sir William Goode, Rhodes House Library, Oxford [henceforward MSGoode]: box 5, file 5, Goode to Schönenberger, 20 Feb. 1978. Sopiee, p. 132.

23 PRO, PREM11/3418, Brooke to Macmillan, 27 June and 6 July 1960. 24 PRO, PREM11/3418, Selkirk to Macleod, 27 June 1961. 25 PRO, PREM11/3418, Selkirk to Commonwealth Relations Office (CRO), 26 May

1961.26 Harold Macmillan, At the End of the Day (London: Macmillan, 1973), p. 249. 27 PRO, CAB134/1560, CPC(61)9, 17 April 1961. 28 PRO, PREM11/3422, Selkirk to Macmillan, 3 Oct. 1961. 29 MS Goode: box 5, file 5, Goode to Sheppard, 2 Oct. 1984.

228 Notes

30 Phillip Darby, British Defence Policy East of Suez, 1947–1968 (London: OxfordUniversity Press, 1973), pp. 235–7.

31 PRO, PREM11/3418, CO memorandum for Macmillan, 6 July 1961. 32 Albert Lau, The Malayan Union Controversy (Singapore and Oxford: Oxford

University Press, 1991), pp. 279–84. 33 Darwin, p. 289. 34 On ANZAM and the strategic reserve in Malaya see: Peter Edwards, Crises and

Commitments: The Politics and Diplomacy of Australia’s Involvement in SoutheastAsian Conflicts, 1948–1965 (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1992), pp. 60f. and 162ff.

35 PRO, PREM11/3422, Macmillan to Menzies and Holyoake, 20 Oct. 1961. 36 Chin, Defence of Malaysia and Singapore, p. 55. 37 PRO, CO1030/977, memorandum by Macleod, 17 July 1960. 38 PRO, CAB130/179/GEN754/2nd meeting, 15 Nov. 1961. 39 Boyce, Malaysia and Singapore in International Diplomacy, p. 13. 40 PRO, PREM11/3867, Cobbold to Macmillan, 21 June 1962. 41 Lord Selkirk saw the only remaining problem as that of keeping Lee Kuan Yew in

power for another 13 months. PRO, PREM11/4146, Selkirk to Macmillan, 30 July1962.

42 Mackie, Konfrontasi, p. 103. 43 Leifer, Indonesia’s Foreign Policy, p. 76. 44 Mackie, Konfrontasi, p. 104. 45 Ibid., p. 145. 46 PRO, CAB134/1951, FO memorandum for Committee on Greater Malaysia,

5 July 1962. 47 Leifer, Indonesia’s Foreign Policy, p. 78. 48 Mackie, Konfrontasi, p. 115. 49 PRO, PREM11/3869, High Commission Kuala Lumpur to CRO, 1 Dec. 1963. 50 USNA, RG59, Central Files, POL INDON–MALAYSIA, Jones to Secretary of State,

27 Feb. 1963. 51 Boyce, Malaysia and Singapore in International Diplomacy, p. 70. ‘Confrontation

diplomacy’ had been successfully pursued against the Dutch in the West Irianconflict.

52 PRO, FO371/169690/D1061/2/G, FO brief for Lord Home, 18 Jan. 1963. 53 USNA, RG59, State Department Central Files, POL INDON, Jones to Secretary of

State, 5 Feb. 1963. 54 PRO, FO371/169694/D1071/18, Warner to FO, 9 Feb. 1963. 55 PRO, FO371/169695/D1071/25/G, Warner to Peck, 11 Feb. 1963. 56 PRO, FO371/169694/D1071/18, FO to Washington, 11 Feb. 1963. 57 PRO, FO371/169695/D1071/21, Ormsby Gore to FO, 11 Feb. 1963; PRO,

FO371/67670/D1071/23, Ormsby Gore to FO, 12 Feb. 1963. 58 PRO, PREM11/4182, Ormsby Gore to FO, 12 Feb. 1963. 59 Kennedy interview of 14 Feb. 1963. Quoted from: Harold W. Chase and Allen H.

Lerman (eds), Kennedy and the Press: The News Conferences (New York: Crowell,1965), p. 389.

60 USNA, RG 59, State Department Central Files, POL3 MALAYSIA, US EmbassyDjakarta to Secretary of State, 18 Feb. 1963.

61 Ibid., Rusk to US Embassy Djakarta, 26 Feb. 1963. 62 PRO, FO371/169695/D1071/23, Ormsby Gore to FO, 12 Feb. 1963. 63 PRO, DO169/67, FO memorandum for Joint Intelligence Committee report on

Indonesia, not dated; PRO, FO371/166354/D1015/34, FO memorandum on talkswith Japanese minister Ikeda, 11 Nov. 1962.

Notes 229

64 USNA, RG59, State Department Central Files, POL 3 MALAYSIA, Jones toSecretary of State, 7 Feb. 1963.

65 USNA, RG59, State Department Central Files, POL 3 MALAYSIA, memorandumof conversation between Tun Razak and Rusk, 23 April 1962; and memorandumof conversation between Tun Razak and Harriman, 23 April 1963.

66 USNA, RG59, State Department Central Files, POL 7 MALAYSIA, supplementarytalking paper for Kennedy’s meeting with Tun Razak, 23 April 1963.

67 PRO, PREM11/3868, record of conversation between Thomas and Barwick, 4 April 1963.

68 Gregory Pemberton, All the Way: Australia’s Road to Vietnam (Sidney: Allen &Unwin, 1987), p. 168.

69 PRO, FO371/169697/D1071/76, Barwick to Sandys, 18 Mar. 1963. 70 PRO, FO371/169697/D1071/76, Ormsby Gore to Caccia, 19 Mar. 1963.71 PRO, PREM11/4347, Bridges to de Zulueta, 26 April 1963.72 PRO, FO371/169709/D1073/6, Warner to Gilchrist, 25 April 1963.73 PRO, PREM11/4189, Trend to Macmillan, 2 April 1963.74 PRO, PREM11/4189, joint memorandum for Macmillan by the FO, CRO and

Ministry of Defence, 16 April 1963.75 PRO, FO371/169723/D1075/5, draft of CRO telegram to Tunku Abdul Rahman,

25 July 1963. 76 USNA, RG59, State Department Central Files, POL 3 MALAYSIA, Rusk to US

Embassy London, 1 Aug. 1963. 77 FRUS, 1961–63, vol. XXIII, Southeast Asia, p. 725, Kennedy to Macmillan, 4 Aug.

1963.78 PRO, PREM11/4593, Macmillan to Kennedy, 4 Aug. 1963. 79 PRO, CAB128/37, CC(63)51, 1 Aug. 1963. 80 PRO, FO371/169724/D1075/25, Tunku Abdul Rahman to Sandys, 3 Aug. 1963. 81 Article 4 of Manila Agreement. Quoted from: Rajinah Hussain, ‘Malaysia and the

United Nations’ (unpublished Ph.D thesis, University of London, 1988), p. 101.82 PRO, PREM11/4349, Dean to FO, 8 Aug. 1963. 83 PRO, PREM11/4349, Sandys to High Commission Kuala Lumpur, 8 Aug. 1963. 84 PRO, PREM11/4349, High Commission Kuala Lumpur to CRO, 9 Aug. 1963. The

Tunku confirmed this position again on the following day. Ibid., HighCommission Kuala Lumpur to CRO, 10 Aug. 1963.

85 PRO, PREM11/4349, UK High Commission Kuala Lumpur to CRO, 29 Aug. 1963. 86 Mackie, Konfrontasi, p. 174. 87 Hussain, ‘Malaysia and the United Nations’, p. 103. 88 Hilsman, To Move a Nation, pp. 403–404. 89 Boyce, Malaysia and Singapore, p. 74. 90 PRO, PREM11/4350, Dean to FO, 13 Sept. 1963. 91 PRO, CAB134/246, memorandum on the strategic nuclear deterrent against

China for Anglo–American talks in Washington, 17 April 1962. 92 PRO, PREM11/4189, Tory to CRO, 4 July 1962. 93 USNA, RG59, State Department Central Files, POL 3 MALAYSIA, US Embassy

London to Secretary of State, 7 Feb. 1963. 94 USNA, RG59, State Department Central Files, POL 3 MALAYSIA, Jones to

Secretary of State, 5 Feb. 1963. 95 USNA, RG59, State Department Central Files, POL 3 MALAYSIA, Department of

State to US Embassy Kuala Lumpur, 21 Feb. 1963. 96 PRO, DO169/70, Rusk to Butler, 13 Dec. 1963. 97 PRO, PREM11/4905, Douglas-Home to Butler, 19 Dec. 1963.

230 Notes

231

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Select Bibliography 237

Index

238

Abadan crisis see Anglo-Iranian OilCompany crisis

Abbas, Ferhat 162Acheson, Dean 24, 27, 47, 63, 86–7Aden 176Adenauer, Konrad 90–2Admiralty 100–1, 103–5, 109Africa 106, 118, 133Africa, Central African Federation 134,

140Air Ministry 134Aircraft carriers 100Alexander, A.V. 104, 122Algeria 157, 160–3, 165–7Algerian War 155, 156, 166Algiers 160Allen, Roger 94Allied Control Office 148, 152, 154Alphand, Hervé 150–3, 161Amery, Leo 129Amman 175Anglo-American relations 17–29

passim, 128, 140, 155, 168Bermuda Meeting 127, 138–40,

171military cooperation 105, 113, 115,

121nuclear cooperation 127

Anglo-French relations 113, 114, 115,146, 147–8, 152

Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (AIOC)crisis 27–8, 29, 102, 106, 108

Anglo-Malayan Agreement 1971 184Anglo-Malayan Defence Agreement

(AMDA) 184, 186Anglo-Saxons 144, 158, 160, 164Anglo-Scandinavian Economic

Committee (Uniscan) 73, 76Anglo-Soviet Treaty (1942) 114Anderson, Clinton 24ANZAM (Australia, New Zealand and

Malaya) 135, 136, 184Arab League 178Archangel 99

Asia 106, 135Atomic Energy Commission 140Attlee, Clement 17, 18–19, 20, 25, 28,

37, 41, 43–8 passim, 52, 54, 62, 63,72, 73, 85, 87–8, 106, 118, 122, 129,148

Australia 128–40, 181, 184, 186–8,191

Australian forces 134, 135–6Austria 92, 145

Baghdad 174, 176Baltic 99, 108Baldwin, Stanley 12, 14Barwick, Sir Garfield 188Batchworth Press 66Battle Act (1951) 48–50Baxter, Philip 140BBC 58, 74Beale, Howard, 138Beirut 174–5Belgium 70, 124Benelux (Belgium, Netherlands,

Luxembourg) 49, 67, 118, 124Berlin 83, 93, 94, 149, 152–3Berlin blockade 22, 89Bertie, Francis 83Bevan, Aneurin 26, 37, 62–3Bevin Ernest 14, 17, 18–19, 20, 21, 24,

25, 26, 47, 61, 63, 68–74, 79, 83–91,111–13, 116–18, 120–5, 140, 144,149–54

Bidault, Georges 119, 152Birkenhead, Lord 11–12, 13Bishop, Freddie 173Bjork, Kaj 72Blackpool 71Blanc, General 115Blankenhorn, Herbert 165–6Bohlen, Charles (Chip) 92Bolshevik revolution 10, 31, 38, 99Bonar Law, Andrew 12, 14Bonn 94Bourguiba, President of Tunisia 158

Britain and Americans 62, 68–69, 71,76, 78, 98, 105

and Danes 70,and France 143, 146and French 85, 99and Norwegians 69–70, 76and Scandinavians 71, 74, 76, 78–9and Soviets 70, 81, 84–5and Swedes 71, 76see also Anglo-American relations

Britain and nuclear weapons 98, 128,136–8, 140

Britain and military forces 106Amphibious Warfare Squadron (AW

Squadron) 101–2Army 99, 115, 118, 184, 185Fleet Air Arm 103Joint Planning Staff 131–2Royal Air Force 98, 101, 109, 116,

118, 136, 138, 184Royal Marines 101–2, 105, 106, 107,

177Royal Navy 98–103, 104, 105–9,

116, 118, 184British Commissioner-General for South

East Asia 180British Commonwealth 127, 129,

133–5, 140, 157, 184, 186nuclear facilities 127, 132, 135–6,

137, 140British Crown Colonies of Sarawak and

North Borneo 180, 182–4, 186,188–91

British Embassy in Washington seeWashington Embassy

British Home Defence Committee130

Brittain, Vera 56Brunei 182Brussels 123–4Brussels Treaty 111, 117, 119, 124, 126Bulganin, Marshal 83, 92Bulgaria 86Buraimi Oasis 171Butler, R.A. 35Byrnes, James 86, 116Byrnes Treaty (1946) 114, 116–17

Caccia, Sir Harold 178Cairo 162, 170, 174, 176

Calder, Ritchie 56Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament

(CND) 66Canada 129, 139Canberra 135–6, 181, 188, 191Canning, George 8Canterbury, Archbishop of 58Central Office of Information 58Challe, General 162Chalmers, Geraldine 60–1Chamberlain, Austen 12–13Chamberlain, Joseph 83

Chief of the Imperial General Staff(CIGS) 115

Chiefs of Staff (COS) 62, 106–112,114–20, 122, 124–5, 129, 135, 175,178

Chiefs of Staff Committee 118, 120China (People’s Republic of) 50, 53,

65, 89, 135, 156, 180, 188, 191–2Churchill, Winston S. 13, 33, 35, 37,

41, 49–54 passim, 64, 68, 70, 74,78–9, 85, 93, 122, 144

Clark Kerr, Archibald (LordInverchapel) 25

Clay, General Lucius D. 149Cobbold, Lord 185Cockcroft, Sir John 131, 137Committee of International Socialism

Conference (COMISCO) 62Communism 120Communists 30, 31, 32, 56, 71Connor, William 64Conservative Party 30–8 passim, 112Conservatives 62, 66, 74, 76, 78Cooper, Sri Alfred Duff 86, 114, 144,

147Council of Europe 78, 88Council of Foreign Ministers 67, 83,

85, 87, 147, 149, 151–2Couve de Murville, Maurice 164,

166Cranborne, Lord 83Crete 99Crimean War 7, 9Cripps, Sir Stafford 70, 71, 73Crossman, Richard 21–2, 73Cunningham, Admiral Sir John 98,

115, 119, 121–2, 124Curtin, John 128, 133

Index 239

Curzon, Lord 11–12Cyprus 102, 175Czechoslovakia 32–3, 123, 158

Prague coup (1948) 89, 123–5

Daily Express, The 60, 64–5Daily Mail, The 60Daily Mirror, The 64Dalton, Hugh 37, 71, 84–5Damascus 172De Gaulle, Charles 112–13, 144, 147,

155, 159–62, 164–7De Klerk, F.W. 127Dean, Sir Patrick 179‘Declaration of Common Purpose’

173Defence, Ministry of 62, 114, 189Delmer, Sefton 65Denmark 67–71, 79Derby, Lord 7Dickson, Sir William 118Disraeli, Benjamin 7, 9Dixon, Pierson 25, 28, 89Douglas, Sholto 149Douglas-Home, Sir Alec 191Douhet, Giulio 98Driberg, Tom 21–2Dulles, John Foster 86, 91, 157–9, 161,

165, 169–73, 175–8Dunkirk 99Dunkirk Treaty 111, 114–16, 119

East of Suez 134, 140, 178–9, 184Eden, Anthony 74, 78, 91, 93, 106,

169, 172Egypt 102, 107, 174Eisenhower, Dwight D. 50, 52, 53, 54,

87, 89, 91, 127, 138, 157, 159, 166,169–71, 173, 175, 177, 179

Eisenhower Doctrine 170, 174Ely, General 161Erasmus, F.C. 135Erlander, Tage 71–3European Coal and Steel Community

(ECSC) 28, 29European Defence Community (EDC)

91, 93European Economic Community (EEC)

179European Free Trade Area (EFTA) 53

European Recovery Plan (ERP) 22, 28,42, 43, 49, 87–8, 120, 137

Evatt, H.V. 133

Finland 89Foreign Office 59, 62, 69, 75, 77–8,

83–5, 88–94, 113–15, 119, 121, 124,145, 147–50, 152, 159, 170–1, 176,182, 189

Economic Intelligence Department 46Information Research Department

56–9, 62, 64, 66Planning Staff 1–2South East Asia Department 186Supply and Relief Department 145Western Department 112

Foreign Press Association 63France, 42, 44–9 passim, 52–4 passim,

72, 82, 84, 86–7, 91 102, 111–13,117, 119, 124, 144–5, 147–8, 150,152–5, 157–60, 161–3, 166–7

French Chamber of Deputies 159French Communists 113–14

Franks, Sir Oliver 26, 27, 49Free Trade Area (FTA) 155, 157, 160Front de la Libération Nationale (FLN)

156, 159–60, 152, 165–6

Gasperi, Alcide de 62Geneva 83, 93Genoa International Conference 82–3Germany 32, 34, 45, 66, 72, 76–7,

81–94, 104, 110, 115–17, 143–7,149, 153, 179

Federal Republic (West Germany)52, 113, 145, 149, 152–4

Gifford, Walter 27‘Good Offices’ mission 159–60Gordon Walker, Patrick 64Gore-Booth, Paul 27, 170Gorton, John 140Gouin, Felix 148–9Gouvernement Provisoire de la République

Algérienne (GPRA) 162, 165Greece 120Greenhill, Denis 27Grey, Sir Edward 83Gromyko, Andrei 28Guy, The 168, 170, 172, 175, 176, 177,

178, 179

240 Index

Hagglof, Gunnar 69Hammarskjöld, Dag 75, 176Hanoi 180Hardinge, Charles 90Harriman, W. Averell 42, 186, 189Harvey, Oliver 113, 116, 123, 147–8Harwell 131, 133Hayter, William 92Headlam, Cuthbert 32, 33–4Healey, Denis 62, 71–2, 179Hilsman, Roger 190Hitler, Adolf 84, 86, 88Holland 70

see also BeneluxHong Kong 102Hoppenot 162Hoyer Millar, Frederick 90–1, 94Hungary 145Hynd, John 85

India 137Indo-China 53, 82, 92Indonesia 180–92

Indonesian Communist Party (PKI)180, 185, 188

International Monetary Fund (IMF)161

Iraq 172, 176–7Italy 72, 102

Jackson, C.D. 173Jakarta 181, 185, 188, 190Japan 66, 100Japanese Peace Treaty (1951) 28, 29Jebb, Sir Gladwyn 75, 121, 123, 159,

166Johnson, Lyndon B. 192Johnston, Charles 92Jones, Salisbury 117Jordan 162, 168, 178

see also King Hussein

Karachi 64Kariba Scheme 130–1, 134, 138‘Keep Left’ group 22, 26Kelly, David 89Kennedy, John F. 177–8, 187, 189, 191Kennedy, Robert 192Kenya 129, 135, 140Khrushchev, Nikita 83, 92, 172, 180

King Hussein 173–5see also Jordan

Kipling, Rudyard 8Kirkpatrick, Ivone, 82, 84, 88–91, 93,

119Konfrontasi 180–1, 185Korea 59, 64, 92, 103, 109, 135

Korean War 48, 52, 59, 61, 65, 89,102, 106, 136, 180

Kronstadt 99Krupp family 146Kuala Lumpur 181–2, 190Kuwait 176–9

Labour Party 17–29 passim, 30, 55,58–60, 62, 64–5, 71, 73–4, 78–9, 84

Laos crisis 1960–1 180Lebanon 162, 168, 173–5Lemmon, Nelson 134Lend-Lease 23Lenin, V.I. 66Liddell Hart, Basil 129Lie, Trygvie 75Lloyd, Selwyn 160, 165, 171, 174–6, 180Lloyd George, David 10, 14, 81Luce, William 178

MacDonald, Ramsey 12, 14, 31, 32Macapagal, Diosdano 185, 187, 189Macmillan, Harold 2, 127, 138–9, 155,

157, 164, 166, 169–76, 178–80, 183,185, 188–9

‘Winds of Change’ speech 140Makins, Sir Roger 27, 75–6Malaya 102, 106, 135, 182, 184–6,

188, 190Malayan Emergency 136, 180

Malaysia 140, 181–92Mallet, Sir Victor 70Manchester Guardian, The 58, 64Manhattan Project 134Manila 185, 189, 190Marshall Plan see European Recovery

PlanMarshall, George 86Martin, Kingsley 57Martin, Leslie 140Marx, Karl 71Marxism-Leninism 81Massigli, René 117

Index 241

Maud Committee 128, 132Mayhew, Christopher 59McMahon Act (1946) 4, 130, 137, 173McNeil, Hector 69Menzies, Sir Robert 2, 139–40, 188Middle East 28, 29, 71, 116, 119, 124,

132, 135, 158, 164Mikardo, Ian 21–2Milner, Lord 11Milward, Alan 72Molotov V.M. 57, 86Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact (1939) 83,

92Monnet, Jean 161Montgomery, Field Marshal Bernard

115–16, 118–19, 121–2, 124, 144–5Morocco 159–60Morrison, Herbert 2, 3, 17–29 passim,

71Mountbatten, Lord 107, 119, 121–2Murphy, Robert 159Muscat and Oman 171Mutual Assistance Programme (MDAP)

159Myrdal, Gunnar 70, 73, 75

Nasser, Gamal Abdel 170–4, 176–7Nasution, General 188National Peace Council 61–2, 65NATO see North Atlantic Treaty

OrganisationNew Statesman and Nation, The 57, 65New Zealand 72, 129, 132, 135, 137,

139, 184, 186, 188News Chronicle, The 56, 66Nitze, Paul 186Normandy 100–1, 105, 107North Africa 117, 155n.North Atlantic Treaty Organisation

(NATO) 55, 63, 67–8, 73, 87, 89,91, 93, 103, 135, 137, 155–6, 159,161–2, 164–6, 170

North Atlantic Treaty 67, 69, 73, 77,87, 111, 162, 164

Norway 67–9, 75, 77–9

Observer, The 66OEEC (Organisation for European

Economic Cooperation) 44, 45,46, 69, 78

Oliphant, Sir Lancelot 132–3O’Malley, Sir Owen 8Oman 172Ormsby Gore, David 178, 187Ottoman Empire 9Ould, Herman 57

Palmerston, Lord 7, 8Paris 86, 91–3, 117, 124, 144, 159,

165–6British Embassy 149British Military Mission 115

Peace Partisans 55–6, 58–60, 61–5Perth, Lord 181–3Philippines 185, 187, 189–90Picasso, Pablo 60Pinay, Antoine 161Pineau, Christian 159Polaris missile 140Pompidou, Georges 165Pretoria 127, 138

Qasim, Abdul Karim 176–7Quai d’Orsay 150–1, 162Quebec Conference 1943 128

Rahman, Tunku Abdul 181–4, 187,189–91

Rapallo 81–2, 91–2Rathenau 82Razak, Tun 188Reuters news agency 64Rhodesia 140Roberts, Sir Frank 113, 166Rogge, John 65Roland, Sir Nigel 114Romania 86Ruhr 86, 88, 143Rusk, Dean 178Russia 7–10

Sahara 129, 162, 164Sakhiet (Tunisia) 159Salan, General 156, 162Salisbury, Marquis of 74Sandys, Duncan 139, 170, 183, 189–90Sargent, Sir Orme 25, 114, 117, 120Scandinavia 67n, 99Schonland, Brigadier 131, 138Schuman, Robert 47

242 Index

Schuman Plan see European Coal andSteel Community

SEATO see South East Asia TreatyOrganisation

Second World War 55, 69, 75, 79, 97,107, 110, 127–8, 135, 140, 162

Selkirk, Lord 180–1, 183Silverman, Sidney 65Singapore 180–2, 184–5, 187, 190Smuts, Jan 131, 133Snowy Mountains Scheme 130–1, 133–4social democracy 73Social Democratic Party 72South Africa 127, 138South East Asia 180–1, 183, 190South East Asia Treaty Organisation

(SEATO) 140, 180, 184South Vietnam 180Southern Arabia 172Southern Rhodesia 131Soviet Union 10–14, 21–2, 23, 29,

31–4, 41–54 passim, 55–7, 59, 65,67–8, 71, 73, 79, 98–9, 82–6, 88–9,91–4, 98–9, 104–6, 108–10, 112–13,116–17, 118, 121, 123, 124, 125, 128,134–6, 138, 143–7, 149, 151–4, 156,158, 168, 170, 173, 176–80, 191

Kremlin 59, 113Soviet military forces 70, 98, 109, 118Soviet nuclear capacity 128, 137

Stalin, Josef 57, 62, 66, 93, 104, 113Stockholm 61, 70, 73–4Stockholm Peace Petition 60–1, 65Strang, Sir William 76, 88, 90Suez 169–71, 173, 176, 179Suez crisis 102, 106, 108, 110, 168Sukarno, President 180–1, 185, 187–9,

191–2Sultan of Oman 171Sultan of Sulu 185Sultanate of Brunei 180Sunday Chronicle, The 60Sweden 67n.Syria 156, 172–4Syrian crisis 172–3

Tangier Conference 160Taylor, A.J.P. 57Tedder, Air Chief Marshal 116, 119,

121–2, 124

Tehran 171Tennessee Valley project 128Third World War 110Thorium 133Tizard, Sir Henry 129, 136Tory, Sir Geoffrey 190Trades Union Congress (TUC) 58–9Trend, Sir Burke 188–9, 191Troutbeck, John 86Truman, Harry S. 23, 24–5, 41, 43, 45,

47–51 passim, 54, 82, 89, 121Truman Doctrine 120

Tunisia 158–60Turkey 120, 172

United Kingdom Atomic EnergyAuthority (UKAEA) 137

United Nations 75, 89, 104, 106, 108,127, 158

General Assembly 155, 157, 167,175

United Nations Relief andRehabilitation Administration(UNRRA) 145

United Arab Republic (UAR) 174, 176United States of America 55, 61, 63,

65, 67, 69, 74, 79, 84–6, 89–90,92–3, 97–100, 102–3, 113, 116, 121,124–5, 127–8, 132, 139–40, 143,148–9, 151–6, 158–9, 161, 163–9,171–2, 174–6, 181, 186, 188–9, 191

Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)170, 172

Congress 124, 159and France 159–60Joint Chiefs of Staff 177military 98, 109, 100, 173National Security Council (NSC)

139, 177State Department 62, 122, 159,

170–4, 176, 178, 190–1see also Anglo-American relations

Uranium 137–9U Thant (United Nations Secretary

General) 189–90

Vansittart, Robert 83Versailles, Treaty of 84–5Vietnam 186Vietnam war 135

Index 243

Wallace, Henry 70Warner, Frederick 186Warsaw 63–5Washington Agreements (1957) 167,

173Washington, Embassy 24, 25, 26, 27,

51, 131, 189Way Ahead Committee, The 107Wentworth, W.C. 140West Irian 185Western Union 72Wilson, Henry 122, 179Wittner, Lawrence 56

Woolton, Lord 35, 36World Peace Council (WPC) 55,

65–6World’s Congress of Intellectuals 56Wroclaw 56–7

Yew, Lee Kuan 181–4York, Archbishop of 60Young Communist League 61Younger Kenneth 26, 28, 89

Zilliacus, Konni 21, 22Zinoviev letter 12, 14, 31–2

244 Index