Paradigms & Models in Research Design Paradigms & Models in Research Design

Jan Marontate CMNS 801: Design and Methodology in Communication ResearchCMNS 801: Design and Methodology in Communication Research

School of Communication. Simon Fraser University

Spring 2010

Plan for Today’s Class SessionPlan for Today’s Class Session Introductions and consultations with Sylvia Roberts, Introductions and consultations with Sylvia Roberts,

CMNS area librarianCMNS area librarian Overview of course assignmentsOverview of course assignments

Discussion of Readings & Notions about methodology Discussion of Readings & Notions about methodology textstexts

Discussion of aspects Methodological Design in 1st Discussion of aspects Methodological Design in 1st ExerciseExercise

““Special Topic Assignment” Special Topic Assignment” (Handouts 2 & 3)(Handouts 2 & 3)

Research Interests & Methodological BackgroundsResearch Interests & Methodological Backgrounds Choosing Topics and Scheduling PresentationsChoosing Topics and Scheduling Presentations

Paradigms and Theories of Research DesignParadigms and Theories of Research Design

The Research Process

Babbie (1995) Social Science Research, p. 101

The Research Process

Babbie (1995) Social Science Research, p. 101

(Recall) Methods & Fundamental

Assumptions (Recall) Methods & Fundamental

Assumptions

““Savoir, pouvoir, prSavoir, pouvoir, prévoirévoir”” ((Auguste Comte)Auguste Comte)

To know, to be able (to have power), to predict the future and To know, to be able (to have power), to predict the future and plan for it plan for it 

Knowledge as power (to acquire skills for social action, Knowledge as power (to acquire skills for social action, change, forecasting)change, forecasting)

““décrire, comprendre, expliquerdécrire, comprendre, expliquer”” (Gilles Gaston Granger)(Gilles Gaston Granger)

describe, understand and explaindescribe, understand and explain Knowledge as understandingKnowledge as understanding

-notion of “normal” science (Thomas Kuhn)-notion of “normal” science (Thomas Kuhn) based on past achievements, that sci. community based on past achievements, that sci. community

acknowledges as foundation for further practiceacknowledges as foundation for further practice IInnovations, need nnovations, need recognition (and ability to attract adherents from recognition (and ability to attract adherents from

competing modes of activity)competing modes of activity) open-endedness (to leave problems for open-endedness (to leave problems for

practitioners to resolve)practitioners to resolve)

“paradigms” --a feature of Normal Science“paradigms” --a feature of Normal Science other featuresother features GGeneralizabilityeneralizability but as definitions of the paradigm but as definitions of the paradigm

become rigid the scientist builds anewbecome rigid the scientist builds anew—need not start from “first principles’ —need not start from “first principles’ (can leave that to textbook writers)(can leave that to textbook writers)

Normal Science & Paradigm ShiftsNormal Science & Paradigm Shifts a science of puzzle-solving (not problem-finding because everyone a science of puzzle-solving (not problem-finding because everyone

agrees on the paradigm for choosing problems) following rules.agrees on the paradigm for choosing problems) following rules.

How do breaks occur in these traditions? How do breaks occur in these traditions? observation & observation & AnomalyAnomaly -- --awareness (recognition) that observation has awareness (recognition) that observation has

violated paradigm-induced expectationsviolated paradigm-induced expectations CConceptualonceptual——theoretical--development of new concepts and vocabulary to theoretical--development of new concepts and vocabulary to

describe and analyze the anomalydescribe and analyze the anomaly

-change of paradigms-change of paradigms, , recognition of “discovery”recognition of “discovery” associated with associated with crisis in established communitiescrisis in established communities

-breakdown of normal technical puzzle-solving activity-breakdown of normal technical puzzle-solving activity -social & political pressures-social & political pressures

Transition from one crisis to a Transition from one crisis to a new one (Kuhn)new one (Kuhn)Transition from one crisis to a Transition from one crisis to a new one (Kuhn)new one (Kuhn) Not cumulative in a mechanistic way, not necessarily Not cumulative in a mechanistic way, not necessarily

‘progress’ but have a history‘progress’ but have a history----a reconstruction of a new field a reconstruction of a new field of new fundamentals (theories & methods)of new fundamentals (theories & methods)

commitment to a paradigm necessary for the practice of commitment to a paradigm necessary for the practice of “normal science” but not a uniquely “internal”—“normal science” but not a uniquely “internal”—external factors (political, social etc.)external factors (political, social etc.)Scientific Revolutions = changes of world vieScientific Revolutions = changes of world vie

differentiates scientific articles, textbooks, differentiates scientific articles, textbooks, popularizations and philosophies (the last three are not popularizations and philosophies (the last three are not doing science—by testing the paradigm) but doing science—by testing the paradigm) but reconstructing and analyzing it.reconstructing and analyzing it.

Structure of Scientific RevolutionsStructure of Scientific Revolutions

Ground-breaking because Kuhn a Ground-breaking because Kuhn a scientist—recognizes the social scientist—recognizes the social aspects of scientific practice—aspects of scientific practice—communities of scientists and communities of scientists and suggests that science not “theory suggests that science not “theory driven” in the internal sensedriven” in the internal sense

Empirical Research Methodology in the Social Sciences (20th-c. conventions)Empirical Research Methodology in the Social Sciences (20th-c. conventions) ProcessProcess involving involving

methodsmethods logic of inquiry (assumptions & hypotheses)logic of inquiry (assumptions & hypotheses)

producesproduces laws, principles and theories that laws, principles and theories that can be testedcan be tested

(Karl Popper & notion of falsifiability for politically (Karl Popper & notion of falsifiability for politically engaged scholars interested in the fight against engaged scholars interested in the fight against genocide in the early 20genocide in the early 20thth century) century)

The Research Process

Babbie (1995) Social Science Research, p. 101

The Research Process

Babbie (1995) Social Science Research, p. 101

Methods & Fundamental Assumptions Methods & Fundamental Assumptions

““Savoir, pouvoir, prSavoir, pouvoir, prévoirévoir”” ((Auguste Comte)Auguste Comte)

To know, to be able (to have power), to predict the future and To know, to be able (to have power), to predict the future and plan for it plan for it 

Knowledge as power (to acquire skills for social action, Knowledge as power (to acquire skills for social action, change, forecasting)change, forecasting)

““décrire, comprendre, expliquerdécrire, comprendre, expliquer”” (Gilles Gaston Granger)(Gilles Gaston Granger)

describe, understand and explaindescribe, understand and explain Knowledge as understandingKnowledge as understanding

Classification of Theories to Understand Different ApproachesClassification of Theories to Understand Different Approaches

Paradigms, other typologies (like quantitative Paradigms, other typologies (like quantitative vs. qualitative)vs. qualitative)

direction of reasoning (induction, deduction, direction of reasoning (induction, deduction, abduction)abduction)

level of ‘reality’ (micro, macro)level of ‘reality’ (micro, macro) forms of explanationforms of explanation theoretical frameworkstheoretical frameworks degree of abstraction degree of abstraction

Identifying Styles of Research: Example of Quantitative vs. Qualitative Approaches

(common about 20-30 yrs ago but still used)Neuman (2000: 16)

Identifying Styles of Research: Example of Quantitative vs. Qualitative Approaches

(common about 20-30 yrs ago but still used)Neuman (2000: 16)

Quantitative vs. Qualitative

Objective SubjectiveVariables Processes and eventsReliability

AuthenticityValue-Free Explicitly Stated ValuesIndependent of Context Aware of ContextMany cases or subjects Few cases or subjectsStatistical Analysis Other qualitiesDetached Researcher Involved Researcher

Research ParadigmsResearch Paradigms

Sets of Sets of shared patterns in a scholarly community shared patterns in a scholarly community about what constitutes worthwhile researchabout what constitutes worthwhile research (Thomas (Thomas

Kuhn, Kuhn, The structure of scientific revolutions)The structure of scientific revolutions) What problems are worth investigating?What problems are worth investigating? What constitutes an answer?What constitutes an answer?

DDifferent views on how approaches are grouped ifferent views on how approaches are grouped (cf. Lincoln & Guba)(cf. Lincoln & Guba)

Assumptions about nature of people & knowledge for use in classifying approaches (Burrell & Morgan)*

Assumptions about nature of people & knowledge for use in classifying approaches (Burrell & Morgan)*

Subjective vs.Subjective vs. Objective AssumptionsObjective Assumptions

ontology : nominalism realism epistemology : anti-positivism positivism human nature: voluntarism determinism methodology: ideographic nomethetic (laws)

(idiographic=unique, singular)

*Burrell, G. and Morgan, G. (1982) “In search of a framework”, Sociological Paradigms and Organisational Analysis. London: Heinemen, pp. 1-37.

Assumptions about Order/ConflictAssumptions about Order/Conflict

Order/regulation) vs. Conflict/Radical Change)Order/regulation) vs. Conflict/Radical Change) Stability/solidarityStability/solidarity Change/emancipation Change/emancipation IntegrationIntegration ConflictConflict Functional coordination Functional coordination disintegrationdisintegration consensusconsensus coercion coercion need satisfactionneed satisfaction deprivation deprivation

Four Paradigms (Burrell & Morgan)Four Paradigms (Burrell & Morgan)

radical humanist radical structuralist

interpretive functionalist

Conflict/radical change

Order/stability/regulation

subj

ecti

ve

objective

Four Paradigms in Communications Research (Baxter & Babbie 2004)*

Four Paradigms in Communications Research (Baxter & Babbie 2004)*

PositivismPositivism Once widely taught as same as scienceOnce widely taught as same as science early religious aspectearly religious aspect association with association with quantitativequantitative research research

Systems ParadigmSystems Paradigm Interpretive ApproachesInterpretive Approaches

VerstehenVerstehen association with association with qualitativequalitative research research direct observation, context, meaningful actiondirect observation, context, meaningful action holisticholistic

Critical Theory ApproachesCritical Theory Approaches

* * Baxter & Babbie (2004) Baxter & Babbie (2004) The Basics of Communication Research, The Basics of Communication Research, Toronto: Thomson Wadsworth.Toronto: Thomson Wadsworth.

Questions to Ask about Research (Neuman 1999)*Questions to Ask about Research (Neuman 1999)*

1. reasons for research1. reasons for research2. nature of social reality2. nature of social reality3. nature of human beings3. nature of human beings4. role of common sense4. role of common sense5. Ideas about what theory looks like5. Ideas about what theory looks like6. explanation that is acceptable6. explanation that is acceptable7. good evidence7. good evidence8. place for values8. place for values

*W. Lawrence Neuman (1999) Social Research Methods. Qaultiative and Quantitative Approaches.Toronto: Allyn and Bacon.

Example: PositivismExample: Positivism 1. 1. Why conduct research?Why conduct research?

instrumental orientation instrumental orientation to predict and controlto predict and control

2. Nature of Social Reality?2. Nature of Social Reality? has order has order fundamentally unchangingfundamentally unchanging can be discovered using sciencecan be discovered using science

3. Nature of Human Beings?3. Nature of Human Beings? self interest, pleasure seeking, rationalself interest, pleasure seeking, rational operate on basis of external causes, probabilityoperate on basis of external causes, probability mechanical model of manmechanical model of man

4. Science and common sense?4. Science and common sense? separateseparate

Positivism (cont’d)Positivism (cont’d) What constitutes Explanation or Theory?What constitutes Explanation or Theory?

science nomethetic (universal laws)science nomethetic (universal laws) causal relationships, universally validcausal relationships, universally valid

6. How to judge explanation6. How to judge explanation use reason : no logical contradictionsuse reason : no logical contradictions Observation, ReplicationObservation, Replication

7. Good evidence7. Good evidence?? observations , empirical knowledgeobservations , empirical knowledge can be communicatedcan be communicated

8. Social/Political Values?8. Social/Political Values? value-free sciencevalue-free science objectivityobjectivity

Concepts associated with PositivismConcepts associated with Positivism

Objective Reality that can be studied Objective Reality that can be studied scientifically (logic & empirical scientifically (logic & empirical observation)observation)

VariablesVariables Relationships between variablesRelationships between variables Quantitative ReasoningQuantitative Reasoning

Interpretive ApproachesInterpretive Approaches

Why conduct research?Why conduct research? to understand meaningsto understand meanings

2. Nature of Social Reality?2. Nature of Social Reality? importance of human consciousnessimportance of human consciousness socially constructedsocially constructed multiple social realities possiblemultiple social realities possible

3. Nature of Human Beings?3. Nature of Human Beings? people use meanings, have reasonspeople use meanings, have reasons laws (?)laws (?)

4. Science and common sense?4. Science and common sense? must study common sense, pragmaticmust study common sense, pragmatic

Interpretive ApproachesInterpretive Approaches 1. Why conduct research?1. Why conduct research?

to understand meaningsto understand meanings 2. Nature of Social Reality?2. Nature of Social Reality?

importance of human consciousnessimportance of human consciousness socially constructedsocially constructed multiple social realities possiblemultiple social realities possible

3. Nature of Human Beings?3. Nature of Human Beings? people use people use meaningsmeanings, have reasons, have reasons laws (?)laws (?)

4. Science and common sense?4. Science and common sense? must study common sense, pragmaticmust study common sense, pragmatic

Interpretive Approaches (cont’d)Interpretive Approaches (cont’d)5.. What constitutes Explanation or Theory5.. What constitutes Explanation or Theory

ideographic ideographic ““thick” descriptions), semantic relationshipsthick” descriptions), semantic relationships Rules in interpretive traditions= shared beliefsRules in interpretive traditions= shared beliefs

6. How to judge explanation– as 6. How to judge explanation– as understandingunderstanding makes sense to othersmakes sense to others Heuristic frameworkHeuristic framework

7. Good evidence7. Good evidence?? in context, has meaning for social actors (in context, has meaning for social actors (evocativeevocative))

8. Social/Political Values?8. Social/Political Values? does not try to be value free, state biasesdoes not try to be value free, state biases

Critical Theory as a ParadigmCritical Theory as a Paradigm

Why conduct research?Why conduct research? discover structures discover structures change world, action orientedchange world, action oriented knowledge is power (from below)knowledge is power (from below)

2. Nature of Social Reality?2. Nature of Social Reality? changingchanging conflict (not always visible-myths, false consciousness)conflict (not always visible-myths, false consciousness)

3. Nature of Human Beings?3. Nature of Human Beings? have potential but can be misleadhave potential but can be mislead potential realized through collective actionpotential realized through collective action

4. Science and common sense?4. Science and common sense? idea of objective reality , underlying truths but science can be idea of objective reality , underlying truths but science can be

instrument of oppressioninstrument of oppression

Critical Theoretical Approaches (cont’d)Critical Theoretical Approaches (cont’d)

5. What constitutes Explanation or Theory5. What constitutes Explanation or Theory combination of determinism and voluntarismcombination of determinism and voluntarism

6. How to judge explanation6. How to judge explanation capacity to describe social conditions and promote capacity to describe social conditions and promote

changechange 7. Good evidence7. Good evidence??

material conditions separate from subjectivity but material conditions separate from subjectivity but facts not neutralfacts not neutral

8. Social/Political Values?8. Social/Political Values? everpresent, promotes activismeverpresent, promotes activism

““Dimensions” of ResearchDimensions” of Research ““Dimensions” of ResearchDimensions” of Research

Neuman (2000: 37)

Purpose ofPurpose of

StudyStudy

Intended Use Intended Use of Studyof Study

Treatment of Time Treatment of Time in Studyin Study

SpaceSpace Unit of Unit of

AnalysisAnalysis

ExploratoryExploratory

DescriptiveDescriptive

ExplanatoryExplanatory

BasicBasic

AppliedApplied

-Action-Action

-Impact-Impact

-Evaluation-Evaluation

Cross-sectionalCross-sectional

LongitudinalLongitudinal

-Panel-Panel

-Time series-Time series

-Cohort analysis -Cohort analysis

- Case Study- Case Study

- Trend study- Trend study

-dependent individual-dependent individual

-independent family-independent family

householdhousehold

artifactartifact

(media, (media,

technology)technology)

If time: Writing about MethodsIf time: Writing about MethodsPlatt, Jennifer. “Writing on Method” and “Theory and practice” in A history of Platt, Jennifer. “Writing on Method” and “Theory and practice” in A history of

sociological research methods in America, 1920-1960. Cambridge: Cambridge U. sociological research methods in America, 1920-1960. Cambridge: Cambridge U. Press 1996, pp. 1-67, 106-142.Press 1996, pp. 1-67, 106-142.

Emergence of methodological textbooks (social sciences) in N. Emergence of methodological textbooks (social sciences) in N. America (c. 1920s)America (c. 1920s)

writing on methods--often followed practiceswriting on methods--often followed practices Not necessarily derived from theory, influenced by commercial Not necessarily derived from theory, influenced by commercial

uses and social workuses and social work Shifts over timeShifts over time

1920s-1940s --conflicts between qualitative & quantitative1920s-1940s --conflicts between qualitative & quantitative 1940s-1960s-- little work on qualitative methods (more on notions like 1940s-1960s-- little work on qualitative methods (more on notions like

scaling, sampling, logic, design, practicalities of interviewing)scaling, sampling, logic, design, practicalities of interviewing) 1960s re-emergence of qualitative methods1960s re-emergence of qualitative methods

Causes of writing about methods?Causes of writing about methods?

Rise of university programs, need for Rise of university programs, need for teaching resourcesteaching resources

Professionalization & differentiationProfessionalization & differentiation Increasing orientation toward empirical Increasing orientation toward empirical

researchresearch Motivations often unstated (especially in Motivations often unstated (especially in

‘self-defence’-driven work‘self-defence’-driven work

ProblemsProblems

Relating methods to their uses and practicesRelating methods to their uses and practices Questions about relationship of specific methods to Questions about relationship of specific methods to

theoriestheories Mode of transmissionsMode of transmissions Methodological choicesMethodological choices

Practical influencesPractical influences Constraints (positive & negative)Constraints (positive & negative) AccidentalAccidental Notion of ‘bricolage’Notion of ‘bricolage’ Untidiness of life in process Untidiness of life in process

If time….If time….

Two ParadigmsTwo Paradigms

Bruhn-Jensen ReadingBruhn-Jensen Reading

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