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Personal Safety

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© Centrex (Central Police Training

©1987-1996

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, modified, amended, stored in any retrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior written permission of the Central Police Training and Development Authority or its representative.

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© CENTREX (Central Police Training and Development Authority) June 2004

* Note: - The illustrations contained within this manual may not be specifically represented.

This manual has been produced on behalf of the

Association of Chief Police Officers (ACPO) by

Centrex (Central Police Training and

Development Authority), Harrogate, in

conjunction with the ACPO Standing Sub-

Committee on Self Defence and Arrest. Its

purpose is to support and inform operational

decision-making and training to improve safety

during the policing of violent or potentially

violent situations. General guidance relating to

the use of force, relevant techniques and use of

equipment is included *. Further advice in

relation to the police use of firearms and group

tactical options for use during public disorder can

be found in the ‘ACPO Manual of Guidance on

Police Use of Firearms’ and the ‘ACPO Manual

of Guidance on Keeping the Peace’.

As its title suggests, this manual exists for the

guidance of chief officers in carrying out their

duty to provide appropriate training and

policies, and for police and civilian staff who

may be required to deal with conflict as part

of their operational duty.

The nature of policing is so diverse that it will

never be possible to document guidance to

cover every circumstance or eventuality. For

this reason, there will always be occasions

when individual officers resort to tactics or

techniques not described in this manual. In

such circumstances, the actions of the officer

will not necessarily be wrong or unlawful,

provided they have acted reasonably and

within the law. The individual concerned must

be prepared to account for their decisions and

to show that they were justified in doing what

they did. Similarly, chief officers will need to

be in a position to justify any decision or

action taken, in order to avoid or defend

possible civil proceedings.

Status

Purpose

INTRODUCTION

1

© CENTREX (Central Police Training and Development Authority) June 2004 - REVISED MAY 2005


In addition to general guidance on use of

force issues, this manual includes a

‘directory’ of techniques, all of which have

been the subject of medical and legal review.

It is not intended that all officers be trained in

all the techniques or that the manual be

viewed as a prescriptive training programme.

A basic training package is recommended,

but individual forces will, of course, be free

to select any additional techniques that may

be required for specific policing problems or

specialist roles. This approach enables

flexibility while, at the same time,

recognising that the understanding of the

techniques and the standard by which

competence is measured should be uniform.

To ensure that the guidance contained in this manual remains current it is intended that the content be reviewed on a regular basis. In addition, the flexible approach that has been adopted will enable existing material to be amended, updated or deleted and new

material to be added.

Scope

Review

Provision of training

The benefits of appropriate and regular training in officer personal safety cannot be overstated. Where such training is given, the number of assaults on police officers has decreased and if an assault does occur it is often less severe. Complaints from members of the public regarding the use of protective equipment or unnecessary use of force have also fallen in number.

2

Since July 1998, by virtue of the Police

(Health and Safety) Act 1997, police officers

are regarded as ‘employees’ for the purposes

of the Health and Safety Act 1974. This has

increased the importance of proper risk

assessments. Officer personal safety policies

will form a large part of the control measures

required under this legislation to ensure the

health and safety of staff, particularly when

facing violent or potentially violent situations.

The Human Rights Act 1998 has increased the

focus on this responsibility since, in their

position as ‘public authorities’, police forces

are, amongst other things, under a duty to

protect the human rights of their staff.

Non-compliance by a force with these statutory requirements, and any policies that have been introduced to support them, may constitute a criminal offence.

Equally, individual members of staff are

under a legal obligation to co-operate with

their employer. For this reason, non-

compliance by them with instructions relating

to these policies may constitute a criminal as

well as disciplinary offence.

ACPO recommend that every officer should

receive a minimum of 12 hours personal

safety refresher training per year to ensure that

their skills remain at a competent level. Whilst

12 hours is the recommended minimum time

consideration should be given to the content of

a force personal safety programme. It should

be recognised that some skills take longer to

acquire to a competent level, therefore, the

overall time allocated to the training may need

adjusting accordingly.

Forces should ensure that adequate training and periodic refresher training is provided. Where an officer is not currently trained, or where they have not attended all aspects of training or refresher training, consideration should be given to whether they should be

allowed to perform operational duties and

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Any individual officer not attending or

participating in all aspects of training may

not only compromise their ability to protect

themselves and others, but may also leave

themselves liable to committing a

disciplinary offence and a breach of their

individual legal obligation under health and

safety legislation. Such non-attendance

should be brought to the attention of a

supervising officer for action to be taken in

accordance with force instructions. The

standards that an officer is required to

achieve during officer personal safety

training should be clearly defined and

documented.

These are likely to reflect a balance between

what it is realistic to expect a person to

achieve in the training time available and the

requirement to ensure safe systems of work.

Officers who fall below the standard should

be given as much support as is reasonable to

ensure that they reach the required level of

competence.

An officer who is medically unfit to take part

in all aspects of officer safety/self defence

training should be dealt with in accordance

with procedures applicable to unfitness for

duty. Where such a medical condition is

merely temporary, a period of restricted duty

may be considered appropriate. Although an

officer may be given an opportunity to attend

and take part in any non-physical aspects.

However, they should not be regarded as fully

trained until such time as they have

undertaken all the elements when fit to do so.

As much support as possible and close liaison

with the Occupational Health

Department/Advisers is likely to be

appropriate in such circumstances.

continue to possess items of protective

equipment already issued.

Provision of training


Association of Chief Police Officers of England, Wales number of assaults on police

& Northern Ireln decreased

25 Victoria Street, London SW1H 0EX often less severe Telephone: 0207 227 3434 Fax: 0207 227 3400/3401 e public regarding the use

Conflict Management Portfolio 29 October 2003 Paul Acres QPM Chief Constable, Hertfordshire

To: All Chief Constables and Commissionersa

Dear Colleague

Officer Personal Safety Refresher Training - Minimum Requirmnt assessmens. Officer perso

As you are aware, since July 1998, by virtue of the Police (Health and Safety) Act 1997, polic required under this legislation o ensure the officers are regarded as “employees” for the purpose of te Health and Safety Act 1974. health and safety of staff, particularl

Officer Personal Safety training has proved to be an extremely effective control measure, facing violent or potentially violent s

required by legislation, to help address the risks faced by our officers during their day-to-day The Human Righs Act 1998 has increase

f t duties.

5

The Human Rights Act 1998 has also increased the are,focus onamongst this other responsbilitythings, undersince, a in dutyour t

position as “public authorities” one of our duties is to protectprotect the te humanHuman rights Rightsof theirof our staff.staff.

The benefits of appropriate and regular Personal Safety Training cannot be overstated. Where N o n p l i a n c b y f o e w i t h t h

such training is given, the number of assaults on our officers has decreased and if an assault tttoy quient d ny plii t

does occur it is often less severe. Complaints from members of the public regarding protection h e b i t d u d t s u t t h

equipment or unnecessary use of force have also fallen in number. titt i

Recent debate has questioned the need for the minimum training of twelv hours and requests Equally, individual members of staff are u have been received from Forces to both extend and reduce the time spent n this raining.

a legal obligation to co-operate with t Based on the tactical options, medical implications and egislative issues mentioned withn th

employer. For this reason, non-compliance new Officer Personal Safety Manual I strongly recommend tha each officer receive the 12

by them with instructions relating to th hours minimum training per year and I seek your suport in achieving his target.

policies may constitute a crim

Officer Safety training remains an important area of our business and I thank you for your continued support. Please contact Inspector Robert Blackburn (020 7230 4203) at the Self-

Forces should ensure that adequate trai Defence, Arrest and Restraint Secretariat if you require any further assistance with this, or any

and periodic refresher training is provided other Officer Personal Safety issue.

Yours sincerely

Paul Acres

Conflict Management Portfolio Holder

Chief Constable

©CENTREX (Central Police Training and Development Authority) June 2004 - REVISED MAY 2005

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Personal Safety

INTRODUCTION & AIM

FIGHTING ARC

Narrow internal focus

Narrow external focus

FRIGHT, FLIGHT, FIGHT,

Adrenaline

Endorphins

Nor Adrenaline

Tunnel vision

Auditory exclusion

Psychological splitting

Precognition

Post incident fatigue

Fear behaviour

Tantrum behaviour

Frenzied behaviour

Personal Management Skills

POSITIONING

ATTENTIONAL CONTROL

Broad external focus

Broad internal focus

POSTURING, SUBMISSION

PRE-INCIDENT INDICATORS

THE DECISIVE CYCLE

THE CHEMICAL COCKTAIL

Dopamine

Cortisol

ADVANTAGES/DISADVANTAGES

General muscle tightening

Visual slow down

Cognitive dissonance

Criminal behaviour

OPERATING RANGES

CLOCK POSITIONING

(CONCENTRATION)

COLOUR CODE SYSTEM

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Weak foot side and hand

The holstered carry

The low carry

The mid carry

The covert carry

The high carry

Full breathing

Post traumatic stress referral and the

leadership, support and supervisory

role (see Edged weapon module)

Post traumatic stress disorder diagnosis

FURTHER READING

BELT, BODY ARMOUR

MANAGEMENT AND

EQUIPMENT RETENTION

Glossary of generic terms

HOW TO RECOVER THE

EQUIPMENT IF TAKEN

COMPLETELY

BREATH CONTROL

Cycle breathing

Strong foot side and hand

Stance (see Unarmed skills module)

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Introduction

It is often said that communication is a two-way process that relates to verbal interaction (listening and hearing), non-verbal interaction (interpretation) and observational interaction (looking and seeing).

These skills are the most important ones that a police officer must possess, and they encompass all that an officer may do.

COMMUNICATION AND

OBSERVATIONAL SKILLS

The Communication Vehicle

It is important to understand the key ingredients of effective

communication, especially as they relate to a conflict environment.

The first and most important consideration is that there is a sender and a

receiver, and the responsibility for the understanding belongs to the sender

(police officer) not the receiver. It is the officer’s sole purpose to get the

message through.

The aim of this

module

therefore is to:

understand

what

communication

is

identify how to

develop officers’

operating

potential

demonstrate

how to apply

the skills

link to other

modules within

this manual.

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The officer must encode ideas, needs, desires or intentions into some type of format that is understood

by the receiver. We transmit the message to the receiver through verbal and non-verbal means. Since

not all of our interaction may be face-to-face, the medium of a radio, telephone, fax or

e-mail message must also be considered. How an officer or subject is feeling can be known from the

tone, style, brevity, speed and accuracy of what is said or written, even though the other person is

not actually present.

The receiver (subject or officer),

through their ability to decode, must

attempt to understand the message in

light of their own ‘frame of

reference’. This is the most difficult

part of communication because it

involves the perceptual process; it is

also the most crucial. The last

component of the communication

process is feedback. It is through

feedback, both verbal and

non-verbal, that an officer may

determine if and how the subject

understands what we are communicating.

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The perceptual process In the perceptual process the receiver must

attempt to understand the message, however this

can be difficult because the sender must ascertain

the receiver’s multitude of ‘frame references’.

The sender must first determine what the stimulus

was that triggered the aggression. Was it an

officer or subject, an event, a situation or an

object (edged weapon)?

The receptors are our sensory organs, which are

the means by which we absorb the information.

To this could be added the sixth sense, or subtle

accumulation of the other five senses together

with precognition (see Personal Management

Module). The filtering process is the initial

processing of the data received.

Knowledge is the acquaintance with facts,

concepts or principles that have been learnt

academically, physically or operationally.

It is therefore important to realise that an

officer must communicate within the

subject’s ability to comprehend.

Attitudes are important in that they come

from within and are demonstrated by our

actions. In a confrontational environment

it is important to understand in what way

a subject’s attitudes will play into

their actions.

Feelings are, in this context, considered a

state of emotional perception, such as

feelings of joy, sorrow or anger. These

states of emotional perception can enhance

or detract from our ability to communicate.

Needs are defined as a requirement or a lack

of something essential. Abraham Maslow

identified five different levels of need. In

this hierarchical representation, a subject

who is extremely hungry is unlikely to be

motivated by a higher need, until that base

need is fulfilled. In police use of force

issues this application should be obvious.

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Values are the ideals, customs and

institutions of a society or culture. These can

be positive or obstructive to perception. The

key to effective communication with regard

to values is to first recognise that we all look

at the same things differently, so we must

observe rather than judge. Police officers

and subjects are likely to trust each other

when an understanding and appreciation is

made of each other’s customs. When we

consider our own cultural diversity, it is

important to pursue its strengths, not its

weaknesses, and therefore develop.

Cultural diversity

In a 1993 lecture Mr Justice Brooke related the

following story.

‘A white youth and a black youth were in the

dock of a magistrates’ court together. They had

committed the same offence together, and they

had identical records. Yet they received different

sentences. Why? Because the white youth looked

the magistrates in the eye, while the black youth

looked all over the court and seemed shifty and

evasive and unapologetic for what he had done,

and the magistrates believed he needed to be

taught a lesson.’

Mr Justice Brooke went on to relate that the

reason he knew this story was that one of the

magistrates was black and shared the story with

him. The black magistrate told him that he tried

to persuade his two white colleagues that they

were condemning the youth for behaviour that

was ingrained in his culture and which they

were misinterpreting. He explained to them that

he too was conditioned from birth not to look

those in authority in the eye, as this would be

perceived as being insolent and disrespectful,

and that instead he should keep his eyes averted.

But the two white magistrates simply could not

accept this, and they overruled him by two to

one.

This story is an example of the significance of

non-verbal behaviour, an important form of

communication of which, some of the time,

officers and subjects are unaware. It is also an

example of how communication between people

of different cultures can easily produce

misunderstandings, which if not recognised and

remedied may in turn give rise to the possibility

of injustice.

Why cross-cultural

communication can

be difficult

Most of the time in our daily lives we experience

no difficulty in communicating with others. We

speak the same language and feel we understand

each other, at home and at work. If something

seems unclear and we need more information, all

we have to do is ask. If no-one does this, we have

been understood.

However, this assumption does not necessarily

hold up where the two people communicating

with each other come from different cultural

backgrounds. It may of course be obvious to one

or both parties that they have not been

understood. Quite often, however, this is not the

case, as they may think they have been

understood correctly, when in fact this is not so.

Officers and subjects are likely to read behaviour

from the point of view of their own cultural

group, without being aware of the possibly

different meaning attributed to it in the culture of

the other party. It is where this quite natural

tendency towards ‘ethnocentrism’ creeps in, ie

where parties interpret the behaviour in terms of

their own cultural frameworks, and do so

unconsciously, that the greatest danger of cross-

cultural misunderstanding arises.

It is important to recognise that the condition for

success in overcoming this problem does not

consist solely in acquiring knowledge about the

culture of the other group. It requires also a degree

of knowledge and awareness of one’s own culture

since, whatever others may do or say, it is this that

provides the outlook on the world.

The challenge arises as most societies come to be

increasingly multi-cultural in their make-up. It is

a challenge which members of the minority

communities have already had to meet simply as

a condition for being able to operate successfully

in the majority society. It is a skill which may

come more slowly to members of the majority

culture, who do not face the same

challenge routinely.

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Verbal communication

There are a number of ways in which

communication problems may arise. The most

obvious is the straightforward lack of

competency of an officer or subject in the

English language. The more common and less

obvious problems arise where basic competency

is present, but specific problems arise around the

use of certain terms or phrases, or around the

manner in which a person speaks.

Words for time and space

All cultures have words dealing with aspects of

time and space. Concepts of time and space may

differ, and words in the English language may not

always be correctly understood. For example, with

regard to the time of the day, concepts of

afternoon and evening may vary considerably

between different cultures. Other examples of

time-related words, which can give rise to

misunderstanding and confusion for members of

minority ethnic communities, are the English

words for mealtimes, ‘dinner’ and ‘tea’. Such

confusion is hardly surprising since the words are

often found confusing by the English themselves,

due to different uses between social classes and

between the north and the south of England.

Racial and ethnic terminology

Confusion, for example, may arise unless the

meaning of racial and ethnic terms (eg ‘Asian’,

‘Black’) is made clear and their relevance

specified. It should be borne in mind that use of

certain racial or ethnic terms (eg ‘Coloured’,

‘Oriental’ and ‘Half Caste’) is likely to give

offence to those to whom they are applied.

Inappropriate words

or expressions

There is little need to rehearse the fact that, in all

cultures, offensive terms exist to refer to

members of other racial, ethnic or national

groups. Other than in the reporting of evidence,

their offensiveness should be clear and of course

not tolerated.

There are, however, words or expressions which

may be used by some members of the majority

society without them being aware of the negative

impact these may have on members of minority

ethnic communities.

Turning to inappropriate expressions, here too

there should be little need to draw attention to

phrases that are quite clearly offensive or even

racist. Over-generalisation, eg by speaking of all

Nigerian or Chinese as if they are the same, is one

example. Another is conveying a patronising

attitude, by using a phrase such as ‘you people

must realise’ or referring to ‘the way we do things

in this country’. Yet a third seems to imply that

certain ethnic groups have particular criminal

characteristics, a use of popular

stereotypical phraseology.

Jargon, slang and figure

of speech

Use of slang expressions, which are familiar to

those who have grown up in Britain with full

exposure to the mass media, may also exclude

minority group members from following the

meaning of what is said. Jokes and implicit

assumptions might also be capable of giving rise

to similar confusion and misunderstanding in the

minds of members of minority communities.

Officers need to express themselves in as direct

and explicit a manner as possible when

communicating with people from different

cultural backgrounds.

Accent and

mispronunciation

Non-native speakers of English may often have

strong accents based on the speech patterns of

their own languages, and they may also have

difficulties with pronunciation as well. This is a

situation which may arise in any multi-lingual or

multi-cultural society, and calls for patience and

tolerance on the part of all. If an officer or subject

who has difficulty in being understood feels

under pressure on this account, they may speed

up rather than slow down, and the accent may

then become even stronger.

It is not only as speakers that difficulties may arise

for members of minority ethnic communities.

English is spoken with a wide range of regional

accents on the part of native speakers, among

whom for the most part these variants are

normally easily understood. Members of ethnic

communities often have much less experience of

regional English accents, and when broad variants

of these happen to be in use, the possibility of

difficulty for members of ethnic minorities should

not be overlooked.

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The second warning is

that it is dangerous to

assume that all those

who identify (or are

identified) with a

particular ethnic group

will necessarily display

the same nonverbal

behaviour. Not only

may there be

differences within the

group such as gender

or social class, but

there are also likely to

be differences between

individuals (this is

obvious when one

considers the

differences in style and

temperament amongst

one’s own friends

within one’s own

cultural group). There

is, therefore, great

danger in moving


Speech delivery

Although true for the wider public as well, many

members of the ethnic communities may feel

extremely nervous and lacking in confidence

when dealing with police officers, especially

when speaking English in a formal, public

domain. In addition, especially among

communities of Asian origin, some women

(especially among the older generation) may find

speaking difficult or embarrassing as a result of

cultural conditioning, and of persisting

conventions about the need for modesty in

demeanour and about the women’s role. This

may be particularly the case when issues of an

intimate or personal nature are under discussion

or the matter is felt to belong to the world not of

women but of men.

All these difficulties may be manifested by

subjects and officers speaking very softly, or

having difficulty in projecting the voice, or by not

being forthcoming generally. On the other hand,

some young, black people in particular may feel

suspicious or angry on account of past

experiences, real or imaginary, relating to racism,

and may sometimes express this in a forthright

and apparently aggressive manner, occasionally

even in an outburst of some kind. Reducing

pressure by allowing extra time for subjects to

speak may often be sufficient to overcome the

kinds of difficulties that have been mentioned.

Non-verbal communication

Non-verbal communication, as has already been

explained, demands our attention for two reasons.

The first is that it is a powerful form of

communication, the use and effects of which we

are normally unaware. The second is that forms

of non-verbal communication, like verbal

languages, differ between cultures, and thus,

especially on account of their unconscious

operation, have considerable potential for causing

misunderstanding in cross-cultural

communication. At first sight, therefore, the

solution would simply appear to be to develop a

bank of knowledge about the typical non-verbal

clues that relate to members of different cultures.

The first warning is to be careful about how a

culture is identified. For example, although there

may be much in common within such broad

cultural groupings as ‘Asians’, ‘Caribbeans’ or

‘Chinese’, there may also be internal differences

that have been grafted onto many other regional

or local cultures.

WARNING.

Knowledge about non-verbal behaviour can indeed be formulated; however, two warnings should be heeded!

towards over-

generalisation about non-verbal behaviour, and

of thus creating stereotypes about behaviour of

members of particular cultural groups, which

could be as damaging as

ignorance itself.

Knowledge about non-verbal behaviour of

different cultural groups should therefore take the

form of guidelines as to what might possibly be

expected by way of behaviour, but what should

certainly not be presumed. Providing that

knowledge about non-verbal behaviour of

different groups includes recognition that such

diversity exists, and that there is a need for its

validity or application to be checked in each case,

then such knowledge will be useful knowledge. If

it is not used in this cautious and conditional way,

then such knowledge will be in danger of

becoming another form of stereotyping.

Scope of non-verbal

behaviour

It is normally only when we reflect on the subject

that we become aware of the large number of

ways in which we may use the body as a means

of non-verbal communication.

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Gestures involving the hands are those which we

most often think of, and these are the more likely

ones to be conscious and intended. In terms of

their importance in the non-verbal part of the

communication process, however, they

undoubtedly fall into second place behind the

face.

Eyes

In many cultures the eyes are an extremely

important means of communication. In modern

European culture, the eyes speak about feelings,

and about sincerity. Closely linked to the ability

to express such feelings is the perceived ability of

the eyes to convey whether a person is (or is not)

respectful and sincere.

Whereas in England for a young person to look a

person in authority in the eyes is to signal respect

and integrity, in African-Caribbean culture it is

likely to indicate impudence or insult. Among

South Asian cultures, looking away from

authority figures rather than directly at them

tends to be how a subordinate or young person

indicates deference and respect.

For these reasons, the greatest care should be

taken before allowing eye behaviour to be

interpreted in any particular way when there is a

cross-cultural context involved. In particular, care

should be taken to avoid generalising about the

eye behaviour of any ethnic group in Britain due

to the element of cultural diversity and change

commented upon earlier. Most important of all,

perhaps, is the need to have specific knowledge

of what eye behaviour means in any other

particular culture, and simply to be aware how

easily one may unconsciously interpret such

behaviour falsely in terms of one’s own culture.

Tone of voice

Tone of voice is another aspect of body language

which is frequently in danger of being

misunderstood in cross-cultural contexts.

In English culture, raising the voice is associated

with becoming angry and losing control, or with

trying to impose oneself aggressively upon a

conversation or other situation. Value tends to be

placed upon ‘keeping cool and

behaving rationally’.

In other cultures, volume, pitch and manner of

delivery do not necessarily convey the same

meaning, nor are they necessarily judged in the

same way. Using a loud voice does not

necessarily indicate loss of control, nor does it

necessarily indicate hostility or an aggressive

disposition. Treating people as if this is the case

may often be experienced as patronising, with the

result that they may at the very least become

angry. In the same way, if police officers interpret

the loud talk and the animation of black

youngsters on the street as aggressive behaviour,

they may through their own response induce the

very behaviour their role is to prevent.

A simple model used in the training of police

officers and other members of society who deal

exclusively in people management is known as

Betari’s Box.

This illustration shows the way in which

officers and subjects can get locked into a cycle

of behaviour which, if it remains unchecked,

can escalate out of control.

Because the role of a police officer is to deal

effectively with a situation, and because officers

are the very people in society who have

authority, it is their role to break the cycle of

attitude and behaviour.

The manner of voice delivery may also give rise

to cross-cultural misunderstanding. Many people

who grew up in South Asia before migrating to

Britain will have an accent, when speaking

English, which can appear to English ears as

rather tense and staccato, and may be interpreted

as aggressive in tone. At the least this is likely to

be an exaggerated perception, and often it may

simply be incorrect, as it will be the person’s

normal mode of English speech. A similar

misunderstanding can arise when native Chinese

or Japanese speakers converse in English.

The body

Posture, positioning of the body and body

movement generally are other important ways in

which non-verbal communication is carried out.

Here, too, care must be taken before interpreting

the behaviour of those of minority ethnic origin

in terms of English cultural assumptions and

standards.

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Positioning of the body in relation to others, for

example, has been shown to vary between

cultures as to the degree of closeness and general

demeanour that are acceptable. In all cultures

people desire to maintain a certain amount of

space around themselves and may feel

uncomfortable if this is invaded. When such

invasion occurs or is threatened, avoidance or

offensive/defensive action may be initiated (see

Operating Ranges - Personal Management

Module). In general, social terms these may be

known as:

The Intimate Zone. This may refer to very

close contact, from a point of touching to a

point of around half a metre (18 inches).

This space may be reserved for intimate

contact or fighting, however this may

depend upon cultural issues.

The Personal Zone. This may refer to the

area from half a metre up to a distance of

around four metres (18 inches to 13 feet).

This may be the zone in which, subject to

cultural issues, most verbal and non-verbal

interaction takes place.

The Public Zone. This may refer to the

distance beyond four metres (13 feet). It

may, with some cultural and environmental

issues, be difficult to communicate across

this potentially safer zone.

Within any particular culture, rules of this kind

are learned in childhood and subsequently

applied unconsciously. Police officers, due to the

nature of their role in dealing with people in

tense and public settings, may be particularly

vulnerable to becoming involved in

misunderstandings of this kind.

Body movement is also capable of creating

considerable misunderstanding in cross-cultural

contexts. Particular care should be taken as to

how such behaviour as animation or fidgeting

should be interpreted, as well as apparent

disinterest or repeated looking away. Generally

speaking, when different cultures are involved, it

should be presumed that to make any inferences

from such behaviour about honesty or integrity

would be dangerous and unreliable.

Officers need to be aware of the ways in which

their own body language might possibly be

misunderstand by ethnic minority subjects. In

particular, they should take care to ensure that

their body language does not unwittingly imply

ridicule or contempt, for example through raised

eyebrows, exchanged glances, or signs of

exasperation, impatience or incredulity. Some

subtle or impromptu forms of bodily expression

may be barely noticeable by the officer or subject

who gives such signals, but members of minority

communities may over time have become much

more alert to them.

Using interpreters

A more fundamental difficulty arises when a

person of minority ethnic background does not

possess adequate linguistic competence and non-

verbal understanding, and an interpreter needs to

be involved in the communication process.

The role of interpreter is primarily to provide

technically efficient and accurate translation of

what has been said, and the first qualification

required of an interpreter is that the person has

the necessary skill and integrity for undertaking

this task.

How to obtain interpreters

A number of professional interpreting agencies

now exist, which can be relied upon to provide a

generally competent service. It should be borne

in mind, however, that these agencies may not be

able to deal with particular languages or dialects

and their interpreters may have little knowledge

or experience in some areas.

Using non-professional interpreters, on the other

hand, may give rise to considerable problems and

involve considerable risk. The incompetence or

bias of an interpreter may sometimes but not

always be obvious.

Comprehension is the organisation of the

stimuli through an intricate sorting process.

Officers and subjects evaluate stimuli for

usefulness, pleasure, threat and trust in

relationship to a need to act. The ability of

the officer and subject to identify, match,

differentiate, classify and evaluate based

on the ground that either has prepared is

essential to the ability to persuade verbally.

First, we identify a stimulus and match it

against other information we have. We then

differentiate it and classify it into broad

categories. Finally, we evaluate it for

usefulness, trust or threat.

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Methods of establishing trust

Officers and subjects trust others who speak, act

and look like themselves, so how can an officer

speak, act and look like the subject?

() Look for common ground between you and

the subject

() Invest the time; learn the facts and pertinent

information about the subject.

() Be empathetic (see LEAPS - Communication Module); try to think how

it must feel to be the subject at that moment

() If the subject is dressed casually, then within

the bounds of the circumstances, also dress

down to casual, ie remove your headgear,

maybe sit down

() Do not attempt to ‘play a part’ that you do

not know or understand, as a lack of

sincerity may have the reverse effect

Outcome. Finally, the comprehension

process leads to action. Some stimuli are

discarded as unimportant, some are stored

for future reference, some are lumped

together with other experiences to confirm

validity, and some moved quickly to the

forefront for immediate action. The last

may be the result of a threat and necessitate

the need to protect oneself, or it may be an

experience so different from the past that it

must be thought about, to be either

discarded or allowed to significantly alter

the filtering process.

Perceptual blocks to

communication It is important to understand what perceptual

blocks may be present, because they may limit

the entry of stimuli into the mind and distort

reality to such an extent that an officer or subject

is not fully connected with reality and to what is

going on at the moment of interaction or

confrontation. People carry blocks to perception

deep within, creating a barrier through which the

world is seen and understood.

Confusion arises when officers and subjects find

it impossible to either understand or accept the

differences in viewpoint which exist amongst

others. Confusion is a product of the inevitable

differences which can arise from both the

individual nature of perception, and/or the

number of perceptual blocks.

Stereotyping. Grouping officers and subjects

into categories so that we attribute all

characteristics of a category to an individual

who exhibits only one characteristic.

Stereotyping leads to misunderstanding on

the part of the perceiver and resentment on

the part of the perceived. Examples of this

may be:

() regional accents

() speech - manner

() paramilitary uniforms

() colour

() tattoos

() spectacles

() short/cropped and long hair

() beards and moustaches

() dress - generally.

Halo effect. This is closely linked to

stereotyping, where an officer or subject

takes an outstanding characteristic of the

other and attributes that thing to them

completely, ie tattoos, ankle chains, short

cropped hair, public order equipment. Halo

effects filter out the real person presented

to such an extent that the receiver sees only

a partial likeness, rather than a living,

changing person.

Selective perception. We sometimes tend to

accept information that may support our

point of view and discard that which denies

it. Information is selectively screened; that

which confirms our own biases is allowed

through and positively accepted. This can

be both an unconscious and a

conscious decision.

Projection. This type of block is built around

transferring our attitudes and feelings onto

others without truly understanding how they

view a particular situation. Projection may

lead us to assume attitudes without allowing

others to be honest in their feelings. This may

cloud reality and alienate others by trying to

force our/their views upon them.

Self-fulfilling prophecy. When we are in a

majority it is sometimes easy to expect a

member of a minority group to behave in a

certain way. This is very often based on

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assumptions about the other person, which

are based upon little knowledge of them or

their culture. This may lead us to

unconsciously filter out information about

the person which does not fit our

assumptions. Eventually the person does

something that fits our assumptions and we

may think and say, “I told you so” and our

expectations may be reinforced. Of course,

this can equally apply to a member of a

minority group’s expectations of a majority

group member.

Rose coloured glasses syndrome. An officer

or subject with an optimistic outlook on life

may filter all events through a set of glasses

which are rosy. While this in itself is not a

block, it may become so when all difficulty

and evil are filtered out as if they do not

exist. The antithesis is the ‘dark glasses

syndrome’, which sees evil, uncertainty and

threat within everything.

Primary-recency effect. It may be easy to

remember instances which happen at the

beginning (primary - first impressions), and

end (recency), of a protracted period of time,

such as the arrest of a subject. If recorded

evidence (see Report Writing Skills Module)

is not systematically and exactly recorded, it

may be difficult to produce an accurate

assessment; instead it might be based upon

what can be remembered. This might be

based upon the first impressions and not the

overall picture of events.

These perception blocks to communication can be

distorting in such a way that the officer or subject

may not really see or understand what is

happening outside of themselves. The key is to

recognise the kinds of blocks which the officer/

subject has, and work to overcome them.

Feedback. The receiver may provide

feedback almost immediately to the sender.

During the transmission of the message the

receiver may provide a non-verbal response

indicating a multitude of thoughts, and

normally these will be congruent (the

gestures match the words). However, if they

do not then the officers need to be aware

that these incongruent signals may be the

prelude to a surprise attack upon them, such

as a nervous laugh, which may or may not

be congruous (see Personal

Management Module).

By focusing on gesture clusters it is possible to

gain clues as to the attitudes and feelings of both

the officer and subject who are exhibiting them.

Gesture clusters may indicate someone who is

calmly reasoning with themselves. Officers can

train themselves in ‘people watching’ during

periods of tranquillity or socially with friends,

for example look for consistency between verbal

and non-verbal communication.

Open hands with palms up plus arms and

legs in an unfolded position may

signal openness

Arms crossed on the chest or the hands

closed in fists may signal defensiveness

Silence or very few comments may be an

indicator of boredom

Tapping of the feet, drumming of the table

and looking away may be signs that the

receiver is only going through the motions.

However, in confrontational matters other than

pre-incident indicators (see Personal

Management Module), an officer or subject who

is ready to be aggressive may display three

levels before committing a physical act: anxiety,

loss of verbal control, loss of physical control

(warning and danger signs).

Anxiety

Sweating and pacing about

Refusing to co-operate with an immediate

authority and/or supervision

Spreading rumour and gossip to harm others

Consistently arguing with co-workers

Belligerent towards others

Constantly swearing at others

Making unwarranted sexual remarks

Arguing increasingly with others

Refusing to obey policy and procedures

Sabotaging equipment and stealing

property for revenge

Verbally issuing a desire to hurt others

Seeing self as victimised by authority

and/or management


Identifying these non-verbal signs (consider cultural differences) may give officers a significant advantage. They are:

This is not an exhaustive list.

Loss of physical control - danger signs

As the word ‘danger’ implies, the signs listed here

have a higher impact potential than warning signs.

When these signs occur an attack may be imminent (see Pre-emptive Action Use of Force Module). Neglecting or ignoring these signs may place the officers at a disadvantage.


Warning. Officers should be aware of the one per

cent of subjects who are fully comfortable with

confrontation and who may be able to disguise

their intentions because of their military or

martial arts training, or their own natural

fighting skill, which may be frequently honed.

Ego state communication

It is not just the words that we use, but the value of the words that we use, that are important. All the feeling and experiences people are exposed to during infancy and childhood are unconsciously recorded in the brain. These recorded messages greatly influence our behaviour for the rest of our lives.

These are observable and may be used to describe a subject’s communication and demeanour (see Use of Force Report Writing Module) as three distinct modes of behaviour called ego states. These may considerably affect our style of communication and its effectiveness.

Everybody has three ego states: parent, adult and child.

Parent

The parent is an officer or subject who feels and

behaves in the same way as they perceived the

feeling, and behaviour of their mother and/or

father (or other influential grown-ups) when

they were a baby. Therefore, parent ego state expressions might be:

give advice

criticise

moralise

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Loss of verbal control

Loss of physical control - warning signs

Generally, subjects who are going to attack

officers, and officers who are intent on

controlling subjects, may engage in actions

known as ‘ritualised combat’ (see Fright,

Flight, Fight, Posture, Submission - Personal

Management Skills Module).

direct prolonged eye contact

bobbing up and down or rocking back and forth

expanded veins in the arms and face area

changed facial colour

the head is back

officer/subject stands tall to maximise

their height

kicking the ground

exaggerated movements, especially with the hands

acceleration of breathing rate

abrupt stopping and starting of nervous behaviour.

Fists clenching/unclenching

Changed facial colour

Ability to communicate becomes

unintelligible and disjointed

Use of vulgarity, in an incoherent way

Baring the teeth

Lips tightening over the teeth

Head dropping forward to protect the throat

Eyebrows dropping forward to protect

the eyes

Hands rising above the waist

Shoulders tensing

Stance changing from side on to square on

(fighting stance)

Glancing at intended target areas

Lowering of the entire body before

launching an attack.

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Parent

Adult

Child

Parent

Adult

Child


nurture and protect

make rules and regulations

teach

judge

direct or control others.

Adult

The adult ego state helps to gather information

and use it to make rational decisions. Like parent

and child ego states it is not related to age.

Therefore, adult ego state expressions might be:

store information

plan

check alternatives

make decisions

reason

recall information

evaluate

estimate probabilities

set limits.

Child

The child ego state contains memory of impulses

and responses felt and made when we were young

as being the source of feelings, wants and needs.

Besides spontaneous feelings, the child is the

origin of adapted behaviour. Therefore, child ego

state expressions might be:

anger

fear

rebelliousness

curiosity

creativity

trust

love

excitement

self-indulgence

aggression

co-operation.

Initiator Responder

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These three ego states are within us all the time.

Using the adult ego state can increase officers’

potential for success.

Ego state communication rule 1

When the ego state that was targeted receives the

communication, and returns it to the sending ego

state, there is a parallel or complementary

communication. It is important for officers and

subjects to express themselves clearly and firmly

as adults so that others understand, and thereby

resist the temptation to play games, argue or get

upset, be angry, critical or sarcastic, especially

when involved in problem-solving or trying to

make oneself understood.


Sometimes the ego state, which the

communication is aimed at, does not respond, but

a different one does, not back to the original

state, but to a different one. This is referred to as

crossed communication. When this happens

communication can stop, go badly, or the arena

may change. The critical point of crossed

communication is that we no longer understand

the communication link, and may be talking at

cross-purposes.

Guidelines for using the technique

of meta talk

Actively listen to others. Notice whether the

subject is sending a non-verbal

communication that goes beyond their words.

Observe non-verbal communication and the

paralinguistic communication such as tone,

intonation, style, accuracy, brevity,

mannerisms, gestures, facial expressions

and speed of the interaction.

If apparent, the officers should ask

themselves what emotions are they sensing

from the subjects:

() anger

() frustration

() hurt

() sadness

() nervousness

() joy

() innuendo

() sarcasm.


Sometimes we operate on more than one level at

the same time. It may look as if we are having an

adult-to-adult conversation, but it may be

obvious that the other person is holding back

criticism, annoyance, or upset or hurt feelings.

This is known as two level communication.

If an officer or subject is communicating on two

levels, the fact level and the feeling or opinion

level, the feeling level will determine the

outcome of the relationship. If this is so, it makes

sense to find out what the feelings are, or what

the criticism is about.

Meta talk

From ego state communication rule 3 lies meta

talk. This is derived from the Greek word ‘meta’,

which means ‘above and beyond’. It refers to a

subject’s non-verbal communication of feelings,

emotions or attitudes that go beyond their verbal

communication. In order to resolve conflicts with

subjects, or gain their co-operation, officers must

pay attention not only to their verbal

communication, but also their meta

communication.

(For a complete list see Emotional Vocabulary

- Use of Force Reporting, Monitoring and

Writing Module.)

Before continuing the officers may comment

on the feelings that they have observed (if

appropriate). These may be checked between

officers to be sure that they have interpreted

them correctly.

The officers’ meta talk statement should

acknowledge the subjects’ feelings (see Ego

States) and create rapport and understanding

with them.

Verbal pacing

Using questions to get to the heart of the matter is

very important. It is the officer’s job to get to the

person, event, situation or object that stimulated

the aggression. By diffusing the stimulus the

officer may be able to re-establish the subject’s

quality of judgement.

By looking at the different types of questions,

officers may be able to delve into the heart of

the matter.

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The closed question is any question that

requires a yes or no answer. In general, it

may be best to avoid this type of question in

any situation where information gathering is

a major component.

The open question is one that cannot be

answered yes or no, as it requires some

elaboration. In this aspect police officers

may decide to use the model 5WH to

assist them.

Who?

What?

Why?

Where?

When?

How?

The probing question is for seeking

confirmation when there is doubt in the

officer’s mind, such as when there is conflict

or hesitation from the subject. This may be

an example of incongruence where the ears

are hearing one message, but the eyes are

receiving another. If this happens then it

might be prudent to explore the issue further.

The leading question is the type of

question that police officers may be familiar

with when appearing as a witness in court.

A leading question is normally used for

confirming details that have come to light in

previous questioning.

The loaded question is one to be avoided at

all cost. This type of question may tend to

destroy interaction and instil negative

feelings within the subject. The loaded

question is one to which there are no correct

answers or to which all possible answers

could be incriminating.

The power of silence. It is important to

mention that silence can be a very important

tool. Ask a question, remain silent and wait

for an answer.

The LEAPS model of

communication

Below is a simple model which offers a

structured approach to communicating, not only

in confrontational situations, but also in all

situations. Officers should understand that this is

not a rigid model, and they may enter it at any

appropriate time. Rather like having an out-of-

body experience (Psychological Splitting - see

Personal Management Module) officers should

experience themselves operating with this model.

Under conflict situations, rather like breathing

exercises, this strategy may reduce anxiety within

officers, because they self-monitor themselves.

Listen

It is not always easy to listen and observe not

only words, but also more importantly gestures,

in a conflict situation; however, aggressive

verbal conditioning may assist with this (see

Communication Module). People generally

spend more time listening than they spend on any

other communication activity, yet a percentage of

people never learn to listen well. One reason is

that they develop poor listening skills that

continue with them throughout life.

The following list contains some of the most

common poor listening habits.

Not paying attention. Officers may allow

themselves to be distracted or to think of

something else. Also, not wanting to listen

often contributes to lack of attention (see

Attentional Control - Personal

Management Module).

Pseudo-listening. Often, officers who are

thinking about something else may

deliberately try to look as though they are

listening. Such pretence may leave the

subject with the impression that the officer

has heard some important information or

instructions offered by the subject.

Listening but not hearing. Sometimes an

officer may listen only to the facts or details,

or to the way they were presented, and miss

the real meaning (see Ego State

Communication Rule 3).

Rehearsing. Some officers may listen until

they want to say something, then they stop

listening, start rehearsing what they will say,

and wait for the opportunity to respond.

Interrupting.The officer may not wait until

the complete meaning can be determined,

but interrupts so forcefully that the subject

stops in mid-sentence.

Hearing what is expected. Officers may

frequently think that they heard subjects say

what they expected them to say.

Alternatively, they sometimes refuse to hear

what they do not want to hear.

Feeling defensive. The officers may

sometimes assume that they know the

subject’s intention or why something

was said or, for various other reasons,

they expect to be verbally confronted.

Listening for a point of disagreement.

Some officers may seem to wait for the

chance to verbally confront the subjects.

In this regard, they may listen intently

for points upon which they can disagree.

Empathy

The Leading Question.

The Loaded Question.

The Power of Silence.

(See Verbal Pacing Element.)

Paraphrase

Defined by the dictionary as ‘a restatement of a

text or passage giving the meaning in another

form for clarity’, this might also be known in this

regard as:

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The word ‘empathy’ has Latin and Greek roots:

em from the Latin means ‘to see through’ and

‘pathy’ from the Greek means ‘the eye of the

other’. Additionally, a dictionary definition of

empathy may describe ‘the intellectual

identification with or vicarious experiencing of

the feelings, thoughts, attitudes of another’.

Although we may seek far and wide for a solution

to the sensitive side of cultural diversity, the

answer might be in this one word, ‘empathy’.

This one word may represent the greatest bridge

between all cultures; it may also be one of the

most powerful tools in verbally persuading

another person. The key to empathy may be to

actually be interested, and possibly the biggest

hurdle to empathetic listening is a feeling that the

officer already knows what the subject is speaking

about.

It is important to allow the subject the

opportunity to tell their story and for the officer

to listen to it thoroughly. Another hurdle to

empathetic listening may be evaluating issues

that a subject tells an officer, or the officer

disapproving of the subject’s action, which they

may have done differently. The following

example sentences may help in the

empathetic process.

“Just let me be sure that I heard what you

just said.”

“Just let me be sure that I understand you.”

“Just let me be sure that we understand

each other.”

Ask: The Closed Question.

The Open Question (5WH).

The Probing Question.

There may be nothing that a subject will

listen to more than the restatement of their

own words. Interest the subject and make

them listen.

The subject is listening, the officer is

talking. The officer has taken control.

The officer can only respond effectively to a

subject’s words if they heard them correctly.

Is the officer sure that they heard

correctly?

Being correct is not the issue. Making

an attempt to get it correct is the issue.

The officer has created empathy.

Some officers may have made a statement in

anguish and in haste. Once they heard it

paraphrased, they may have wished to take it

back. Sometimes, a subject may not realise

what they have said, until it is parroted back.

Allow the subject or officer to modify the

original statement.

People standing around a situation may need

to be the officer’s witnesses. Therefore, a

clearer picture of what is being said might be

to the officer’s advantage. If the people

standing around happen to be part of the

problem, then an effective strategy to

remove the hostility may be to paraphrase

the leader and allow the crowd to hear and

understand what they are really saying. This

may have a clarifying effect for people

standing around.

There may be subjects who are effective at

placing unwanted words and phrases in the

officer’s mouth. Paraphrasing is a useful tool

to prevent this action. Paraphrasing may

prevent subjects from putting inaccurate

words into an officer’s mouth.

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Paraphrasing may be an effective tool with

superiors, colleagues and family too. Do not

rely on others to always say what they

mean, no matter what their position;

paraphrase it back.

When a subject makes an unreasonable

request or demand, if they hear it

paraphrased, it may make them back down to

a more fair resolution. Paraphrasing may

generate a ‘fair play response’.

Summarise (action)

Condensing the facts, being brief and decisive,

may assist the officer, before taking whatever

action is necessary.

Insults - deflection and

redirection

As a subject moves from anxiety towards the loss

of verbal control, they may often resort to

swearing, vulgarity and insults. The officer may

be able to deal with these by the use of deflection

and redirection strategies, such as:

I appreciate what you are saying, but ...

I hear what you are saying, but ...

I understand you, but ...

Deflection and redirection phrases deflect the

insults, push you in the direction you wish to go

and disempower the subject throwing the insult.

Another subtle example of using deflection and

redirection is to use third party assistance. For

example, if subject 1 is being confrontational

towards an officer, and the officer is finding

communication difficult, then they may ask

subject 2 to help, such as “I can’t seem to make

your friend understand, could you explain to him/

her what I mean?”. This may redirect the

responsibility from the officer to the third party.

I versus you language

Use the pronoun ‘I’ to take responsibility and

to promote co-operation and understanding

when making statements to others.

This is in contrast to ‘You’ statements that tend to

promote an atmosphere of conflict by sounding

accusatory, judgmental and threatening to others.

Whether officers are criticising the subjects’ actions

or disagreeing with them, the difference between

getting co-operation or resistance can often be based

on what pronoun is used, ‘I’ or ‘You’.

‘You’ negatives

Sounds accusatory

Sounds judgmental

Sounds threatening.

‘I’ benefits

Takes 100% responsibility

Promotes co-operation and understanding

Lessens the threat to a higher authority.

Officers may be able to avoid conflicts such as

communication failures, misunderstandings and

personality clashes by using ‘I’ instead of ‘You’

language. Officers may find that subjects may be

more likely to pay attention to the substance of

what the officer says, instead of reacting

negatively to the style in which the officer says it.

Manipulation

In confrontational situations, manipulation is a

common way for subjects and officers to

accomplish results. Generally, people may not

be aware of their manipulation tactics, and their

manipulation may be habitual or even

unconscious. Officers should be aware that there

are four primary ways in which people

manipulate each other:

intimidation

sympathy

guilt

flattery.


These are examples of negative manipulation

within a confrontational environment; however,

officers and subjects can also manipulate in a

positive manner. The difference between positive

and negative manipulation often depends on

whether the officer or subject has the other

person’s best interest at heart, or just their own,

and whether they are acting with a sense of

fairness, and consideration for the others’ rights

to make free choices.

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Five-step communication

model

The following five-step appeal model offers a

valuable means of final approach in cases of

resistance whereby subjects are given every

chance to comply with the officer’s requests.

This, in effect, is mediation and it is the officer’s

role to give the subjects a fresh personal view of

the situation from their own perspective. Let the

subject say what they want, as long as they do

what the officer wants.

Step 1: simple appeal. Ask the subject to

comply with the officer’s request. Some

members of the public may respond to a

direct request from a police officer

Step 2: reasoned appeal. Explain why the

request has been made, what law if any

has been broken, and what conduct has

caused the request

Step 3: personal appeal. This may remind

the subject that they may be jeopardising

values that are high priorities to them such

as:

the loss of free time if arrested or while

in court, or imprisonment

the loss of money, to pay travelling expenses

or court fines, costs etc

the loss of income and prestige

of their employment

the possibility of a criminal record, and its

potential impact upon future job applications

the loss of respect of their partner

and family

Officers may need to think for the subject, and

create and present certain options for them

Step 4: final appeal. At this stage subjects

may have confirmed their resistance to the

officer’s requests. The officer should now

finally tell them what is required and use a

phrase that means the same as the

following example:

“Is there anything I can reasonably do to

make you co-operate with me/us?”

Step 5: action. Physical force may be the

only option left in a case of continued

resistance. The option that the officer may

choose will be based upon the threat that

they perceive (see Use of Force, Conflict

Management Model and Personal

Management Module). It may also be

necessary to record the events (see Use of

Force Reporting, Monitoring and Writing

Module).

Ancillary communication

skills

The following skills support the bulk of this

module and may provide the officer with

additional points for consideration.

Commentary work

In police driving terms, when officers get behind

the wheel of a police vehicle under instruction, it

is required that they give a running commentary

about everything that is happening around them.

This systematically takes into account 360-degree

awareness, both outside and inside the vehicle.

With practice, this forces the driver to look well

ahead instead of looking just in front of the

bonnet, thereby seeing hazards early and dealing

with them effectively.

In personal safety terms, it is also important to

read the situation early, in order to make

appropriate decisions. The greatest benefit of

talking commentary, however, is that while

officers are doing it, they cannot do anything

else. By not being able to do anything else, this

prevents the officer from thinking about issues

that are not relevant to the matter in hand.

Without commentary, officers might give the

impression of awareness, yet their mind might be

elsewhere. All ancillary, superfluous thoughts are

excluded in favour of talking commentary.

Additionally, with practice, talking commentary

becomes ‘habit-forming’ and can be a key to

permanent awareness at a subliminal,

subconscious level.

When this happens it is said that officers have

created ‘multi-tasking’, in that they may be able

to function on a conscious level, ie while

conducting a conversation, yet the colour code

system is operating (see Personal Management

Module). Essentially, this is another example of

the officer detaching themselves from their body

and watching themselves from a distance (see

Psychological Splitting - Personal

Management Module).

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Multi-officer

communication

When attempting to control subjects, the process

of communication can be unprofessionally

destroyed when officers ‘overtalk’ each other. It

may be very easy to ruin an individual officer’s

rapport with a subject by interrupting at a crucial

time. Alternatively, it may assist an officer who is

failing to verbally persuade the subject and needs

rescuing. Be aware that in attempting to rescue an

officer (the victim) from the subject (the

persecutor) the rescuing officer may become the

focus of attention. This is known as a ‘drama or

Korpmen triangle’, and it may be used in

conjunction with ego state communication.

In an effort to prevent this happening, the use of

the clock system of positioning may be helpful.

The contact (communicating officer) generally

stands at the 12 o’clock position and may

communicate with the subject. If another officer

intervenes, or if the subject decides to talk to

another officer, then that officer will assume the

12 o’clock position.

Additionally, this may be used to tactical

advantage when attempting to misdirect the

attention of a subject by communication skills, in

order to place them in a specific position (see

Unarmed Skills, Baton, Incapacitant and Edged

Weapon Skills Module).

Crisis communication

Occasionally, officers may need to use loud,

repetitive, verbal commands by shouting as a

means of controlling the subject. It is important

to realise that simple language with short phrases

should be used, because a determined subject or

non-English speaking subject may fail to

understand complicated messages. Similarly, the

officer may not be able to physiologically mouth

complicated words due to the stress of the

situation (see Personal Management Module).

Therefore, officers should attempt to use the

following communication.

Before physical engagement

“Stop”

“Get back”

“Stay back.”

There may be similar derivatives that officers

personally use.

During the encounter

Physical actions take priority, therefore it may be

impossible to shout while the officer is physically

exerted and needs oxygen to operate effectively.

However, if possible, clear messages should be

given, such as:

“Stop fighting”

“Stop resisting”

“Stop kicking.”

Following the encounter when control has

been achieved.

At this stage, it is important for the officers to

de-escalate their level of response. This may be

achieved by paralinguistics such as lowering the

volume of speech and reassuring the subjects. In

this regard, officers may use phrases similar to:

“Stop struggling”

“Relax, it’s all over.”

Officers should also give the subjects information

and, where necessary, instructions as to their next

steps, such as:

“I’m now going to handcuff you”

“I’m going to stand you up.”

Such information may give the subject the chance

to comply with the officer’s requests and to

comply with their actions.

Occasionally, officers who are confronted by

subjects who verbally shout and scream at them

may momentarily freeze, simply because they

cannot believe the ferocity of the barrage of

verbal abuse that they are encountering (see

Fright, Flight, Fight, Posturing, Submission -

Personal Management Module). If this is the

case, officers may decide to use aggressive

counter-verbal and non-verbal

communication skills.

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Every officer may have a certain degree of

aggressive potential, but the real skill is learning

how to guide that aggression. The art of

assertion can be a viable alternative, and the

assertive skills that can be gained from quality

personal safety training may guide officers, not

only through potentially hostile situations, but

also through minor irritations. In turn,

assertiveness may lift the officer’s spirits and

preserve their self-esteem.

Establishing self-esteem is an important by-

product of personal safety and nowhere is that

more important than in the operational arena.

Although some officers may be pacifist by

nature, there may be some situations when they

must change that nature very quickly. If officers

present themselves assertively, then some

subjects may not want to persist with the

confrontation; however that does not mean that

all subjects will comply. Aggressive verbal and

non-verbal communication often precedes loss of

physical control by the subject(s). For the

untrained officer who may be emotionally

‘disarmed’, this can be dangerous, yet for the

assertively trained officer, this time may be used

effectively. During this period of verbal/non-

verbal attack, the officer may use the window of

opportunity that is presented, and be pre-emptive

(see Use of Force and Unarmed Skills Module)

or possibly escape from the situation (see

Unarmed Skills and Edged Weapon Skills

Module). Alternatively, officers may reply

verbally with submissive or aggressive counter-

verbals. This pre-physical management is a

product of rehearsed theatre acting and

modelling of the subject. This may turn the

situation around in favour of the officer both in

time and, ultimately, control, so that it is the

subject who experiences the denial stage and is

disarmed (see Colour Codes - Personal

Management Module). However, officers should

similarly be aware of the subject who has

mentally rehearsed what to say and what to do, in

a pre-meditated and cold, clinical fashion.

Further reading

Byrnes, J. D. and Flesch, R., The Art of

Aggression Management. How to Prevent

Violence in the Workplace. FLETC Inc.

Unpublished material

Thompson, G., The Fence, The Art

of Protection. Summersdale. ISBN-

1-84024-084-9

The Judicial Studies Board Guide June 1994

Maggio, R., The Dictionary of Bias-Free

Usage. A Guide to Non-Discriminatory

Language. ORYX ISBN 0-89774-653-8

Officer Safety Manual. Metropolitan Police,

Public Order Branch, Officer Safety Unit

Clements, P. and Spinks, T., The Equal

Opportunities Guide. Second Edition.

National Police Training.

ISBN 0-7494-2103-7

Post Traumatic Stress Disorder - A Proactive

Approach. Course material notes. Faculty of

Personnel and Resource Management,

National Police Training, Bramshill

Trainers’ Development Programme

Centrex, Harrogate

Schwimmer, L. D. (1995), The Art of

Resolving Conflicts in the Workplace, Study

Guide. Kantola Productions, 55 Sunnyside

Avenue, Mill Valley, California 94941-1924

The Arts of Criticism, Giving and Taking,

Study Guide. Kantola Productions, 55

Sunnyside Avenue, Mill Valley, California

94941-1924

Thompson, G., Fear - The Friend of

Exceptional People. Summersdale.

ISBN-1-84024-091-1.

Lindenfield, G., Assert Yourself. Thorsons.

ISBN 0-7225-2652-0

Nixdorf, J., Aggression into Assertion:

Taming the Beast Within. Inside

Karate Article May 1997.

Investigative Interviewing Trainers’

Manual. National Crime Faculty.

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Personal Safety

Conflict Management Model

INTRODUCTION & AIM 1

CONFLICT MANAGEMENT

MODEL 2

INFORMATION/INTELLIGENCE

RECEIVED 2

THREAT ASSESSMENT 2

POWERS & POLICY 4

TACTICAL OPTIONS 4

Introduction

The nature of policing is such that conflict is sometimes

inevitable. This can range from verbal abuse or minor assault

to serious public disorder or assault with lethal weapons.

The appropriate police response in such situations will also

vary greatly. On some occasions, a police presence alone may

be sufficient, in other circumstances it may be necessary to

resort to the deployment of large numbers of officers or even

lethal force. Clearly, it will never be possible to document all

the tactical options that could be deployed to deal with

conflict. What matters is that the police response is lawful and

proportionate in the specific circumstances and that, at all

times, individual officers act within the law and the powers

they are given.

The primary aim in such situations will always be to control

and neutralise any threat in order to maintain the peace and

uphold the law as safely as possible for all concerned.

CONFLICT MANAGEMENT MODEL

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The aim

therefore of

this module is:

Understand the

contents of

this module

Be able to

apply the

contents of

this module

where

necessary

Link with other

modules

contained within

this manual


2

Threat Assessment

Powers and Policy

Information/ Intelligence Received

Tactical Options

Action(s)

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Conflict Management Model

A ‘Conflict Management Model’ has been

adopted to support and assist decision making as

to the most appropriate response. Adherence to

the model will also assist officers when writing

reports after an incident and if they are

subsequently called upon to justify their actions.

The model can also be applied to a range of non-

conflict policing situations in order to avoid

danger or conflict.

The model sets out a number of issues to

consider when making decisions regarding the

most appropriate option in any given

circumstance. It is the same model that is

included in the ‘ACPO Manual of Guidance on

Police Use of Firearms’ and the ‘ACPO Manual

of Guidance on Keeping the Peace’.

Communications staff will be able to support

this aspect by obtaining as much information as

possible from persons requesting police

attendance, or other available sources.

While hearsay may only be admissible as

evidence in court in certain circumstances, it is

likely to be very relevant if an officer has to

explain, or assist another person to understand,

why a particular course of action was taken.

Feelings may also be important and it is worth

noting here that it is not wrong for a police officer

to feel frightened. Indeed, an admission of this

may help another person to understand more

clearly why the officer reacted as they did. (see

Use of Force reporting and Writing Module)

The cyclic nature of the model indicates the need

for constant re-assessment. If circumstances

change any original intended action may no

longer be appropriate.

Information/intelligence

received

A correct and defendable decision is more likely

to result from consideration of all relevant

information and intelligence. This may come

from what the individual officer sees, hears or

even feels for themselves, or from what they are

told by another person. Information from local or

force-wide indexes, experience from previous

encounters or data gleamed from a use of force

reporting system may also be relevant.

Threat assessment

On the basis of the information/intelligence, an

officer will be able to make an assessment of the

threat they face. The threat to the officer is most

likely to emanate from the person or persons they

are dealing with or even themselves, any objects

that may be present, or the place where the

encounter occurs. This can be simplified as

follows, although the issues shown are by no

means exhaustive lists.

Subject: Profiled subject behaviour

This includes the use of weapons.

Subject: Impact factors

This is not an exhaustive list

Object: Impact factors

Weapons

Vehicles

Objects on the ground


Place: Impact factors


The threat faced can generally be categorised as

a high risk or unknown risk. This is not intended

to suggest that a situation will never present a

low risk, but such an assessment can lead to

complacency. What is important is that where no

immediate obvious risk or threat is identified,

officers must still remain aware of the need to

maintain safety, (see Personal Management

Module).

©CENTREX (Central Police Training and Development Authority) June 2004 - REVISED MAY 2005

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1. Compliance

The subject offers no resistance and

complies with requests

2. Verbal resistance and gestures

The subject refuses to comply either verbally or, by their body language, non-verbally

3. Passive resistance

The subject stands/sits/lies still and will not move

4. Active resistance

The subject pulls away or pushes the

officer, but makes no attempt to strike them

5. Aggressive resistance

The subject physically attacks the officer

6. Serious or aggravated resistance

The subject commits an assault, which presents the possibility of serious injury or death.

Sex, age, size of subject

Strength of subject

Skill level of subject

Exhaustion of subject

Injury of subject

Number of subjects

Special knowledge of subject

Alcohol consumed by subject

Drugs taken by subject

State of subjects mental health

Subject’s physiology

Subject’s perception of the non-verbal behaviour of an officer

Subject’s perception of imminent danger

Subject being in a position of

perceived disadvantage

Subject’s perception of the officers level of force

Environmental features

Crowds or venues in the immediate vicinity

Other dangers not directly associated with the incident


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Powers and policy

As previously stated, officers must only act

within the law. A sound knowledge and

understanding of available legal powers is

therefore essential. Guidance on the legal aspects

of the use of force is included elsewhere in this

manual, (see Use of Force module).

In addition, local or force policies may determine

what or how action should be taken. For

example, in some forces positive arrest polices

have been developed in relation to domestic or

racial violence.

Tactical options

It is not possible to list all the options available

to deal with conflict; for example, in certain

circumstances to do nothing may actually be an

option. However, each of the techniques

described in this manual represents a tactical

option. It is vital that officers understand the

medical implications of each option, as this is

likely to be very relevant in making the

appropriate choice. An option that carries a high

risk of serious injury is less likely to be justified

in circumstances where the threat posed carries a

limited risk to others. The tactical option chosen

must be proportionate to the threat faced in all

the circumstances.

Reasonable officer response options

1. Officer’s presence

This includes the way the officer

approaches the scene, their manner,

appearance and professionalism.

2. Communication skills

The officers ability to effectively

communicate verbally and non-verbally.

3. Primary control skills

Use of empty hand skills, pressure points,

arm-locks, wrist-locks, use of handcuffs

and restraints, using a baton.

4. Secondary control skills

Use of Incapacitants.

5. Defensive and offensive skills

Blocks, strikes, takedowns with unarmed

skills, batons or handcuffs.

6. Deadly force

Any action likely to cause serious

injury or death. Use of unarmed skills,

baton, firearms or by any other means.

Impact factors

Sex, age, size of officer

Strength of officer

Skill level of officer

Exhaustion of officer

Injury of officer

Number of officers

Special knowledge of officer

Officer’s physiology

Officer’s perception of the non verbal

behaviour of a subject

Officer’s perception of imminent danger

Officer’s perception of being in a position

of disadvantage

Officer’s perception of the subjects

level of resistance


Action(s)

Having considered all the above aspects, an

officer is more likely to make an appropriate

decision in relation to the action they take.

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