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September 2016

PersonalizedCompetency-Based Educati on:Creati ng a Cohesive and Coherent System

By Jennifer S. Norford and Robert J. Marzano

Personalized Competency-Based Educati on | September 2016 1PersonalizedCompetency-BasedEducation|September2016 1

PersonalizedCompetency-BasedEducation:CreatingaCohesiveandCoherentSystem

ByJenniferS.NorfordandRobertJ.Marzano

SincePresidentObamasignedtheEvery StudentSucceedsAct(ESSA)intolawonDecember10,2015,supportersofpersonalizedandcompetency-basedlearninghaveexaminedtheopportunitiesthelawaffordsstatestoexpandtheseapproaches(see,forexample,AllianceforExcellentEducation,2016;CenteronInnovationsinLearning,2016;KnowledgeWorks,2016;Knowles,2016;Pace,2016).Theenablingprovisionsincludethosethatallowstatestoredesignassessmentsforstudent-centeredlearning,pilotnewassessmentsystemsthatalignwithcompetency-educationapproaches,andimplementpersonalized,blended,andonlinelearningapproaches.

WellbeforethepassageofESSAmanystatesacrossthenationhadbeenadoptingpoliciesandpilottestingpersonalized-learningapproachesandcompetency-basedinnovationsinK–12education(Patrick,Worthen,Frost,&Gentz,2016;Sturgis,2016a).Briefsonstatepolicieshavereportedthatapproximately90percentofstateshavepoliciesdesignedtoenableandscalepersonalized-andcompetency-learningapproachesandhaveidentifiedadvancedstatesasArizona,Colorado,Idaho,Iowa,Maine,NewHampshire,Ohio,Oregon,Utah,andVermont(Patrick,Worthen,Frost,&Gentz,2016;Sturgis,2015).Relevantlegislationandpoliciesincludethosethatprovidecreditflexibility(forexample,policiesrelatedtoseattimewaiversandproficiency-baseddiplomas),allowmultiplepathwaystoearningcreditsandgraduating(forexample,expandedlearningopportunitiessuchasinternshipsandcommunityservice;onlinelearninganddualenrollment),andredesignassessmentandaccountabilitysystems.

Inthe2016–17schoolyear,manydistrictsinColoradorolledoutnewgraduationrequirementstomeetstateguidelinesthatrequirestudentstoshowwhattheyknoworcandoinEnglishandmathematicsthroughtests,projects,orcollege-levelcourses.Drivenbytheneedtobetterpreparestudentsforcollegeandtheworkplace,the“guidelinesaremeanttoprovideacommonsetofexpectationsforearningadiplomainastatethatuntilrecentlyallowedeachdistricttosetitsowncriteria”(Wright&Asmar,2016).Theguidelinesprovideamenuof12optionsandarenotintendedtoforcedistrictstoadoptacompetency-basedsystem.Rather,theyallowfortheadoptionofafullycompetency-basedsystembutprimarilyseektoexpandoptionsfordistrictsandstudentswhileensuringstudents’proficiency.

AsColoradodistrictsresearch,develop,andadoptnewgraduationrequirements,theymustselectfrommenuoptionsthatincludespecifiedscoresontests,suchasACCUPLACER,ACT,orACTCompass,andotherlesstraditionaloptions,suchaspassinggradesinconcurrentenrollmentpostsecondarycourses,capstoneprojects,orstandards-basedperformanceassessments.Manydistrictshaveoptedtokeepcredit-hourrequirementswhileadoptingoneormoreofthestatemenuoptions.Theresultisthatgraduationrequirementswillstillvaryacrossthestate,albeitwithsomecompetency-basedrequirementsinplaceforEnglishandmath(ColoradoDepartmentofEducation,2016).

PersonalizedLearning

Personalizedlearningistailoringlearningforeachstudent’sstrengths,needs,andinterests—includingenablingstudentvoiceandchoiceinwhat,how,when,andwheretheylearn—toprovideflexibilityandsupportstoensuremasteryofthehigheststandardspossible.(Patrick,Worthen,Frost,&Gentz,2016)


AdefinitionVariousdefinitionsofpersonalizedlearningandcompetency-basededucationexistinK–12(see,forexample,FoundationforExcellenceinEducation,n.d.;Patrick,Kennedy,&Powell,2013;RANDCorporation,2014;U.S.DepartmentofEducation,n.d.).Recentdefinitionstendtoincorporatetheconceptofcompetency-basedintopersonalizedlearning (see,forexample,KnowledgeWorks,2016.).

Thiswhitepaperoutlinesourresponsetothecalltocreatea“cohesiveunderstandingofhowpersonalizedlearningandcompetencyeducationgohandinhand”(Sturgis,2016a).Werefertotheapproachaspersonalizedcompetency-basededucation(PCBE),andithasthefollowingcharacteristics:

• Studentsmoveontothenextlevelwithinasubjectareaonlyaftertheyhavedemonstratedproficiencyatthecurrentlevel.

• Thetimerequiredtolearncontentisnotafactorinjudgingstudents’competencies.

• Studentshavemultipleopportunitiesandwaystolearnspecificcontent.

• Studentshavemultipleopportunitiesandwaystodemonstrateproficiencywithspecificcontent.

• Developmentofstudentagencyisacentralfocusinadditiontoproficiencywithacademiccontent.

• Studentshavechoiceintheteachingandlearningprocess.

• Studentshavevoiceintheteachingandlearningprocess.

Thisexampleillustratesthechallengedistrictsandschoolsacrossthenationfaceastheydesignandimplementpersonalizedcompetency-basedlearningsystems.Inmanyways,creatingapersonalizedcompetency-basedlearningsystemresemblestheprocessofastudentcreatingalearningpathwaywithinsuchasystem—withincertainparameters,therearemanyoptions,andeachdecisioninfluencesthenext.

Whatdoesitlooklike?

Whenwetalktoeducatorsaboutpersonalizedcompetency-basedapproaches,almostalways,thefirstquestiontheyaskis:Whatdoesitlooklike?Fromdistrictleaders:Whatdoesitlooklikeifyouhavetwenty-fivehundredkidsdoingtwenty-fivehundreddifferentthingsatthesametime?Ifeachmodelisunique,howdoweprovidetherightsupportsforourschools?Fromschoolleaders:Howdowegetstarted?Howdoweschedule?Howdoweempowerstudentsandteachers?Howdoweinvolveparents?Fromteachers:DoIhavetocreate27differentlessonplanseveryday?DoIstillteachifstudentsareinchargeoftheirlearning?Howdoweputkidsinchargeoftheirownlearning?

Respondingtonewgraduationrequirements,asColoradodistrictshavebeenrecently,isonlyonepieceofamuchlargersystemchangewhentransitioningtoapersonalizedcompetency-basedsystem.Andeducatorsarelookingforanswers.

Howdoyouputthepiecestogether?

Personalizedcompetency-basededucation(PCBE)systemsmaylookdifferenteverywhere,butdistricts,schools,andclassroomscanfollowaschemaorblueprinttoasktherightquestionsbeforedivinginheadfirst.WhendesigningaPCBEsystem,eachpiecemustworkinconcertwiththeotherpiecessothatthewholeisgreaterthanthesumoftheparts.Wesuggeststartingwithsevendesignquestions:

1. Whatcontentwillbeaddressedwithinthesystem?2. Howwillthelearningenvironmentsupportstudent

agency?3. Howwillinstructionsupportstudentlearning?4. Howwillstudentproficiencybemeasured?5. Howwillschedulingaccommodatestudentlearning?6. Howwillreportingfacilitatestudentlearning?7. Howdowetransition toaPCBEsystem?

Thesequestionshelpleadershipteamsputthepiecestogethertocreateasystemthatconnectskeyfeaturesofpersonalizedlearningwiththetechnicalrequirementsnecessarytofullyimplementacompetency-basedsystem.

Personalized Competency-Based Education | September 2016 3PersonalizedCompetency-BasedEducation|September2016 3

Whatcontentwillbeaddressedwithinthesystem?

Contentprovidesthefoundationofapersonalizedcompetency-basedsystem.Itdefineswhattheschoolcommunitybelievesisimportantforstudentstomaster—theacademicknowledgeandskills,thinkingskills,socialandpersonalskills,workhabitsanddispositions,andotherdomainsthatthecommunityfindsimportant.Werecommendschoolsincludethreegeneralcategoriesofknowledgeaspartofthecontentstudentsmustmaster:(1)traditionalacademiccontent,(2)cognitiveskills,and(3)metacognitiveskills.

Traditionalacademiccontent.ThiscontentincludesknowledgeandskillshistoricallytaughtinK–12schoolsandcomprisescontentareassuchasEnglishlanguagearts(ELA),worldhistory,geography,economics,biology,chemistry,algebra,geometry,foreignlanguages,computerscience,andsoon.Thekeytodeterminingtheacademiccontentofasystemliesinprioritizingandunpackingstandards.Thisstepisnecessarybecausemoststandardsdocuments—whetherCommonCoreStateStandardsorotherstate-standardsdocuments,suchastheTexasEssentialKnowledgeandSkills(TEKS)—simplycontaintoomuchcontenttoteachandassess.Totacklethischallenge,werecommendschoolsordistrictsusethedetailedprocessoutlinedinASchoolLeader’sGuidetoStandardsBasedGrading(Heflebower,Hoegh,&Warrick,2014).Thefollowingstepsshouldbecarriedoutbyteamsofteacherswhoareexpertsintheircontentareas:(1)analyzestandardsdocuments,(2)selectpreliminaryprioritizedstandards,(3)categorizeprioritizedstandards,and(4)reviewandrevisethefinalselection.

Alternatively,aschoolordistrictcanstartwithTheCriticalConcepts(Simms,2016),asetofunpackedstandardsdevelopedbyMarzanoResearch.ThissetofunpackedstandardsprovidesafocusedsetofmeasurementtopicsforeachK–12gradelevelinthecontentareasofEnglishlanguagearts(ELA),mathematics,andscienceandformsthebasisforschoolsordistrictstocreatetheirownsetofmeasurementtopics.Oncemeasurementtopicsareidentified,teamsdeveloplearningtargetsthatarticulatethespecificknowledgeandskillsthatstudentsmustknoworbeabletodoinordertodemonstratemasteryofameasurementtopic.

Proficiencyscales.Asanextstep,westronglyrecommendthatdistrictsorschoolsconstructproficiencyscalesforeachmeasurementtopic.Proficiencyscaleshavetheirgroundinginlearningprogressionswhichare“aseriesofrelatedlearninggoalsthatculminateintheattainmentofamorecomplexlearninggoal”(Marzano,2010,p.11).Learningprogressionsdescribethestepsthatstudentsandteachersneedtotaketoeventuallyreachalearningtargetormasteratopic.Initssimplestform,aproficiencyscaleisastatementofprogressivelymorecomplexexpectationsregardingtheknowledgeandskillswithinameasurementtopic(Figure1).

Thebestwaytounderstandaproficiencyscaleistostartwiththescore3.0ortargetcontent(thatis,learningtarget)ofthescale,whicharticulatestheexpectationsforeachmeasurementtopic.Forexample,takethefifth-gradesciencemeasurementtopicPropertiesofMatter.ThestatementofexpectationisClassifymaterialsbasedontheirproperties(magnetism,conductivity,density,solubility,boilingpoint,meltingpoint).

4.0 Advancedcontent

3.0 Targetcontent

2.0 Simplercontentnecessaryforproficiency

1.0 Withhelp,partialsuccesswithscore2.0contentandscore3.0content

0.0 Evenwithhelp,nosuccess

Figure1.Genericformofaproficiencyscale


Thescore2.0contentinvolvessimplercontentthatisnecessaryforstudentstomasterbeforemeetingthelearningtarget(score3.0)andthatwillbedirectlytaught.Thislastpointiscritical.Score2.0shouldnotcontainalltheinformationandskillsnecessarytomeetthescore3.0expectations,butitshouldcontaincontenttheteacherfeelsmustbedirectlytaughttostudents.Score2.0contenttypicallyincludeskeyvocabulary,basicprocesses,andbasicdetails.Forthescore3.0sciencecontentoutlinedprevious,thescore2.0contentmightbeasfollows:

• Studentswillrecognizeandrecallbasicvocabulary,suchasmagnetism,conductivity,density,solubility,boilingpoint,meltingpoint

• Studentswillperformbasicprocesses,suchaso Makingobservationstoidentifythepropertiesofamaterialo Takingmeasurementstoidentifythepropertiesofamaterial

Score4.0contentinvolvesgoingaboveandbeyondtheexpectationsofthescore3.0learningtarget.Manytimes,thisrequiresstudentstomakeinferencesandapplicationsnotaddressedinclass.Score1.0doesnotinvolvespecificcontent.Rather,itindicatesthatastudentcandemonstratepartialunderstandingoforskillatthescore2.0and3.0content,butonlywithhelp.Score0.0indicatesthat,evenwithhelp,astudentcannotdemonstrateknowledgeoforskillatanyofthecontent.Whencomplete(Figure2),theproficiencyscalecontainsthesimplercontentandthemorecomplexcontentofthemeasurementtopic.

4.0 InadditiontoScore3.0,thestudentwilldemonstratein-depthinferencesandapplicationsthatgobeyondwhatwastaught.

3.5 Inadditiontoscore3.0performance,partialsuccessatscore4.0content.3.0 Thestudentwill:

Classifymaterialsbasedontheirproperties(magnetism,conductivity,density,solubility,boilingpoint,meltingpoint).

2.5 Nomajorerrorsoromissionsregardingscore2.0content,andpartialsuccessatscore3.0content.2.0 Thestudentwillrecognizeandrecallbasicvocabulary,suchasmagnetism,conductivity,density,

solubility,boilingpoint,meltingpoint.Thestudentwillperformbasicprocesses,suchas:•Makingobservationstoidentifythepropertiesofamaterial.•Takingmeasurementstoidentifythepropertiesofamaterial.

1.5 Partialsuccessatscore2.0content,andmajorerrorsoromissionsregardingscore3.0content.1.0 Withhelp,partialsuccessatscore2.0contentandscore3.0content.0.5 Withhelp,partialsuccessatscore2.0contentbutnotatscore3.0content.0.0 Evenwithhelp,nosuccess.

Figure2.Completeproficiencyscaleforafifth-gradesciencemeasurementtopic

Thecompleteproficiencyscale(Figure2)hashalf-pointscores.Thisfeaturegreatlyenhancesthescale’suseasameasurementdevice.Score0.5meansthatastudentcandemonstratepartialknowledgeofthescore2.0contentwithhelpbutnoknowledgeofscore3.0content.Score1.5indicatesthatthestudentcanindependentlydemonstratepartialknowledgeofthescore2.0content.Score2.5meansthatastudentcandemonstrateknowledgeofthescore2.0contentandhaspartialsuccesswiththescore3.0content.Score3.5meansthatastudentisproficientwiththescore3.0contentandcandemonstratepartialknowledgeoforskillatthescore4.0level.Oncedeveloped,themeasurementtopicsandtheirassociatedproficiencyscalesprovidethefoundationforcurriculum,instruction,andassessmentinaPCBEsystem.


Cognitiveskills.Theseskillsarebrain-basedskillsthatweusetofunction—tothink,read,remember,payattention.Theseskillshelpus“effectivelyprocessinformationandcompletetasks.Cognitiveskillsarerequiredfortasksinvolvingretrieval,comprehension,analysis,andutilizationofknowledge”(Marzano,Yanoski,Hoegh,&Simms,2013).Agoalofpersonalizedlearningandcompetencyeducationistoensurestudentslearntolearn.Forexample,theIowaDepartmentofEducation(2016)providesthefollowingguidelinesforPK–12competency-basededucation:

Competency-basededucationresultsindeeperlearningoutcomesforstudentsastheyengageinapplication,analysis,andevaluationofacademiccontenttoprepareforpost-secondarysuccess.Studentsreachproficiencyofacademiccontentwhilelearninghowtothinkcriticallyandcreatively,collaborateandcommunicateeffectively,adapttochallengesandcomplexproblems,andbeaccountableforqualityresults.

Ourrecommendedlistofcognitiveskillsthatcansupportstudentsinreachingdeeperlearningoutcomesincludes:

• Generatingconclusions• Identifyingcommonlogicalerrors• Presentingandsupportingclaims• Navigatingdigitalsources• Problemsolving• Decisionmaking• Experimenting• Investigating• Identifyingbasicrelationshipsbetweenideas• Generatingandmanipulatingmentalimages

Althoughcognitiveskillsshouldbetaughtdirectlyandpracticed,justliketraditionalacademiccontent,werecommendthatschoolsdonotteacheveryskillateachgradelevel.Rather,wesuggestthatschoolsdeterminewhencertainskillswillbetaughtandwithinthecontextofwhatspecificsubjectareas.Forexample,aschoolcanfocusonmorebasiccognitiveskills,suchasidentifyingbasicrelationshipsbetweenideasandgeneratingandmanipulatingmentalimagesinlowergrades,sayK–4,whiledistributingotherskillsacrosslevels—forexample,addressinggeneratingconclusionsatlevels1,3,5,and7,whileaddressingdecisionmakingexplicitlyatlevels2,4,6,and8.Athigh-schoollevels,cognitiveskillsmaybebestplacedwithinthecontextofcertainsubjectareas.Forexample,generatingconclusionsmightbetaughtinEnglishlanguagearts,experimentinginscience,andproblemsolvinginmathematicscourses.Thepointisthateachskilldoesnothavetobetaughtateachlevel,andschoolsshouldmakeclearplanstoreasonablyandadequatelydispersethemthroughoutthecurriculum.

Metacognitiveskills.Weusemetacognitiveskillstoprovideexecutivecontroloverouractions—inotherwords,tothinkaboutthinking.Theyhelpusperformmentalandphysicalactionsmoreeffectivelyandefficiently,becomemoreself-aware,andself-assess.

Metacognitiveskillsthatsupportstudentsinreachingdeeperlearningoutcomesinclude:

• Planningforgoalsandmakingadjustments• Stayingfocusedwhenanswersandsolutionsarenotimmediatelyapparent


• Pushingthelimitsofone’sknowledgeandskills• Generatingandpursuingone’sownstandardsofexcellence• Seekingincrementalsteps• Seekingaccuracy• Seekingclarity• Resistingimpulsivity• Seekingcohesionandcoherence

Schoolscantreatmetacognitiveskillslikecognitiveskills—teachthemonlyatspecificgradelevelsandwithinspecificcontentareas.Forexample,somemetacognitiveskillslikeplanningforgoalsandseekingaccuracycanbeaddressedevenlyacrossthegradelevels.Otherslikegeneratingandpursuingone’sownstandardsofexcellencearemoreappropriateathighergradelevels.

Howwillthelearningenvironmentsupportstudentagency?

Ourviewreflectsthatofothersinthefieldwhoassertthata“competency-basedstructureenablespersonalizedlearning…[and]…[w]ithclearandcalibratedunderstandingofproficiency,learningcanbetailoredtoeachstudent’sstrengths,needs,andinterestsandenablestudentvoiceandchoiceinwhat,how,when,andwheretheylearn”(CompetencyWorks,n.d.).APCBEsystemshouldshiftfromateacher-centeredenvironmenttoastudent-centeredlearningenvironmentthatfacilitatesthedevelopmentofstudentagency.

Onewayofframingthenecessaryshiftrequiredofacompetency-basedsystemiswiththeideaofself-efficacy.Atitscore,self-efficacyinvolvesthebeliefthatoneisultimatelyincontrolofhisorherlifeanddevelopmentoftheaccompanyingskillstoactualizethisbelief.Thisperspectivemightbethemostimportantoutcomethataformaleducationcanprovidetostudents.Theconstructofself-efficacyiscloselyrelatedtotheconceptofstudentagency,whichcanbedefinedas“thecapacityandpropensitytotakepurposefulinitiative—theoppositeofhelplessness”(Ferguson,Phillips,&Friedlander,2015,p.1).Reportingon“theinfluenceofteachingonemotions,motivations,mindsets,andbehaviorsthatweassociatewithagency,”theauthorsconcluded:“Thedevelopmentofagencymaybeasimportantanoutcomeofschoolingastheskillswemeasurewithstandardizedtesting”(p.1).

Ourapproachtofacilitatingstudentagencyinvolvesbothindividualandgroupresponsibilitiesandfocusesonfourprimarystrategies:(1)establishingasystemforsettingandmonitoringclassroomgoals;(2)creatingandusingstandardoperatingprocedures,orSOPs;(3)integratingstudentvoiceandchoiceintheteachingandlearningprocess;and(4)creatingamoreflexiblephysicalenvironment.Inthispaper,wediscussthefirsttwostrategies.

Establishingasystemforsettingandmonitoringclassroomgoals.Inourapproach,theprocessofsettingandmonitoringgoalshelpsstudentsconnecttotheschool’ssharedvisionanddevelopasenseofownershipforachievingthevision.TeachersandstudentscreateaCodeofCooperation(Langford,2015)toidentifybehavioraltraitstheywillmonitorindividuallyandasaclassinordertoachieveclassgoals(Figure3).Unlikethetraditionalprocessinwhichtheteacherestablishesasetofclassroomrulesthatstudentsareexpectedtofollow,studentsleadtheprocessofcreatingtheCodeofCooperationwithsupportfromtheteacherandthendesignrubricstomonitorhowtheyaremeetingtheCode.Studentsusetrackingformstosetandmonitorindividualgoalsusingsimplequestionssuchas:WhathaveImastered?WherecanIimprove?Whatismygoalforthenexttwoweeks?


Attheclassroomlevel,theteachercanassiststudentsinmonitoringtheirprogresstowardgoalsbycollectingexitslipsandaveragingscoresonspecifictraits.TheCodeofCooperationcanbealignedtoexistingschoolwideprograms,suchasPBIS,andcansupportstudentsindevelopingimportantpersonalandsocialskills,someofwhichmayalignwithmetacognitiveskills(forexample,self-control)andotherhabitsofworkormindthatstudentsprioritize(forexample,organization,accountability,respect).

Workingatboththeindividualandclassroomlevelsisimportant.Theclassroom-levelgoalsassiststudentsinworkingtogethertoaccomplishspecificobjectives,whiletheindividualgoalsassiststudentsindevelopingasenseofself-efficacyandagency.Thatis,setting,workingtoward,andachievingindividualgoalsassiststudentsindevelopingconfidenceintheirabilitiestoexertcontroloverspecificareasintheirlives,suchastheirmotivations,behaviors,andclassroomenvironment.

Creatingandusingstandardoperatingprocedures,orSOPs.Standardoperatingprocedures—asetofstep-by-stepinstructions—arecommoninmanyindustries,includingthemilitary,healthcare,andbusiness.Designedtoimproveefficiencyandquality,a“well-writtenSOPeliminatesconfusionanddisputes,ensuresrepeatability,andprovidesameansforcontinuousimprovement”(Weeden,2013).Inthepersonalizedcompetency-basedclassroom,SOPsplayakeyroleinclassroommanagementbyprovidingstudentswithtoolstoassumeresponsibilitiestraditionallyhandledbytheteacher.

SOPscanaddresssafetyorcomplianceissues(forexample,busroutinesorbathroombreaks),behaviors(forexample,washinghandsormanagingemotions),dailyclassroompractices(forexample,Ineedhelp,nowwhat?orhowtohandleiPadsandcomputersintheclassroom),oracademics(forexample,howtochooseagoodbookorhowtosolveacomplexproblem).Regardlessofthefocusarea,thepurposeofanSOPshouldbetoclarifyexpectations,toincreaseindependenceandself-monitoring,ortosolveorpreventproblemsorinefficiencies.

Howwillinstructionsupportstudentlearning?

Oneofthegreatmisconceptionsaboutapersonalizedcompetency-basedsystemisthattheteachernolongerteaches.True,apersonalizedcompetency-basedclassroomteacherprovideslesswhole-groupdirectinstruction,butteachersstillteach.Infact,teachersinaPCBEclassroomusemanyofthestrategiesusedinatraditionalclassroombutexecutethemindifferentwaysandwithdifferent

Figure3.ExampleofaCodeofCooperation

PersonalizedCompetency-BasedEducation|September2016 7

Attheclassroomlevel,theteachercanassiststudentsinmonitoringtheirprogresstowardgoalsbycollectingexitslipsandaveragingscoresonspecifictraits.TheCodeofCooperationcanbealignedtoexistingschoolwideprograms,suchasPBIS,andcansupportstudentsindevelopingimportantpersonalandsocialskills,someofwhichmayalignwithmetacognitiveskills(forexample,self-control)andotherhabitsofworkormindthatstudentsprioritize(forexample,organization,accountability,respect).

Workingatboththeindividualandclassroomlevelsisimportant.Theclassroom-levelgoalsassiststudentsinworkingtogethertoaccomplishspecificobjectives,whiletheindividualgoalsassiststudentsindevelopingasenseofself-efficacyandagency.Thatis,setting,workingtoward,andachievingindividualgoalsassiststudentsindevelopingconfidenceintheirabilitiestoexertcontroloverspecificareasintheirlives,suchastheirmotivations,behaviors,andclassroomenvironment.

Creatingandusingstandardoperatingprocedures,orSOPs.Standardoperatingprocedures—asetofstep-by-stepinstructions—arecommoninmanyindustries,includingthemilitary,healthcare,andbusiness.Designedtoimproveefficiencyandquality,a“well-writtenSOPeliminatesconfusionanddisputes,ensuresrepeatability,andprovidesameansforcontinuousimprovement”(Weeden,2013).Inthepersonalizedcompetency-basedclassroom,SOPsplayakeyroleinclassroommanagementbyprovidingstudentswithtoolstoassumeresponsibilitiestraditionallyhandledbytheteacher.

SOPscanaddresssafetyorcomplianceissues(forexample,busroutinesorbathroombreaks),behaviors(forexample,washinghandsormanagingemotions),dailyclassroompractices(forexample,Ineedhelp,nowwhat?orhowtohandleiPadsandcomputersintheclassroom),oracademics(forexample,howtochooseagoodbookorhowtosolveacomplexproblem).Regardlessofthefocusarea,thepurposeofanSOPshouldbetoclarifyexpectations,toincreaseindependenceandself-monitoring,ortosolveorpreventproblemsorinefficiencies.

Howwillinstructionsupportstudentlearning?

Oneofthegreatmisconceptionsaboutapersonalizedcompetency-basedsystemisthattheteachernolongerteaches.True,apersonalizedcompetency-basedclassroomteacherprovideslesswhole-groupdirectinstruction,butteachersstillteach.Infact,teachersinaPCBEclassroomusemanyofthestrategiesusedinatraditionalclassroombutexecutethemindifferentwaysandwithdifferent

Figure3.ExampleofaCodeofCooperationFigure 3. Example of a code of cooperation


frequencies.Becausestudentscanbeatmanydifferentplacesacrossthesequenceofmeasurementtopics,whole-groupinstructionmightbeprimarilyfocusedoncognitiveandmetacognitiveskills.Ontheotherhand,small-groupinstructionmightbeadailyoccurrence.

ExternalinstructionalresourcescanassistteachersinaPCBEclassroominmanagingstudentsworkingondifferentmeasurementtopicssimultaneously.Wedefinetheseresourcesasanyalternativewayastudentcanreceiveinstructionorengagewithcontent(includingpracticinganddeepeningknowledgeorapplyingcontent).AnobviousexampleisaKhanAcademyvideo.Freeandeasilyaccessible,studentscanviewanynumberofvideostoreceivedirectinstructioninnewcontentortoreviewcontenttheyarestrugglingtolearn.OthersitessuchasZearnMathandNCESKids'Zone,otheropeneducationalresource(OER),orsubscription-basedsitesprovidecontentthatcanbeusedfordirectinstruction,small-groupandindividualpracticeorreviewsessions,orevenfull-blownknowledge-applicationprojects.

TeacherscanalsocreateinstructionalscreencasttutorialsonwebsiteslikeTeacherTubeorEducreations,oruseplatformslikeEdmodoorGoogleDocstocreatevirtualwarehousesofresources.InCharlestonCountySchoolDistrict,teachersfoundthattheirstudentsactuallypreferredviewingascreencastoftheteacherprovidingashortmini-lessontoaKhanAcademyvideoorotheronlineresource.Developingavirtualwarehouseofthistypeofresourcecertainlytakestimebutcanbecomeaninvaluableadditiontotheschool’scurriculum.

Howwillstudentproficiencybemeasured?

Measurementsofstudents’currentstatusandprogressarecentraltoaneffectivePCBEsystem.Studentsmusthaveaccesstoaccurateinformationabouttheirstatusandgrowthonspecificmeasurementtopicstoknowwhattheyneedtodotoimprove.Similarly,teachersmusthavethesamepreciseinformationtoknowhowtoalterinstructiontofacilitatestudentprogress.Weassertthataneffectivemeasurementsystemmustovercomethreechallenges:(1)violatingtheprincipleofunidimensionality,(2)relyingtooheavilyonsummativeassessments,and(3)overtesting.

Unidimensionality.Thetermunidimensionalityreferstotheideathatanassessmentshouldonlymeasureasingledimension.Whenanassessmenthasmorethanonedimensionrepresentedbyitsitems,itisdifficulttointerpretthefinalscoreastudentreceives.Toillustrate,considerthesituationdepictedinFigure4.

DimensionA DimensionB TotalScoreStudent1 4 20 24Student2 20 4 24Student3 12 12 24

Figure4.Scoresformultipledimensionsonatest

Figure4depictsthreestudents’scoresonatwenty-itemtestthatmeasurestwodimensions,AandB.Eachdimensioninvolvestenitemsworth2pointseachforatotalpossiblescoreof40points.DimensionAdealswiththethirdgradesciencetopicofLifeCycles,anddimensionBdealswiththetopicofFoodChainsandWebs.Thesetopicsarebothcoveredinscienceatthethird-gradelevel,buttheyhaveminimaloverlapintermsofcontent.Ifastudentknowsalotaboutlifecycles,itdoesn’tfollowthatheorshewillalsoknowalotaboutfoodchainsandwebs.


AllthreestudentsinFigure4havethesametotalscore,24,yettheirprofilesrelativetothetwodimensionsarequitedifferent.Student1performedwellondimensionB(thatis,received20outof20points)butnotondimensionA(thatis,received4outof20points).Student2exhibitedtheoppositepattern,performingwellontopicAbutnotontopicB.Student3hadamoderateperformanceonbothAandB.Becausethistestaddressedtwodimensions,theoverallscorestelluslittleaboutthestrengthsandweaknessesofeachstudentregardingthetwodimensions.Ineffect,theinformationaboutthethreestudentssuppliedbythetestisnotgeneralizablebeyondthisparticulartest.ThissituationisparticularlyproblematicinaPCBEsystemfocusedonmeasuringstudents’competencewithspecifictopics.

Over-relianceonasummativeassessment.InmanyPCBEschools,astudentmustearnapassingscoreonaspecificassessmenttobeconsideredproficient.However,asMarzano(2000,2006,2010)hasexplained,asingleassessmentshouldneverbeusedasthesoleconditionforastudent’scurrentstatusorgrade,becauseallassessmentsareinaccuratetosomedegreeandallscorescontainerror.Thefundamentalequationofclassicaltesttheorystatesthat

observedscore=truescore+errorscore

Whatdoesthismeanintheclassroom?Eachscoreastudentreceives(observedscore)includesatruescorecomponent(theprecisescorerepresentingwhatthestudentknowsonaparticulartopicataparticularpointintimeonaparticularassessment)andanerrorscorecomponent(thepartoftheobservedscoreresultingfromfactorsotherthanthestudent’sunderstandingorskill).

Forexample,astudent’sobservedscorewillincludehertruescore(whatshereallyknowsorcando)anderrorcausedbyanynumberoffactors,suchascarelessmistakes,incorrectscoring,correctguesses,orpoorlywrittenitems.Inanyofthesecases,thestudent’sobservedscorewillbehigherorlowerthanhertruescorebecauseoferror.

Overtesting.ItiseasyforaPCBEsystemtofallintothetrapofovertestingpreciselybecausethesystemneedstobetransparentaboutmasteryofthecontent.Thatis,ratherthanprovidinganoverallgradeforasubjectarea(suchasanAformathematics,andaB-forScience),aPCBEsystemmustprovidethestatusforeachstudentoneachmeasurementtopic(forexample,astudentmightbeproficientonthetopicofSlopeandIntercept,anddevelopingonthetopicofQuadraticEquations).Giventhateachlevelofthesystem(gradelevelorperformancelevel)shouldhaveaboutfifteentotwenty-fivemeasurementtopicsarticulatedasproficiencyscales(whichincludethreelevelsofcontentatscore2.0,3.0,and4.0),itiseasytoseehowasystemcanbecomeoverwhelmedwithassessments,tests,andscores.

Asanexample,considergrade(orlevel)8mathematics.Supposetheschoolhas20measurementtopicsforthislevel.Ifeachmeasurementtopichasanassociatedproficiencyscalewithcontentatscores2.0,3.0,and4.0,theschoolhas60setsofcontentstatements.Iftheschoolconsiderstheelementsofthesemeasurementtopicsinisolationandassessesthoseelementsinisolation,itiseasytoseehowthissituationwouldrequireaninordinateamountoftesting.ThesituationisexacerbatedinaPCBEsystembecausestudentsmusthavemultipleopportunitiestodemonstrateproficiency.Inthisexample,ifstudentsaveragedtwotestsbeforetheydemonstratedcompetencywithcontentataparticularlevelofaproficiencyscale,theywouldtake120testsperyear.Ifstudentsaveragedthreeassessmentstodemonstrateproficiency,then180testswouldberequiredforeachstudenteachyear,andsoon.Obviously,thismultipliereffectwouldrendertheassessmentsystemcompletelyimpractical.


Testless,assessmore.Useproficiencyscales.

Takeameasurementperspective.

Testless,assessmore.Werecommendanapproachof“testinglessandassessingmore”toaddressthesechallenges.Usingproficiencyscalesasthebasisforthecurriculum,instruction,andassessmentsysteminadistrictorschoolresolvestheissuesassociatedwithunidimensionality.Aproficiencyscalebydesignrepresentsasingledimension,sowhenassessmentsaredesignedusingascale,theyaddressonlyasingledimension.Teachersmustdesignassessmentsthataddressthescore2.0,3.0,and4.0contentofascalebutshouldnotassumethatitemsoneachassessmentmustbeconstructedforeveryelementofcontentinthescale.

UsingproficiencyscalescanhelpaPCBEsystemavoidviolatingtheprincipleofunidimensionality,whiletakingameasurementperspectivecanhelpaPCBEsystemavoidproblemsassociatedwithovertestingandrelyingtooheavilyonasingleassessment.Themeasurementprocessusesmultipleassessmentsadministeredovertimeonthesametopictodeterminestudentscores.Aspartofthemeasurementprocess,teacherscanuseawidevarietyofassessments,includingtraditionaltests,probingdiscussions,demonstrations,observations,student-generatedassessments,quickgroupassessments,andstudentself-assessments.Schoolsmusttakeinto

accountmethodsforscoringassessmentsanddeterminingsummativescores.Schoolscanuseavarietyofassessmentstosupporttheoveralldeterminationofstudentproficiency;theseincludesafetynetassessmentsandchecksagainststatetestscores.Finally,schoolscanandshouldassessbothcognitiveandmetacognitiveskills,typicallythroughcapstoneprojectsorpersonalprojects.

Howwillschedulingaccommodatestudentlearning?

Educatorsmaythinktheyneedtosolvetheproblemof30differentstudentsdoing30differentthingstoscheduleforaPCBEsystem,andthatisavalidconcern,althoughmaybeslightlyexaggerated.ThegoalofaPCBEsystemistoensurestudentsaremovingattheirownpacethroughtherequiredcontent,andthattheyreceivethesupportstheyneedtostayonpaceandtheexperiences(andsupports)theyneedtoadvancewhentheyareready.Still,itisnotalwaysthecasethateverysinglestudentwillbeworkingondifferentlearningtargetsatthesametime.Evenifthatsituationdoesoccur,smartschedulingcanassureanefficientsystem.

Schedulingshouldaddresstwoprimarygoals:(1)creatinganenvironmentwhereanygiventeacherisdealingwithstudentswhoareatorclosetothesamelevelofcompetenceforaparticularsubjectarea,and(2)providingopportunitiesforstudentstoaccessteachers,peers,andresourcestoaddressindividualneeds.Whetherworkingwithinatraditionalscheduleorcreatinganentirelynewschedule,strategiessuchasorganizingstudentsintogroupsbasedontheirperformanceonspecificmeasurementtopics,teamteaching,andfocusingonsmallgroupsofstudentscancreatelearningenvironmentswhereteachersfocusontwotothreelevels(forexample,teacherAworkswithstudentswhoareworkingontheendofgrade1andgrade2mathematicstopics,andteacherBworkswithendofgrade2andbeginningofgrade3mathematicstopics).Thisstructureavoidsscenariosinwhichateacherisresponsiblefortopicsthatcoverseverallevelsofcontent,whichisfrequentlyoverwhelming.

Focusedinstructiontime(FIT)isaschedulingtechniquethatisbecomingverypopularinschools.Inthisapproach,achunkoftimeissetasideforallstudentstohaveaccesstoteachersandresources.Openingupthebuildingforfullaccesstoallteachersforaparticularperiodoftime


allowsstudentstocompleteactivitiesorworkonadvancedmaterial.SchedulingFITcanworkacrossK–12intraditionalornon-traditionalschedules.Forexample,inatraditionalelementaryschoolclassroomateachermightorganizetheschedulesothathalfofherstudentshaveFITbeforelunchandtheotherhalfhaveFITafterlunch.Atthesecondarylevel,highschoolsmightcreatea60-minuteperiodinthemiddleofthedayduringwhichstudentscaneatlunch(alternatingtimestoaccommodatethestudentbody)andgototeachers’classroomsforadditionalsupport.AdvisoryperiodsinmiddleandhighschoolsarealsousefultimeperiodsforcreatingFIT.

Movingbeyondatraditionalscheduleandintegratingtechnologyintothedailyprogramopenupevenmorepossibilities.Themoststraightforwardapproachistoscheduleonlyonesubjecttobetaughtperperiod—forexample,allmathematicscoursesaretaughtatthesametimeeachday,allreadingcoursesaretaughtatthesametime,andsoon.Thelongerthistypeofschedulingisinplace,thetighterthegroupingofstudentsbecomesbecausestudentsarenotpushedthroughthesystemwithunaddressedcontentgaps.Thestudentsarriveatthenextlevelpreparedforthematerial,andnotimeisspenthavingtoreviewcontentbelowtheircurrentlevel.Anotheradvantagetothistypeofschedulingisthatmoreteachersareavailable,andtheycanprovidemoresupporttoindividualsandsmallgroupsofstudents.

Howwillreportingfacilitatestudentlearning?

Reportingisanareathatcanreallypushthecomfortzoneofparents,students,andteachers.TheultimategoalofaPCBEsystemistoreportstudentprogressandstatusonmeasurementtopics(academic,cognitive,andmetacognitive),andschoolscanuseoverallgradestoeasethetransition.Werefertothisapproachasstandards-referencedreporting.

Oneofthebigdecisionsforaschooliswhethertokeeptraditionalgradelevels.Intheswitchtolevels,thecontentrequiredforageneralhigh-schooldiplomaissequencedacrosslevels1–10withadvancedlevelsabove10(forexample,Advanced1,2,3,andsoon)forcontentthatgoesbeyondthatrequiredofageneralhigh-schooldiploma.Some,butnotall,contentareaswillrequire10levels.Forexample,worldlanguagesmighthavesevenlevels,artmighthavesixlevels,andcodingmighthavefourlevels.Eachcontentarea,then,containsasmanyorasfewlevelsasarenecessarytodescribeitsprogressionuptohighschoolgraduation.

Schoolsshouldconsidermethodsforreportingconcretelyandsystematicallyoneachstudent’spacerelativetotheexpectedpaceifthestudentistograduateontime.Thistypeofreportingmightbecarriedoutinformallyattheday-to-dayclassroomlevelwithwallchartsorpersonaltrackingforms.Atformalreportingintervals,studentsandparentsshouldreceiveinformationrelativetopacetowardgraduationacrossallsubjectareas.

Asmentionedpreviously,manyschoolsmightconsiderstandards-referencedreportingasasteppingstonetowardafullyimplementedPCBEsystem.Astandards-referencedsystemmaintainsgradelevelsandoverallgradesorscoresonreportcards.

Somenon-negotiablesforreportingincludethefollowing:

• Academicgradesorscoresmustbeseparatedfromgradesorscoresforotherareas,includingcognitiveskills,metacognitiveskills,habitsofmindorwork,effort,andsoon.

• Scoresmustbeincludedforeachmeasurementtopic.• Scoresshouldindicatethestudent’sinitialstatusandcurrentstatus.


Schoolscanusesimpleconversionchartstotranslateproficiencyscalescorestolettergrades,andshouldinvolveparents,students,andteachersinsettingthescaleconversions.TheywillhaveopinionsaboutwhatshouldconstituteanA,aB,andsoon,andtheirinitialinputwillhelpbuildconsensusforthetransition.

HowdowetransitiontoaPCBEsystem?

InadditiontothetechnicalconsiderationsfordesigningaPCBEsystem,districtsandschoolsmustconsideranimplementationtimelineforthetransition.Amongthemostimportantconsiderationsforthetransitionplanishowquicklytoimplementtherulethateverystudentmustachieveproficiencyoneachmeasurementtopicbeforetheymoveontothenextlevel.Thereareseveralapproachestothisissue,includingloweringthenumberofstandardsdependingonyearsinthesystem;startingwithcertaincontentareasfirst,thenexpandingtootherareas;startingwithcertaingradelevelsandprogressingwiththosestudents;startingwithpilotteacherteamsandmovingtowholeschool;andjumpinginheadfirst.

MarzanoResearchcanassistdistrictsinmappingplansforstartingimplementationwithseveralschoolsandscalingtoincludethewholedistrictaswellasstartingsmallandscalingwithinoneormoreschools.Wetypicallyrecommendatwo-yearramp-upphase,followedbyfullrollout.Forexample,YearOnemightincludesevensteps:(1)establishasharedvision,(2)beginworkingonproficiencyscales,(3)selectasmallgroupofvanguardteacherswhobeginexperimentingwithPCBEconcepts,(4)experimentwithadifferentreportingsystemforthevanguardclassrooms,(5)designtheinstructionalmodelthatwillbeused,(6)beginthedesignoftheassessmentsystem,and(7)begintheprocessofselectingalearningmanagementsystem.

YearTwomightincludesevenadditionalsteps:(1)createproficiencyscalesforothersubjectareasincludingsocialstudies,health,andphysicaleducation,(2)expandthevanguardgroup,(3)designthereportingsystem,(4)finalizetheinstructionalmodelthatwillbeused,(5)finalizetheassessmentsystem,(6)selectthelearningmanagementsystemandtrainthevanguardteachersinitsuse,and(7)ensureallteachersaretrainedwhowillbeinvolvedinthefirsttierofimplementation.

Duringtheramp-upphase,aschooldevelopscriticalfoundationalelementsforthesystem,whichallowsforafullrollouttotheschool.Thespecificstepsaschoolmighttakewillvary,andourapproachprovidesguidancethatassistsschoolsincarryingoutimportantfirststepstosupportthesystem.Forexample,ifaschoolfollowsthebasicstepsdescribedabove,attheendofthetwo-yearramp-upperiod,itwillhavethefollowingelementsinplace:

1. Proficiencyscalesforeachsubjectareaandeachgradelevel,withonlineresourcesandassessmentitemsforthescore2.0,3.0,and4.0contentineachscale.

2. Astudentrecord-keepingandmanagementsystemthat:a. Allowsteacherstoenterstudentmeasurements.b. Providesteacherswithaccesstoassessmentitemskeyedtoeachmeasurementtopic.c. Providesstudentswithaccesstoresourcesforeachmeasurementtopic.d. Reportsstudents’currentstatusandgrowthonmeasurementtopics.

3. Aninstructionalmodelthatisdesignedforuseinapersonalizedsystem.4. Agroupofinitialimplementationteacherswhohavebeentrainedinthesemajor

components.

Thisapproachpreparesschoolsforasuccessfulformalrollout.


OurWork

Aseducatorsseekbetterwaystopreparestudentsfortheworldbeyondhighschool,personalizedandcompetency-basedlearningwillcontinuetobeofinterestinK–12andhighereducation.And,asK–12districtsandschoolsfacethe“wickedchallenge”ofpersonalizinglearning(Becker,Freeman,Hall,Cummins,&Yuhnke,2016),theywillstruggletodefinepersonalizedlearning,designandimplementthesesystems,andmeasuretheirsuccess.

AtMarzanoResearch,weworktosupportdistrictsandschoolsinthisundertaking.OurframeworkprovidesthenutsandboltsforcreatingandimplementingaPCBEsystemaroundsevendesignquestions:

1. Whatcontentwillbeaddressedwithinthesystem?2. Howwillthelearningenvironmentsupportstudentagency?3. Howwillinstructionsupportstudentlearning?4. Howwillstudentproficiencybemeasured?5. Howwillschedulingaccommodatestudentlearning?6. Howwillreportingfacilitatestudentlearning?7. HowdowetransitiontoaPCBEsystem?

Foreachquestion,weworkwithdistrictsandschoolstoexamineconsiderations,approaches,andstrategiesastheydesigneffectivePCBEsystems.Wesupportimplementationatthedistrict,school,andclassroomlevelswithconsulting,technicalassistance,professionaldevelopment,andcoachingservicesthatsupportthedevelopmentofinfrastructureandprocessesforeachdesigncomponent.

CasestudiesandanecdotalevidencehaveindicatedthatPCBEapproachesassistteachersinbecomingmoreintentionalaboutdecisionsrelatedtocurriculum,instruction,andassessment,andincreasestudentmotivationandengagement(see,forexample,Sturgis,2016b).Otherresearchandcasestudieshaveshown“thereissomeevidencelinkingCBE(andpersonalizedlearning)withbetterhighschoolgrades,graduationrates,andothermarkers,whichonecouldreasonablyinferwouldhavesomebearingoncollegesuccess”(CenteronInnovationsinLearning,2015).

Resultsfromimplementationofacompetency-basedsysteminWestminsterPublicSchools,Colorado—thelargestschooldistrictinthecountrytoimplementCBEatallschoolsandallgradelevels,developedwithsupportfromMarzanoResearch—haveshownthat“studentshavebeguntoseethemselvesatthecenteroftheireducation,teacherssay;achievementgapshavebecomemoreapparentandeasiertoaddress;anddistrict-wide,thosegapshavebeenclosing”(Turner,2013).ArecentstudyofschoolsfundedbytheBill&MelindaGatesFoundationtoimplementpersonalized-learningapproachesfoundpositiveeffectsonstudentperformanceinreadingandmathematics,withthelowest-performingstudentsmakingconsiderablegainscomparedtotheirpeers(RANDCorporation,2014,2015).

Inourwork,wehaveseenthesestrategiesworkinschoolsacrossthecountry—fromAlaskatoMaine,SouthCarolina,Florida,California,andmanystatesinbetween—withallkindsofstudents.Usingastructuredprocesstoconnectthekeyfeaturesofpersonalizedlearningwiththetechnicalrequirementsofacompetency-basedsystem,districtsandschoolscanimplementsuccessfullypersonalizestudentlearningandensurestudents’masteryofacademic,cognitive,andmetacognitiveskills,allofwhichareparticularlycriticalaseducatorsseektopreparestudentsforcollege,careers,andcitizenship.∎


AbouttheAuthors

RobertJ.Marzano,PhD,isthecofounderandCEOofMarzanoResearchinDenver,Colorado.Duringhisforty-nineyearsinthefieldofeducation,hehasworkedwitheducatorsasaspeakerandtrainerandhasauthoredmorethanfortybooksand250articlesontopicssuchasinstruction,assessment,writingandimplementingstandards,cognition,effectiveleadership,andschoolintervention.HisbooksincludeTheArtandScienceofTeaching,AHandbookforHighReliabilitySchools,AwakentheLearner,andCollaborativeTeamsThatTransformSchools.Hispracticaltranslationsofthemostcurrentresearchandtheoryintoclassroomstrategiesareknowninternationallyandarewidelypracticedbybothteachersandadministrators.

JenniferS.NorfordisthevicepresidentofdevelopmentandinnovationatMarzanoResearchinDenver,Colorado.Shehasmorethantwentyyearsofexperienceasateacher,instructionalmaterialsdeveloper,technicalassistanceprovider,researcher,anddevelopmentdirectorinPreK–12andpostsecondaryschools.Shehascoauthoredbooksandjournalarticles,contributedtonumerousproductdevelopmentandresearchprojects,anddevelopedonlinecourses.AtMarzanoResearch,JenniferoverseestheReinventingSchoolsdivisionandthedevelopmentanddeliveryofservicesrelatedtopersonalizedcompetency-basedteachingandlearning.

AboutMarzanoResearch

MarzanoResearchisajointventurebetweenSolutionTreeandDr.RobertJ.Marzano.MarzanoResearchcombinesDr.Marzano’smorethanfortyyearsofeducationalresearchwithcontinuousactionresearchinallmajorareasofschoolinginordertoprovideeffectiveandaccessibleinstructionalstrategies,leadershipstrategies,andclassroomassessmentstrategiesthatarealwaysattheforefrontofbestpractice.Byprovidingsuchanall-inclusiveresearch-into-practiceresourcecenter,MarzanoResearchprovidesteachersandprincipalswiththetoolstheyneedtoeffectprofoundandimmediateimprovementinstudentachievement.


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MarzanoResearch|www.marzanoresearch.com

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