pla 799 proposal

8/3/2019 Pla 799 Proposal

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SECTION ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

Poverty is a multi faceted issue and a plague afflicting

people all over the world. It is considered one of the

symptoms or manifestations of underdevelopment and a

permanent feature of human society. One of the daunting

challenges confronting the world today (particularly

developing countries) is the high incidence of poverty.

Poverty in Africa like in most regions of the world is

somewhat paradoxical. This is so because, despite the

upward trend in the average real growth rate, over the past

five years, endemic poverty has persisted. And no other

region in Africa currently present a gloomy picture of the

continents economic position like the sub-Saharan region

where the share of people living on less than one dollar a

day exceeds that in the next poorest region, south Asia, by

about 17 percent.

The severity of poverty in the sub-continent,

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accompanied by endemic conflict, diseases, political

instability, corruption and mismanagement of resources

have combined to undermine economic growth and

development as well as the fear of meeting the Millennium

Development Goal (MDG), that is, of halving poverty by

2015.

In Nigeria, poverty appears to be the greatest degrader

of the economy, among other contemporary socio-

economic problems. The situation is however paradoxical

when weighed against the fact that Nigeria, with her vast

human and material resources has a large proportion of its

population wallowing in endemic poverty. More worrisome

is the fact that despite the efforts by successive

governments at various levels to improve the well-being of

their people through various poverty reduction policies and

programmes, the incidence of poverty is still high.

In Borno State, poverty describes the deplorable living

condition of individuals and communities in a state of

economic and social deprivation. Poverty manifests itself


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not only in economic deprivation but also in terms of the

individuals inability to access basic social amenities. Thus,

an individuals level of economic well being is determined

and shaped by a complex array of economic and non-

economic factors such as political power, access to basic

infrastructures, and utilities (electricity, transportation and

water supply), access to social services such as education,

health care and environmental protection. The individuals

access to these services is in turn influenced by his level of

economic power.

By 1999 poverty in Borno state has assumed a

frightening dimension forcing down the living condition of

the citizens to the lowest ebb. In a bid to stem the tide and

devastating effects of poverty in the state, the

administration of Senator Ali Modu Sheriff established the

Ministry of Poverty Alleviation and Youth Empowerment.

Consequently, a lot of poverty alleviation strategies were

implemented.

The idea of poverty alleviation was received with high

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hopes by the people especially given the speed with which

the government created the Ministry of Poverty Alleviation

and Youth Empowerment. Poverty alleviation programmes

and strategies were seen as a means through which the

government can revamp the economy and deal with the

sufferings of the poor and downtrodden.

With regards to the implementation and sustainability of

the poverty alleviation strategies in the state, there are

differing comments and opinions. Peoples perception on

the implementation and sustainability of poverty alleviation

strategies in Borno State will form the basis of this study

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The problem of poverty in Borno state has eaten deep

into the fabric of the society. There is high rate of

unemployment, standards of living have declined

tremendously, fast decline in the educational institutions

and high rate of corruption in the bureaucracy. The

economy has remained unchanged and the persistence of


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poverty reflected in the overall quality of life of the citizens

(John and Balami, 1999, Ibrahim, 2006).

In Borno state, not only that income levels are much

lower, the incidence of malnutrition, infant mortality and

illiteracy is much higher. This is compounded by the lack of

access to basic social amenities and infrastructures such as

portable water, electricity, modern health facilities, good

schools, roads and communication facilities (Ibrahim,

2006).

More worrisome is the fact that, the poverty situation in

the state is worsening and the human suffering is on the

increase. This deteriorating posture calls to question the

implementation cum sustainability of the poverty

alleviation strategies by the state government over the

years. It is against this back drop that this study examines

the peoples perception on the implementation and

sustainability of poverty alleviation strategies in Borno

State.

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1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The general objective of this study is to examine

peoples perception on the implementation and

sustainability of poverty alleviation strategies in Borno

State. The specific objectives are to;

i. identify the poverty alleviation strategies in Borno

state;

ii. examine peoples perception on the implementation

and sustainability of the poverty alleviation

strategies in Borno state;

iii. examine peoples perception of the impact of

poverty alleviation strategies in Borno State and

iv. poffer policy options in enhancing the

implementation and sustainability of poverty

alleviation strategies in Borno state.

1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

This study will be guided by the following research


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questions:

i- What are the peoples perception on the


alleviation strategies on Borno state?

ii- What are the peoples perception on the


alleviation strategies in Borno state?

iii- How do the people perceive the impact and

problems of poverty alleviation strategies in

Borno state?

iv- What policy options can enhance the


alleviation strategies in Borno state?

1.5 STATEMENT OF HYPOTHESIS

The central hypothesis girding this research is:

Ho: Poverty alleviation strategies in Borno state have

not succeeded in reducing poverty.

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1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The study is necessitated by the growing rate of

poverty and suffering that have resulted to a very wide

gap between the haves and the have nots. It will

therefore appear a worthwhile exercise to undertake a

study on the peoples perception on the implementation

and sustainability of poverty alleviation strategies in

Borno state.

The study possesses some academic value and would

be of interest to students, researchers, academics,

government officials and the general public. It will be a

contribution to knowledge and literature on poverty

alleviation and a guide for further research.

The study will be an eye opener on the peoples

perception on the implementation and sustainability of

poverty alleviation strategies in Borno state. This will give

us a good understanding of the impact and or problems of

the poverty alleviation strategies in the state.


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It is hoped that the result obtained from the study will

serve as a useful material in formulating and

implementing sustainable poverty alleviation strategies in

Borno State.

1.7 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

This study will essentially concentrate on the peoples

perception on the implementation and sustainability of

poverty alleviation strategies in Borno State. The study

will cover the period 1999 to 2009. The choice of the

period is as a result of three reasons. First, it was the

period of return from military rule to democratic rule with

much expectation from the populace. Second, it was the

period the government established the Ministry of Poverty

Alleviation and Youth Empowerment to curb poverty

among the people. Third, the period is long enough to

assess the success or otherwise of the implementation

and sustainability of poverty alleviation strategies in the

state.

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For this study, emphasis will be on the perception of the

people on the type of poverty alleviation strategies,

impact and problems of implementation and

sustainability.

1.8 DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS

This section clarifies concepts within the context of this

research. These concepts are perception, implementation,

sustainability and poverty.

a) Perception: in this study it refers to the

observation, experience, understanding and

interpretation of the implementation and

sustainability of poverty alleviation strategies in

Borno state by the people.

b) Implementation: This refers to the execution or

effectuation of the poverty alleviation strategies

into action by the Borno state government. It is

the translating of the poverty alleviation idea or

plan into action.


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c) Sustainability: In this study it means existence,

maintenance, and continuation of the poverty

alleviation programmes in Borno State on a

sustained basis.

d) Poverty: Is a state where an individual is not able

to cater adequately for his or her basis needs of

food, clothing and shelter. One is poor if he or she

is unable to meet social and economic obligations,

lacks gainful employment, skills assets and self

esteem; and has limited access to social and

economic infrastructure such as education, health,

potable water and sanitation; and consequently

has limited chances of advancing his or her

welfare to the limit of his or her capabilities.

1.9 PLAN OF WORK

The study will be divided into five chapters.

Chapter one will present the background of the study

and the rational for the study. Chapter two will review

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relevant literature on poverty and poverty alleviation.

The chapter will also provide the theoretical foundation

for the study. Chapter Three will discuss the

methodology and the study area. Here, population and

sample selection, the instruments used to collect the

data and the procedures used to analyze the data will

be examined. Chapter four will present and analyse the

data collected through the use of questionnaire and

interview. It will further discuss the major findings and

the policy implications of these findings. Chapter five

will summarize the major findings, draw conclusion and

make practical recommendations.

SECTION TWO


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LITERATURE REVIEW

This section is dedicated to the review of relevant

literature and theoretical framework for the study. The works

of authors and scholars on the concept, types, causes,

perception and effects of poverty as well as the meaning of

poverty alleviation, strategies and problems will be

reviewed. The System Theory and the Basic Needs Theory

will be adopted as the theoretical framework for the study.

2.1 CONCEPT OF POVERTY

The concept of poverty is familiar and yet difficult to

explain. A search of the relevant literature shows that there

is no general consensus on any meaningful definition of

poverty. This is because poverty is multi-dimensional and

affects many aspects of the human condition, including

physical, moral and psychological. To this end, different

criteria have been used to conceptualize poverty.

Most economists follow the conventional view of poverty

as a situation of low income or consumption. According to

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Omoruyi (1987:48), poverty is the absence or lack of basic

necessities of life including material wealth, commonplace

regular flow of wage and income and inability to sustain

oneself based on existing resources available. In such a

state, the means of achieving minimum subsistence, health,

education and comfort are absent. The concern here is with

the individuals ability to be able to provide basic goods and

services for himself (Amis and Rakodi, 1994:630).

The above definition of poverty is often used for

constructing one measure of poverty called, poverty line- a

value of income or consumption necessary to purchase the

minimum standard of nutrition and other necessitates of life.

Accordingly, people are considered poor when their

measured standard of living in terms of income or

consumption is below the poverty line. Thus, the poverty line

is a measure that separates the poor from the non-poor.

Many other experts have conceptualized the poor as that

portion of the population that is unable to meet basic daily

nutritional needs. For example, the Food and Agricultural


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Organization (FAO) identifies poverty as the inability to have

a diet that meets 2100 calories a day (Rentlinger and

Selowsky, 1997:146). Similarly, Aluko, (1995:88), defined

poverty as the lack of command over basic consumption

needs such as food, clothing and shelter.

The third group sees poverty as a function of education,

health, life expectancy, child mortality, etc. The German

Government in 1992, stated that people affected by poverty

are unable to lead a decent life and hence poverty means

not having enough to eat, a high rate of infant mortality, a

low life expectancy, low educational opportunities, poor

drinking water, inadequate health care, unfit housing and a

lack of active participation in decision-making processes

(Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and

Development, 1992).

Fourthly, another group of experts see poverty as a

consequence of deprivation, lack of rights and exclusion

from participating in political processes. Thus the poor are

deprived of the opportunities of owning physical and

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financial assets. They always experience general condition of

deprivation whose dimensions include: social inferiority,

isolation, humiliation, and insecurity. Thus, Sen (1987:221)

defines poverty as the lack of certain capabilities, such as

being able to participate with dignity in society. Similarity,

Johnson (1989:107) describes poverty as a situation where

the resources of individuals or families are inadequate to

provide a society acceptable standard of living. Such lack of

resources incapacitates the individual in protecting himself

against social, economic and political deprivations.

The above definitions of poverty implies that poverty has

many dimensions, such as inadequate income, malnutrition,

lack of access to social services, and lack of social and

political status. However, the central theme in all the

definitions is that poverty is a condition of barely viable

human existence caused by very low income. It is a

condition in which income is insufficient to meet subsistence

needs. This implies that levels of living may be considerably

lower than those that are deemed adequate standard of


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living. Poverty hinges on varying living and social standards,

thus, poverty must therefore be based upon comparative

scales and standards of living. In other words, individuals,

families and groups in the population can be said to be in

poverty when they lack the resources to obtain the types of

diet, participate in the activities and have the living

condition and amenities which are customary in the societies

to which they belong.

2.2 TYPES OF POVERTY

There are various types of poverty, the first based on

basic needs, is classified as absolute and relative poverty

(UNDP, 1990, Schubert, 1994, Hemmer, 1994).

Absolute and Relative Poverty

According to Hemmer (1994:66), absolute poverty

means inability to provide for physical subsistence to the

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extent of being incapable of protecting, human dignity.

Some of the items for physical subsistence include; food,

clothing, shelter, portable water, health services, basic

education, public transportation and work. One of the

features of those who suffer absolute poverty is that their

income is meager and as a result their marginal propensity

to save is zero (Osuntogun 1998:11).

Relative poverty refers to a person or household whose

provision with goods is lower than that of other persons or

households. Relative poverty therefore, does not necessarily

mean that the persons concerned cannot lead a life that is

worthy of human dignity. It merely states that because of

the distribution structures in a society, certain economic

subjects are disadvantaged to an unacceptable extent.

Relative classification attempts to define poverty in relation

to either average levels or societal norms (Schubert,

1994:31). Relative poverty can be subjective or objective.

When the differences in income values of individuals are

objectively determined and are described by value judgment


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as excessive then this is a situation of objective relative

poverty. If, however, such differences are perceived as being

excessive irrespective of whether this is objectively

measurable, there is a case of subjective relative poverty.

Conjunctural and Structural Poverty

Based on individual circumstances, Hiffe (1987:92)

distinguished between conjunctural/transient poverty and

structural/chronic poverty. Conjunctural poverty is a

temporary phenomenon into which normally self sufficient

individuals are thrown in a crisis. Its causes are more

transitory and possibly more reversible. It is mainly due to

natural disasters (e.g drought, floods, earth quake, etc),

man-made disasters like wars, and environmental

degradation, and changes in domestic economic policies that

may result in price changes, increased unemployment etc

(Obadan, 1997:14).

Chronic poverty is long-term or persistent. Its causes are

more permanent and depend on a host of factors such as

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limited productive resources, lack of skills for gainful

employment, locational disadvantage, or endemic socio-

political and cultural factors.

Urban and Rural Poverty

Locationally and spatially, there is urban poverty and

rural poverty. Urban slums and ghettos are usually

characterized by environmental degradation, inadequate

welfare services and social deprivation, low per capital

income, overcrowded accommodation, low level of education

etc. Rural poverty is characterized by poor material

conditions in the rural areas: high rate of illiteracy, lack of

infrastructures, lack of capital resources, high population

growth rates, high levels of under employment and

unemployment, etc (Ekpene 2001:140).

2.3 CAUSES OF POVERTY

Poverty has many causes, some of them very basic.


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Some experts suggest, for instance, that the world has too

many people, too few jobs, and not enough food. But such

basic causes are quite intractable and not easily eradicated.

In most cases, the causes and effects of poverty interact, so

that what make people poor also creates conditions that

keep them poor. According to Corbett (2008:2), primary

factors that may lead to poverty include/ over population,

the unequal distribution of resources in the world economy,

inability to meet high standards of living and costs of living

and inadequate education and unemployment opportunities.

Others are environmental degradation, economic and

demographic trends, individual responsibility and welfare

dependency.

World Bank (1999) identified the main causes of poverty

as:

- Inadequate access to employment opportunities

- Inadequate physical assets, such as land and capital

and minimal access by the poor to credit even on a

small scale.

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- Inadequate access to the means of supporting rural

development in poor regions.

- Inadequate access to markets where the poor can sell

goods and services.

- Low endowment of human capital

- Destruction of natural resource leading to

environmental degradation and reduced productivity.

- Inadequate access to assistance for those living at the

margin and those victimized by transitory poverty.

- Lack of participation; failure to draw the poor into the

design of development programmes.

Alcock (1997) identified three major causes of poverty.

They are pathological, structural and ideological causes.

a) Pathological: This makes use of genetic

explanation which seeks to relate social status

with supposedly inherited characteristics such as

intelligence and psychological approaches. It

focuses on the family or community as the cause

of poverty, where the cycle of deprivation in


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which the inadequate parenting, lowered

aspirations and disadvantaged environment of

families and communities become internalized.

b) Structural: The structural cause explains the

individual is not to blame. It focuses on agency

failure and directs attention towards those who

are supposedly charged with eliminating poverty.

For instance, many claimants do not receive the

benefits to which they are entitled. Also political

decisions are crucial in determining the

circumstances of people living within the political

system.

c) Ideological: This consists of the different causes

of poverty and the likely ways of fighting it from

the point of view of neo-liberalism, conservatism,

social democracy and revolutionary socialism

(Alcock 1997: 94-96).

Olusanya (1997:32), is of the view that poor education,

traditional occupations and unemployment determine

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poverty line in must households in Nigeria and this is

compounded by rapid population growth, poor health and

poor nutrition. He concludes that all obstructions to the

regular flow of income would certainly bring about poverty.

At the micro level, factors such as death, accident,

illness, and age and lack of employment of the head of the

household are top on the list of causes of poverty in Nigeria.

These are complimented by lack of occupational training and

excessive family size. At the macro level, Nigeria is classified

as a low income and severely indebted economy and by

implication, a poor country (World Bank, 1999).

The causes of poverty in Nigeria with the characteristics

mentioned above can be summarized into two categories.

They are:

1. Instability of certain key people in the family to

get or hold steady well paying jobs. This may

be due to lack of expansion of productive

activities in the economy and under capacity

utilization due to excessive dependence on


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foreign inputs. Allied to the above is the lack of

relevant education, skills or talents needed by

the existing jobs.

2. Economic force and changes in labour

requirements. For example, inflation reduces

the quantity of goods and services a given

income can purchase and leads to poverty

identification. The structural Adjustment

Programme (SAP) and the fiscal and monetary

polices of the government including the

exchange rate measures have served to fuel

inflation and worsen poverty situation in the

country (Aliyu 2001:26).

2.4 EFFECTS OF POVERTY

Poverty has a lot of detrimental effects, as a very

undesirable level of economic well being, it creates fear,

depression, despondency and suicides. Extreme poverty can

cause terrible suffering and death, and even modest levels

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of poverty can prevent people from realizing many of their

desires. The worlds poorest people many of whom live in

developing countries of Africa, Asia, Latin America, and

Eastern Europe struggle daily for food, shelter, and ether

necessities. They often suffer from severe malnutrition,

epidemic disease outbreaks, famine, and war. In wealthier

countries such as the United States, Canada, Japan, and

those in Western Europe the effects of poverty include poor

nutrition, mental illness, drug dependence, crime, and high

rates of disease, depression and anxiety (Corbett 2008:1).

Poverty has diverse effects on the poor and the society

in general. Poor people of course lack basic human needs

particularly quality food and adequate medical care, as such

they remain helplessly exposed to illness, disease and high

risk of mortality. They live in crowded and poor houses with

no basic facilities, jobs available to them provide low wages

and little opportunities for improvements and advancement

(Okoh, 2000:113).

There is the psychological effect of poverty which causes


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causes despair, anger, and lack of interest in anything since

the poor is not available for mobilization to achieve societal

objectives. Similarly, poverty deprives one of any economic

and political influence in the society, neither does the poor

person have much resources to produce and contribute to

the societys pool of goods and services (Otaigbe 2000:16).

The needy also have little money to contribute to the

political campaigns neither do they have interest in politics

nor give adequate education to their children. In fact, there

are chains of effects of poverty that the society generally

suffers. They include a number of social scourge, the biggest

being increased crime (Otaigbe 2000:22).

Poverty is a condition of human deprivation, dis-

powerment and disablement. It is not just low income but

poor nutrition which debilitates the human beings mental

and manual capacity and leads to the reproduction of

retarded and physically and mentally deformed children.

Poverty is not just low consumption and poor access to

health and educational facilities, it is a condition of chronic

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daily; illness and disablement by all forms of disease, by

illiteracy and semi illiteracy and lack of skill and deskilling

(Sekum and Orsaq, 2006:75).

Poverty is not just tattered clothing and wretched

housing, dirt and lack of sanitation and ventilation, it is

dehumanization, degradation and permanent insecurity and

instability in all forms of essential family and community

relationships and even in the ability to perform religious

duties. Furthermore, poverty leads to despondency and

hopelessness. In Nigeria, this is because the alarming

dimensions of poverty and potential human contributions

towards development are wasted as people continue to fall

into the poverty trap daily (Usman 1999: 74-77).

According to Odurumba (2006:16), persistent chronic

poverty has been responsible for most revolutions. Thus,

poverty has both social and economic implications and

unless efforts are made to alleviate poverty, the condition is

compounded and development will be impaired.

A major problem of the concept of poverty is that it


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presents itself as an entirely economic condition which can

only be realistically addressed within an entirely economic

framework. The historical experience of mankind in the 21st

century has brought out the fact that poverty by dispowering

some human beings in a society, disable that society and

renders it unstable and incapable of functioning in ways in

which it can realize its economic and political potentials. It is

not just that the high level of deprivation suffered by the

poor reduce their usefulness as consumers of goods and

services produced by others but the exercise of their mental

and manual capacities as citizens who have social,

educational, cultural, legal, political and economic roles and

responsibilities are severely crippled (Edoh 2007:74).

2.5 PERCEPTION AND PERSPECTIVES OF POVERTY

There are so many perceptions or perspectives of

poverty in the literature. We shall however examine the

social democratic perspective, the Marxist perspective, and

the individualistic perspective/approach.

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Social Democratic Perspective

Social democracy encompasses a wide spectrum of

people who broadly share the belief that a market economy

left to its own devices will create large income inequalities

and therefore poverty, but that such a situation can be

changed through government intervention acting through

the parliamentary system. Clearly this is one motivation for

setting up the welfare state based on the principle of full

employment and universal provision of certain benefits.

The key causes of poverty according to writers in this

tradition is the operation of the labour market, and in

particular the creation of high levels of unemployment.

Toionsend (1979), certainly sees the operation of the

labour market as a central cause of poverty. Since

participation in the labour market is seen to be the main

source of income for most people, exclusion from work is


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likely to be a weighty factor.

Marxist Perspective

Marxist agrees with social democratic thinkers that the

cause of poverty is to be located in the nature of free market

capitalism. Central to the writings of Marx (1856), was the

idea that capitalism operated by workers producing more in

value than they were paid in wages, leaving the surplus

value to be accumulated by the capitalist.

Marxists disagree with the social democratic thinkers

about the solution because they do not believe that the

welfare state and nations of citizenship can overcome the

inequalities created by capitalism. Since, they say, poverty is

a permanent feature of capitalism, the only solution is the

revolutionary overthrow of capitalism and the institution of a

communist society where production is based on human

needs, not profit. The reason for this as perhaps best

explained by neo-Marxist writer, Claus Offe. He points out

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that the welfare state faces a number of key structural limits

to its powers. The most important of these is its reliance on

tax revenue from private production and borrowing from

private financial institutions to fund its activities. This means

that in order to fund its activities it needs to ensure the

continued profitable operation of capitalism.

According to Offe (1984:148); The welfare state, rather

than being a separate and antonymous source of well-being

which provides incomes and services as a citizens right, is

itself highly dependent upon the prosperity and continued

profitability of the economy.

Individualistic Approach

The key reason for poverty identified by individualistic

thinkers is the behaviour and culture of the individuals in

poverty. On the basis of his studies, Lewis (1986), argued

that the poor have a distinctive set of attitudes, norms and

values which include a sense of resignation and fate. This

cultural attribute makes them different from the rest of the


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population. His list of attributes of this culture of poverty

runs to some 62 traits, including things such as feelings of

helplessness and marginality, early sexual experience and

violence in the household. He maintained that such a way of

life of poor people is perpetuated and is passed on from

generation to generation (Lewis, 1986:114).

This concept has come into more usage, and often tends

to be presented as the reason for poverty; these people are

in poverty because of their own behavior and attitudes, or at

best, that of their parents. Their fatalistic attitude to life

leads them to fail to take up opportunities and so they

remain poor. They tend to live life for the moment, spending

rather than saving, and not getting involved in political or

community groups campaigning for change. Lewis further

argued that even if some of their poverty is due to the

structure of society, their failure to get involved in any

attempt to change it is due to their culture, not to structural

factors (Lewis 1986: 25-26).

A more widespread concept in the individualistic

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approach today is that of the dependency culture. This is

similar to the culture of poverty, but the explanation of the

source of that culture is distinctive.

2.6 POVERTY ALLEVIATION STRATEGIES IN NIGERIA

According to Wikipedia Encyclopedia (2002), poverty

alleviation or reduction is any process which seeks to reduce

the level of poverty in a community, or amongst a group of

people or countries. World Bank (2002), defined poverty

alleviation as any attempt by government, non-

governmental organizations and philanthropists to reduce

the hardship imposed on groups or individuals by poverty.

Ogwumike (2000) explains poverty alleviation as

programmes aimed at improving the living conditions of

people who are already poor.

The above explanations indicate that poverty alleviation

is a deliberate policy or strategy instituted by government

and non governmental organizations aimed at tackling the

problems associated with poverty. In other words, it is a

policy or strategy aimed at reducing the misery, hardship


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and suffering of people caused or as a result of being poor.

Poverty alleviation or reduction programmes may be

aimed at economic or non-economic poverty. Some of the

popular methods used are education, economic development

and income redistribution. Poverty alleviation efforts may

also be aimed at improving social and legal barriers to

income growth among the poor.

Egware (1997), explains the approach of poverty

alleviation in Nigeria as;

- Increasing the poor and vulnerables access to

productive assets.

- Raising the return on assets to which the poor and

vulnerable have access.

- Promoting employment opportunities.

- Investing in human capital, making available to the

poor sufficient and relevant qualities of education,

health, nutrition and food security.

- Empowering the poor to expand their economic and

social participation by supplementing their resources

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and initiatives with adequate and relevant transfers.

In Nigeria, poverty has been on the increase, rendering

individuals helpless due to little or no access to basic

infrastructures and amenities. There is high level of

insecurity, high death rate and increase in corruption in the

level of society and government.

Over the years successive governments have severally

attempted to reduce the problem of poverty through various

programmes and schemes. Most of these programmes were

put in place by the government (either wholly or in

association with international agencies).

Poverty alleviation programmes put in place include

Operation Feed the Nation (OFN) set up in 1977. Free and

Compulsory Primary Education (FCPE) set up also in 1977,

Green Revolution established in 1980, and Low Cost Housing

Scheme. Both OFN and Green Revolution were set up to

boast agricultural production and improve the general

performance of the agricultural sector among other things.

These programmes made some laudable impacts, they


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enhanced the quality of life of many Nigerians. But the

programmes could not be sustained due to lack of political

will and commitment, policy instability and insufficient

involvement of the beneficiaries in these programmes (CBN,

1998).

Other programmes by the government to alleviate

poverty are the River Basin Development Authorities (RBDA),

the Agricultural Development Programme (ADP), the

Agricultural Credit Guarantee Scheme (ACGS), the Rural

Electrification Scheme (RES), and the Rural Banking

Programme (RBP). Most of these programmes were designed

to take care of such objectives as employment generation

enhancing agricultural output and income, and stemming

the tide of rural-urban migration, which no doubt affected

reduction. According to Ogwumike (1998), despite some

significant degree of success made by some of these

programmes, most of them could not be sustained. He

added that with time many of them failed as a result of

diversion from the original focus. For instance, the Rural

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Banking and the Agricultural Credit Guarantee Scheme at

many stages failed to deliver the desired credit for

agricultural and rural transformation because a lot of savings

were mobilized in rural areas only to be diverted to urban

areas in form of credit/investments.

Some of the attempts made in the past to alleviate

poverty include the establishment of the Directorate of Food,

Roads, and Rural Infrastructure (DFFRI) with the major aims

of opening up the rural areas and to improve the conditions

of the vulnerable poor. The establishment of the Peoples

Bank of Nigeria (PBN) to cater for all the credit needs of the

less privilege Nigerians, the establishment of the National

Directorate of Employment (NDE) to tackle the problem of

mass unemployment and the Better Life Programme (BLP)

which was gender specific. The Better Life Programme was

meant to improve the life of rural women, and was later

replaced by the Family Support Programme (FSP).

Others such as the National Agricultural Land

Development Authority (NALDA), the Strategic Grains


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Reserve Authority (SGRA), and the Accelerated Crop

production (ACP) were all established to improve the

productive capacities of peasant farmers as well as

improving their incomes and well-being. To assist in

eradication of illiteracy which was found to be a major cause

of poverty, the Nomadic and Adult Education programmes

wee established.

Igbuzor (2005:31), reported that these programmes

failed because they were hijacked by position seeking

individuals, who used most of the resources for personal

aggrandizement rather than the set objectives. In the same

vein, Elumilade and Asaolu (2006:72), submitted that the

master and servant relationships associated with the

programmes to alleviate poverty was responsible for the

failure of the programmes. Elumilade and Asaolu concluded

that the government claims to know and understand what

poverty is, who the poor are and what they need in order to

alleviate poverty, whereas, only the poor understands

poverty and it is only him that can tell how it can be

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alleviated.

2.7 PROBLEMS OF POVERTY ALLEVIATION STRATEGIES

IN NIGERIA

According to Aliyu (1999:13), a very strong foundation is

essential for the successful implementation of poverty

alleviation schemes in any developing country. These solid

base are in the area of:

1. National Security and Political Stability.

2. Discipline

3. Infrastructural Development

4. Economic stability and provision of adequate welfare

services.

He argued that without adequate foundation on the

above, any poverty alleviation scheme through provision of

social services and loans for investment may not have the

much desired effect.

Poverty has been a long standing issue in Nigeria and


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several policy and programmes has been implemented by

successive governments aimed at poverty alleviation.

Despite all these efforts however, the situation has

deteriorated over the years and million of Nigerian are still

living in abject poverty and hardship. These programmes

have not been able to salvage the poverty stricken nature of

people in Nigeria because of their attendant problems.

According to United Nations Development Programme

(UNDP, 2003), virtually all government policies and

programmes lack targeting mechanism for the poor. Most

policies and programmes are too general in focus with the

poor being only a component of a differentiated target

beneficiary.

Secondly, policy discontinuity has inhibited programmes

and created a climate of uncertainties. Thirdly, there is

inadequate attention of people centered development

strategies, and quite often, the emphasis appears to be on

investment in resources rather than investment in peoples

welfare. Hence there is considerable investment on large

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scale capital intensive resources development projects which

are often not directly relevant to the socio-economic

circumstance of the poor and other vulnerable groups in

Nigeria. Fourthly, there is inadequate institutional

mechanism for policy and programme coordination. Fifthly,

there is no accountability and transparency in the

implementation of the policies and programmes.

Similarly, Ehigiamusoe (2000:45) articulated the

problems of poverty alleviation programmes in Nigeria as:

1. The poor are not adequately targeted by the

programmes and therefore are not much affected.

2. The poor are not involved in the formulation and

implementation of the programmes. Because of

their non involvement, they do not identify with

the programmes, and do not support them either

by way of local resource contribution or

sustainability.

3. Frequent policy changes, server budgetary

management and administrative inefficiency.


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Aliyu (1999:19) x-rayed the problems of poverty

alleviation programmes in Nigeria from the point of view of

implementation institutions. He highlighted the problems as:

a) Duplication of implementation agencies and

or their functions leading to unnecessary

plurality of influences and interests.

b) Wrong identification of implementation

agencies.

c) Non-existence of the right implementation

trend.

d) Poor management of the identified

implementation agencies occasioned by high

rate of corruption, incompetence, poor

staffing, lack of congruity between

national/corporate and individual interest of

managers of implementation agencies.

In the same vein Garuba (1999) posits that the problem

of poverty alleviation programmes in Nigeria revolves

around what he call the five Cs

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1. Conception: This has to do with the primary

intention of the government that conceived the

programme. In most cases these programmes

were not conceived primarily to address poverty

issues but mainly to score cheap political point or

as a populist programme designed to confuse

existing situation. For example, the Green

Revolution Programme of the Second Republic

turned out to be ploy to favour politicians of the

ruling party. Fertilizer procurement and

distribution became political patronage with

beneficiaries being mainly politicians of the ruling

party. The actual farmers were left to depend on

the emergency farmers - the politicians.

2. Content: poverty alleviation programmes in

Nigeria have always suffered from content

deficiency. For instance, due consideration has

never been given to adult education as a tool for

empowering people against poverty. In addition,


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poverty alleviation programmes in Nigeria has

always been a top-down arrangement with little or

no input from the grassroots.

3. Coordination: The problem here is the existence

of too many agencies established to do the same

thing thereby resulting in role overlap and

confusion. This makes coordination difficult.

4. Corruption: This has remained the bane of

Nigerians development efforts where poverty

alleviation programmes are put in place, such end

in some cases in further empowerment of the rich

as the actual beneficiaries turns out to be the

privileged class or their cronies.

5. Continuity: In Nigeria, it takes more time to

design policies than it takes to jettison it. Owing to

rapid change in government, good policies put in

place by successive government have been

abandoned by their successors in a bid for the

latter to create an impression of working on

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people.

2.8 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

For the purpose of this study, the Systems theory and

the Basic Need theory has been adopted as the theoretical

framework for the study. We shall examine the theories and

their relevance to the study.

The Systems Theory

The systems concept is used by Talcott Parsons (1951),

Ludwig Von Bertalanffy (1950), Katz and Khan (1960), Robert

Chin (1969) and David Easton (1957) to denote an analytical

scheme for unraveling complexity.

The system theory is a concept that refers to the

complex of inter-dependencies between parts, components

and processes that involves discernible regularities of

relationships and to a similar type of inter-dependencies with

its surrounding. A system is any whole which functions as a

result of inter-relatedness of its parts (Easton 1957: 383-


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400).

Toffler (1980) maintained that, a system is a set of

interacting units which endure through time within and

established boundary by responding and adjusting to

changing pressures from the environment in order to

achieve and maintain goals. According to Mitchell (1962), a

social system consists of two or more persons who are

engaged in a patterned or structured form of relationship or

interaction and who are guided by sets of values and norms

generally called roles.

A system Ackoff (1972) has said, is a whole which cannot

be taken apart without the loss of its essential

characteristics. These characteristics include;

1. A set of objectives which the entity seeks to

achieve and without which it cannot exist;

2. An external environment which receives the output

of the system, economic and political variables

which present problems to the system

(organization) and which subsequently assist or

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compound the efforts to resolve the problems;

3. An input which come into the system. This includes

demand, support and expectation.

4. A conversion process or an input transforming

technology which refers to the processes and

techniques by which resource inputs are

transformed into output (the internal mechanisms

of the system).

5. The output which is the product, result, outcome

from the system as arising from the preceeding

processing step. The type of output will depend on

the nature of the input, the type of processing and

the use expected for the outputs which themselves

have implications for systems persistence and

effectiveness through feedback mechanism.

6. A feedback process which informs the environment

on what the system is doing, while at the same

time communicates back to the system the

reaction of the environment to its output. This


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enables the system to adjust its output, and or

processing of input according to the demands of

the environment.

The system theory can be realistically applied to the

study. Borno state is a state established by law to achieve a

set of objectives for the proper functioning of the state

without which it cannot exist. The state is made of different

parts components and units (local governments and

ministries etc) and these parts interact with one another to

achieve a common goal, hence it can be classified as a

system.

Input in this regard include, expectations, supports and

demand into Borno State. Expectations are that rather

amorphous group of beliefs that citizens have regarding

what the state ought to do and the way its officials have to

behave. Supports are similar to expectations and take

various forms. Obviously, without some form of support,

institutions could hardly survive. Support for the Borno state

Government include public support, specific support

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stimulated by certain outputs from the state and involves

the citizens perception of how their demands are met as well

as Diffuse support a more general concept referring to that

reservoir of good-will which a system may engender, not

dependent upon a particular output, and at the extreme

mode typified by unquestioning loyalty or patriotism.

Demands comprise the third conceptual classification of

inputs. These demands represent the need for poverty

alleviation from individuals and interest groups in Borno

state within the context of the responsibilities of the state.

The conversion process that transforms inputs into

outputs include the strategies, programmes and activities of

the state in alleviating poverty. The output represents the

end result, outcome of the activities, programme and

strategies of the state in terms of poverty alleviation and

improving the standard of living of the citizens of the state.

The feedback represents the responses, opinions, and

perception (of the citizens) from the environment on how it

is affected or perceives the outputs of the state as well as


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demands placed on it. This informs the (Borno State

Government) system on its area of efficiency or deficiency

and the need to adjust.

Since a system is an entity, conceptual or physical which

consists of inter related, inter-dependent and interacting

parts that interacts with the environment (public) just like

that of Borno state government, the system theory remains

an appropriate theoretical framework for the study.

Basic Need Theory

The basic need theory is a model of development plan

that proposes that development plan and effort should be

directed specifically at the provision of essential amenities

so as to benefit the poor in areas such as power supply,

access roads, nutrition, education, housing, water supply,

health facilities, sanitary conditions etc.

The basic need theory introduced by the International

Labour Organization in 1976 is service directed in approach

to plan for development. Proponents of the basic need

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theory (Hopkins and Hoeven 1983, Burton 1990) postulate

that if materials needed for development are specifically

targeted at poverty areas, this approach is efficient in

economizing and it is an efficient strategy for eradication of

poverty.

The basic need theory provide us with the materials of

an approach to development plan which has the implication

of backing up government efforts at development and

poverty eradication through private sector stimulation and

individuals self reliance by government supports.

We must understand that all efforts by government to

improve the lot of the poor through skill acquisition and

resettlement of graduated trainees will produce positive

impact only in a situation where all necessary amenities and

infrastructures are in place. For instance, a resettled farmer

in a rural area cannot make turnover if his produce cannot

be transported, to the appropriate markets for sales i.e

where there are no access roads. The same goes for any

venture if the needed infrastructures are not available. So


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without the provision of basic amenities people who are into

small scale and agricultural ventures in the rural areas and

even those in the urban centers cannot thrive to improve on

their economic status.

For Nigerias poverty eradication growth strategy to

record the desired success, it must consider the debilitating

impact of the social condition and the problem of the value

system of the targeted poor. In this instance government has

a great role to play in ensuring this growth by official

interventions as well as the provision of an enabling

environment (ie basic amenities) to improve the human

resources and entrepreneurship development efforts of the

Nigerian community.

According to Atoloye (1977) most of the poverty

ameliorating programmes from the government to the

communities do not get to the targeted people A strategy

of satisfying the basic needs of the people through the

creation of job opportunities, provision of infrastructures and

the supply of materials that relieve the areas of hardship

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directly would be more preferred to capital projects that are

not directly relevant.

What this implies is that with the provision of basic

(amenities) need to the people especially at the rural

communities, their involvement in economic activities will

increase and hence their productive capacity.

The relevance of the basic need theory to the study is

anchored on the fact that the over riding objective of

governments poverty alleviation policy is to broaden the

opportunities available to the poor and to ensure that every

citizen has access to basic needs of life, food, potable water,

clothing, shelter, basic health services and nutrition, basic

education and communication. The overall goal is improved

living conditions for the poor. The goals are, of course, an

array of sector specific objectives to be pursued in order to

ensure the success of the policy. Nigerias poverty alleviation

is buttressed on the integration of the citizens into

economically, politically and socially sounds society with

equal opportunities to live a healthier, richer, fuller and


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productive life. It is therefore obvious that poverty alleviation

cannot be accomplished without ensuring access to

resources and opportunities by the poor.

SECTION THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This section focuses on the study area and the various

methods and techniques employed in getting the

information required for the study as well as the method of

analyzing data that would be collected.

3.1 THE STUDY AREA

Borno State being the area of study is one of the 36

states of Nigeria. It was in the former North-eastern state

comprising of Gongola, Bauchi and Borno. It was created

out of the North-eastern state by the then head of State,

General Murtala Mohammed in a broadcast to the nation on

Friday, 3, 1976. The reason for its creation according to him

was that states will no longer be described by reference to

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geographical points such as North and South, West or East.

This should help to ease memories of past political ties an

emotional attachment. It will also foster effective

administration and decentralization of power, so as to bring

the government closer to the people.

Borno is located in the North Eastern part of Nigeria. It

shares borders with the neighbouring countries which

include the Republic of Chad to the North-East, Niger

Republic to the North, and Adamawa State to the South-

East, Bauchi to the South-West and Yobe State to the West.

Based on the 1991 provisional censure figures, Borno state

has a population of 2,596,589 and population density of

approximately 38 inhabitants per square kilometer.

The state has 27 local governments: Askira/Uba, Bama,

Biu, Mobbar, Damboa, Dikwa, Gubio, Gwoza, Hawul, Kaga,

Konduga, Kukawa, Kwaya-Kusa, Mafa, Magumeri,

Maiduguri, Marte, Monguno, Ngala, Nganzai, Shani, Jrere,

Abadam, Chibok, Guzamala, Kala/Balge, and Bayo.


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3.2 RESEARCH DESIGN

This study will make use of survey method. The choice

of survey method is because it attempts to be fairly

representative of the population of interest in its selection

of its sample of study. Its major attractions are its relatively

low cost considering the fact that useful information about

a large number of people could be collected from a

relatively small number (representative sample). It is easy

to generalize the findings to larger populations once

representativeness of the sample is assured. In addition the

flexible nature of survey means that a variety of data

collection instruments (observation, interviews,

questionnaires, focus group discussion) could be used. This

allows one instrument to serve as a check on the other.

3.3 TYPES OF DATA REQUIRED

The types of data to be used for this study will centre

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mainly on understanding the concept and dimensions of

poverty, its causes, types, effects, poverty alleviation

strategies and implementation problems. Opinions and

views (perception) of members of the society on the

implementation and sustainability of poverty alleviation

strategies in Borno State will be sought.

3.4 SOURCES OF DATA

The sources of data for this study will comprise of both

primary and secondary sources. The secondary sources of

data will consist of books, journals, magazines, seminar

papers, newspapers, internet and unpublished materials.

The primary sources will include information obtained

from interviews and administration of questionnaires to

members of the public in the local government areas of

Borno State. Interviews will be held with youth leaders, top

local government officials and officials of the Ministry of

Poverty Alleviation and Youth Empowerment. Participatory

rapid appraisal method based on the technique of focus


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group discussion will also be conducted in the local

governments.

3.5 POPULATION AND SAMPLE SIZE

The population of the study consist of the unemployed

youths (4,847), widows (515), petty traders (2,130) and

retrenched and unemployed men and women (1,008).

A sample size of 800 will be used for the study. The

state will be divided into four clusters which will

accommodate all the 27 local governments in the state.

The local governments will be selected through random

sampling from each cluster which will constitute the

sampling frame.

For the study four local governments will be randomly

selected from each cluster, amounting to 16 local

governments which will serve as the target population of

study. A random sampling method will be used in

administering the questionnaire so that the targeted

respondents will be reached directly and given equal

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representation. In this regard 50 questionnaires will be

distributed to each of the 16 local government areas,

amounting to 800.

3.6 FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION

Focus group discussion is a rapid appraisal technique,

which is akin to the free discussion type of interview. It is

normally conducted in small groups of about six to twelve

people (Dlakwa, 2002). In this study the discussions will be

guided by a Facilitator - the person asking the question, a

Recorder - the person taping the discussion for play back

information and an Observer - the person monitoring the

discussion. These discussions will be conducted in eight

local governments, two from each cluster. The objective of

this discussion will be to achieve the following:

1. To solicit information about the

strategies of poverty alleviation

provided by the Borno State

government.


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2. The opinions of the respondents on

the impact and sustainability of

poverty alleviation programmes by

the state government.

3. Some problems hindering the

implementation of the poverty

alleviation programme of the Borno

State Government.

4. To discuss ways how to enhance

and sustain the poverty alleviation

programmes of the Borno State

Government.

3.7 INSTRUMENTS OF DATA COLLECTION

The instruments of data collection are questionnaire

and interview. For the study questions will be prepared in

the questionnaire form and distributed to respondents.

In addition, interview sessions will be conducted with

three officials of the Ministry of Poverty Alleviation and

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Youth Empowerment, and twelve members of the public,

three selected from each cluster.

3.8 ADMINISTRATION OF QUESTIONNAIRES

The questionnaires will be administered among

members of the public in the state. Eight hundred (800)

copies of questionnaires will be distributed to respondents

at their places of work and homes.

In order to have proper representation of all the

members of the public, random sampling will be used to

select the respondents from the target population.

3.9 STATISTICAL TOOL OF DATA ANALYSIS

The data obtained through the method discussed above

will be quantitatively analyzed with the aid of frequency

distribution tables, simple percentages, charts and

diagrammes. However in testing the hypothesis formulated

the use of chi-square will be applied. The choice of the chi-

square is to measure the reliability and significance of data


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to see whether deviations of the actual observation

(observed frequency) from the expected are significant so

that it may lead to the acceptance or rejection of the null

hypothesis.

The chi-square formular commonly used is:

22 (O E)

XE

=

Where:

X2 = chi square

O = Observed Frequency

E = Expected Frequency

A suitable low significance level of significance is

selected at 0.05 while the degree of freedom is

calculated using this formular:

(R 1) (C 1)

Where:

C = Number of Columns

R = Number of Rows

3.10 EXPECTED OUTCOME

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The study is expected to reveal the opinions of the

people on the impact and sustainability of poverty

alleviation programmes by the Borno State government. It

is also expected to highlight the problems hindering the

implementation of poverty alleviation programmes and

policy options to enhance and sustain the programmes.

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pla 799 proposal

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