Studies of Religion IIPreliminary

Nature of Religion and Beliefs

Religion has been defined in many ways:◦ “Belief in, worship of or obedience to a

supernatural power or powers considered to be divine or to have control of human destiny” Collins Australian English Dictionary

◦ “Belief in and response to, God or the gods”◦ “A system of beliefs and practices”◦ “A state being grasped by an ultimate concern”

Paul Tillich

What is religion?

Religion often involves◦ Belief in something beyond the ordinary◦ The use of ordinary things to help people see

the ultimate concern◦ A way of helping people through life’s obstacles

and difficulties◦ Origins, purpose and significance of things◦ What happens after death◦ Explanations for things◦ Beliefs and practices

The Common Elements

The Latin word ‘religio’ translates as ‘religion’

It comes from two other Latin words:◦ Relegare - to gather up or turn to constantly◦ Religare - to bind together

Some people think that religion means constantly turning to and being bound to some ultimate concern such as God or gods which bring meaning to people’s lives

Others see ‘religion’ binding people together as they share a common set of beliefs and practices

The word ‘religion’

How has science helped us to

understand the nature of religion

and beliefs?

Richard Leakey, a paleontologist investigated a burial site at the Shanidar Cave in Iraq

The Shanidar Cave shows us something about religion in prehistory

Shanidar Cave in Iraq has been the site of human living and dying for

100 000 years

Looking out from Shanidar

Excavation in cave

Skull of Neanderthal in cave

A reconstruction of a burial scene at Shanidar Cave.

What evidence of a religious world view can you see here?

Shanidar Cave

Bunches of flowers were strewn over the dead man by grieving members of his tribe. The amount of pollen present could not have been brought in by the wind or animals. Neandethals sensed the preciousness of life and that some elements continues after death.

Early European people called the Cro-Magnons buried people in caves. They covered the bodies in red ochre and decorated the body with bracelets and a necklace of animal teeth.

This skeleton has been covered in red ochre earth. Red may have represented

blood or life. Tools and ornaments were often buried

with the dead.

Burial Scene

This burial scene from northeast France was made in about 4500 BCE at the time when farming had started in the area.

The farmers were buried in small cemeteries, often with shell ornaments, adzes and stones for grinding grain.

What is the significance of these practices?

Burial Feast

The dead body of an old man is propped up against a rock and sent into the afterlife with a burial feast. These events happened 40000 years ago at La Chapelle-aux-Saints, France. The grave of an old man, propped against a stone was found in 1908 together with the bone from a chunk of meat. How did this help Neanderthals to think about life and death?

Cave Burial

While the mother and other child mourn, the father places three flint offerings on the grave of their child. The grave later domed over is one of nine discovered in 1909 in La Ferrassie, France.

This scene shows rituals associated with the burial of the dead with meaning for after life.

What might this picture tell us about primal religion?Scientists

suggest that the skull had some particular significance since it was

placed on a pole and surrounded by

a circle of rocks. It seems to have been a shrine of some sort. Its eyes look over the family. It may have been a symbol of an

honoured spirit?

Skull Cave

Monto Circeo, Italy

A family grave in southern England built around 3700 BCE. Not only used for burying the dead but also for ceremonies concerning the dead.

Corpses were placed outside to rot and then skeletons were broken up and bones placed in tomb. Some skulls and other bones were removed for ceremonies elsewhere. The entrance was blocked and opened many times.

Neanderthal HuntersSwiss Alpine Cave

Hunters carefully

place a cave bear’s head in a stone chest. Later they

will place six others in the chest – all facing the

cave entrance. They may have believed that the skulls possessed

magic power.

Stone chests with bear heads were not just trophy cases since other animals would have been much easier to capture and other food was available in abundance

Rites involving bears still occur among hunter peoples, e.g. Siberian tribes worship the bear as the mythical first man and apologise to the animal profusely before killing it.

Other consider the bears to be intermediaries between people and the reigning spirits of the land.

Bear Cave

Ainu hunters of northern Japan capture a bear cub and treat it as an honoured guest (sometimes the women even nurse the cub on their own breast milk)

In winter the bear is sacrificed and after a long ceremony the men drink the bear’s blood while the shaman (holy man) prays to the creator

The people believe the spirit of the sacrificed bear will return to the forest and report on the hospitality it received.

A favourable report from the bear persuades the forest gods to arrange good hunting next year.

The Ainu of Northern Japan

Ainu man

Ainu Hunter

Ainu woman with young

child

The Ainu

A dance is part of the ceremony of sending back

the bear’s spirit.

In Japanese ‘iyomante’

Ceremony for sending back the

bear spirit

Sending back the spirit of

the bear

Ancestor Mummy

Some Pacific islanders still mummify their dead ancestors and use them as part of the ancestor worship they practise.

Why do you think these people honour the dead?

Do we still do this in perhaps a different way?

Do people in our modern Australian society still wonder about the possibility of life after death?

Do you think people still care about proper treatment of people after they have died?

What do we do to honour the dead? What purpose does this serve?

For discussion

Some Celtic Religious Practices

This gigantic outline of a horse, about 100 metres long from head to tail was cut into the chalk deposit underlying Uffington in southern England and can be seen in its

entirety from the air. The Celts who carved it here in the 1st century BCE saw it as a

symbol of a horse god.

At dawn Celtic Druids (priests) celebrate rites to bring in a fruitful

year.

Beneath oak branches hung with sacred

bracelets offered by faithful people, the chief Druid lifts his arms in prayer to an image of the

god.

A younger ‘seer’, kneeling, divines omens from a human

skull.

The Druids invoked the gods of herd and harvest to ensure prolific herds and abundant harvests.

Ritual Shafts with Divine Offerings

The Celts dug ritual shafts in the ground. The one on the right was 10 metres deep and the one on the left was 13 metres deep and are about 2000 years old. Some were 35

metres deep.

The Celts believed that some of their gods lived inside the earth and so they dug

deep shafts in the ground and filled them with votive

offerings to propitiate the underground gods.

Often many shafts were in one place suggesting that this

was special holy ground where people came to worship.

Religious Practices of Farming People and

those who lived in Cities

Mother Goddess

This baked clay sculpture from Turkey was made in about 6000 BCE. She may have been worshipped as a goddess of motherhood, as indicated by exaggerated breasts and stomach. Mothers were seen as godlike because they gave birth. The Earth Goddess or Great Mother gave life to the world and so ensured the future of the human race

The Mother Goddess

Shown here giving birth, the mother

goddess is monumental in

appearance but is actually only about 17 centimetres tall.

The clay figure symbolised

fruitfulness and was meant to signify

bountiful harvests.

This figure comes from an area in south-central

Turkey, called Catal Huyuk, where people lived up to 8500

years ago.

The Norse God Reykjavik

This Norse god from around 1000 CE comes from Iceland and represents quite a different tradition to the Mother Goddess. In cultures such as the Norse, the achievements and activities of men, especially war and conquest were emphasised and so the gods reflected these activities.

As life became more settled substantial stone temples were built like this one on the island of Malta. This temple was built between 3600 BCE and 2500 BCE.

Stonhenge in England was built over many centuries from 2800 BCE to 1400 BCE. The circle of

stones aligned with the midsummer sunrise and

midwinter sunset and were used for ceremonies

A special holy person often emerged to oversee religious matters. This was his special role in the tribe. This is a modern day shaman (or holy man) of South American

indians. He is the key figure in human supernatural interaction.

Catal HuyukAt an altar-like platform blazoned

with plaster leopards, two women make a

harvest offering, placing wheat spears and a

basket of seeds before statuettes of the mother goddess of

fertility. This was a ritual of late summer when crops began to

ripen.

The terraced Ziggurat of Ur

Southern Iraq

A massive structure built by King Ur-Nammu in 2100 BCE, testifying to his power and to the glory of Nanna, the moon god. The huge religious centre rose three tiers to a height of 20 metres above shrines, storehouses, courtyards and homes of the temple staff.

Only the crumbling lower tier survives. It is 70 metres long, 50 metres wide and 15 metres high.

How may this have been used?

Im-dugud, the Sumerian god of storms, with a stag

Sumerian culture (2800 BCE Middle East) was dominated by many gods – more than 3000. Originally the gods were associated with natural phenomena (like storms) and were depicted in non-human form, like Im-dugud, the god of storms – a lion headed eagle.

The temple of Ramses II at Abu Simbel in Egypt was part of the worship of the god-king known as the Pharaoh.

The Pharaoh were mummified after death in preparation for the afterlife.

The ancient Greeks and Romans built temples for their gods. This temple in Rome called the Pantheon still

exists and is now used a Christian Church.

Who was Ninian Smart?

What is the phenomenological approach to understanding the nature of religion?

Ninian Smart – died 2001

Professor Ninian Smart was the Professor of Religious Studies at Lancaster University in England.

He spent a lifetime in the study of religion.

His work established a theory of seven dimension of religion.

Ninian Smart is the pioneer of modern religious studies.

His work concentrated on the characteristics common across various religious traditions – this is called the phenomenological approach

Religion is so vast that this approach allows us to break it down a little and understand it

Smart described this as “getting to know the trees before trying to depict the forest”

We become familiar with the bits and pieces (the phenomena or characteristics) of religion so that we can understand the whole religion

The Phenomenological Approach

Practical and Ritual Dimension◦Practices of religion – worship, preaching, prayers and rituals

Experiential and Emotional Dimension◦Experiences and emotions of adherents

Narrative or Mythical Dimension◦ ‘story’ – experience expressed through ritual, sacred narrative or myth – e.g. creation narrative

Doctrinal and Philosophical Dimension◦Doctrine and philosophies are organised system of beliefs and values – an intellectual statement of the basis of faith

Smart’s Dimensions of Religion

Ethical and Legal Dimension◦A set of commands or rules which guide the behaviour of adherents of religion

Social and Institutional Dimension◦This refers to the way the religion is in place in the world – e.g. the Church for Christians or the Umma (the Muslim Community) or tribes

◦Also sacred people, such as saints, gurus, mystics or prophets

Material Dimension◦Social or institutional – visible and symbolic forms of religion – buildings, art, special places

Smart’s Dimensions of Religion

Practical and Ritual Experiential and Emotional Narrative and Mythical Doctrinal and philosophical Ethical and Legal Social and Institutional Material

Smart’s Dimensions of Religion

The phenomena of religion have been categorised as:◦Rituals◦Stories◦Beliefs◦Space and time structures◦Persons◦Experiences

These phenomena are the ‘vocabulary’ of religion – they are the raw data with which analysis of religion is carried out

Phenomenological Approach

Scientific – tries to find out in an objective and impartial way what are the ‘bits’ of religion

Educationally oriented – tries to break a huge topic down in smaller pieces which people can manage in their attempt to understand what religion is

Benefits of Phenomenology

Religion is complex but some perspectives are often common to all religious experience:

◦ Something beyond the ordinary◦ Supernatural◦ Natural◦ Transcendent◦ Immanent

Perspectives on Religion

Typically religion speaks of ‘something’ beyond the ordinary - it connects people to and binds them to this ‘something’

This ‘something’ is complex and difficult to define - often referred to as God

It is this ‘something’ that helps people to map a course through life and its obstacles

This ‘something’ looks beyond the limitations of human existence and helps to provide meaning both in the world ‘beyond’ and the world ‘here’

Something Beyond the Ordinary

‘super’ means ‘above’ or ‘beyond’ so ‘supernatural’ means above or beyond the natural

Supernatural power is above or beyond the power of humans and ordinary human existence

Supernatural power is not explained by natural or scientific laws

Supernatural sometimes involves the miraculous or beyond the ordinary

Supernatural

In 2003 people went to Coogee Beach to see an apparition of the Virgin Mary reported to be seen in a

fence post - thousands flocked to see it.

‘natural’ refers to created or human thoughts or practices

Objects or this world are natural, e.g. trees, rocks, rivers, mountains, water, bread and wine

Sometimes natural objects can help people come close to God or the divine

Natural

In Buddhism Buddha if often shown touching

the earth with his right hand. The touching of the

natural (the earth) is meant to show the reality of the Buddha’s

religious experience.

In Christianity natural things like bread are

used to show the presence of God with

people in the Eucharist. Christians

believe that when they eat the bread

Jesus is present with them.

Pointing towards and beyond the natural or earthly world is called the ‘transcendent’ dimension

Transcendence enables people to go beyond their own world into the world of God or the gods or into the heavenly or spiritual worlds

God is above and beyond this earthly or natural world

Transcendent

This artist’s representation of Jesus baptism by John the Baptist shows a distinctly transcendent view with God

above and people below.

Architecture often reflects a view of God. Chartres Cathedral in France shows a transcendent view of God

with high ceiling and lofty vaults as well as spires pointing to the heavens.

This Islamic mosque in Indonesia creates a transcendent image of God or Allah through the use of architecture -

how does it do this?

Immanence suggests that the presence of God or the gods is found within human existence rather than above or beyond it

God is near (immanence) as well as far (transcendence)

God is in things and people in the here and now

Immanent

Modern church architecture is less transcendent and more immanent creating the idea of God with us rather

than God above us.

In John chapter 13 Jesus is said to have washed his disciples feet - in this act of being a servant he was

God with them in an immanent way.

The Jewish Passover Meal is an intimate family event where God is present with people in an immanent way in the

ordinary things of this life and in the normal place of living.

Judaism, Christianity and Islam sometimes emphasise the transcendence of God - God exists beyond the human yet guides humanity from afar

Judaism, Christianity and Islam do not however deny the immanence of God - God can be near in people, things, sacred texts, actions and rituals

Hinduism and Buddhism typically characterise the divine as being within the individual in an immanent manner

Transcendence & Immanence

Religious Responses to the Basic Questions of Life

Religion has often helped people find answers to some of the great questions of life - questions like:◦ Is there a God or supreme being?◦ Who am I?◦ Why is there evil, pain, suffering and death?◦ Is there a life after death?

Great Questions

The ordinary Beyond the ordinary In the supernatural

In the natural In transcendent ways

In immanent ways

God is found in

Religion has helped people find answers to these great questions through:◦ Beliefs◦ Sacred texts and stories◦ Ethics◦ Rituals and ceremonies

Religion has often been intimately linked with the lives of individuals and their society and culture - discuss some examples

Religion’s Answers