production management final hardcopy

7/30/2019 Production Management Final Hardcopy

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PRODUCTION & MATERIALS

MANAGEMENT

(Year: 2011-12)

College : Kishinchand Chellaram College

Class:SYBMS

SEMESTER-III

Professor: Vikram Sir


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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Apart from the efforts by us, the success of any project depends largely on

the encouragement and guidelines of the professor therefore we would like

to show our greatest appreciation to Prof. Vikram Sir, without his

encouragement and guidance this project would not have been possible. We

would even like to thanks all the working and non working staff ofK.C.

College and all those who helped the project to be successful.

GROUP MEMBERSNames Roll Nos

Jyotima Dwivedi 10

Nipul Jain 18

Kinal Jain 22

Nikita Paryani 32

Kanchan Sharma 47

Aayush Koradia 60

Venugopal Maniar 68


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CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

FUNCTIONS OF PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT

JOB PRODUCTION

BATCH PRODUCTION

MASS PRODUCTION

PROCESS PRODUCTION

ASSEMBLY PRODUCTION

CASE STUDY

COMPUTER APP. IN TOURISM

CONCLUSION


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INTRODUCTION

Product management is an organizational lifecycle function within a company

dealing with the planning or forecasting or marketing of a product or

products at all stages of the product lifecycle.

ACCORDING TO ELWOOD BUTTA

Production management deals with the decision making related to

production Process of that the resulting goods and service is produced

according to specifications In the amounts and at the scheduled demanded

and At minimum cost

The role of product management spans many activities from strategic totactical and varies based on the organizational structure of the company.

Product management can be a function separate on its own and a member

of marketing or engineering.

While involved with the entire product lifecycle, product management's main

focus is on driving new product development. According to the Product

Development and Management Association (PDMA), superior and

differentiated new products ones that deliver unique benefits and superior

value to the customer is the number one driver of success and product

profitability.

Depending on the company size and history, product management has a

variety of functions and roles. Sometimes there is a product manager, and

sometimes the role of product manager is shared by other roles. Frequently

there is Profit and Loss (P&L) responsibility as a key metric for evaluating

product manager performance. In some companies, the product

management function is the hub of many other activities around the

product. In others, it is one of many things that need to happen to bring a

product to market and actively monitor and manage it in-market.

Product management often serves an inter-disciplinary role, bridging gaps

within the company between teams of different expertise, most notably

between engineering-oriented teams and commercial-oriented teams. For

example product managers often translate business objectives set for a

product by Marketing or Sales into engineering requirements. Conversely


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they may work to explain the capabilities and limitations of the finished

product back to Marketing and Sales. Product Managers may also have one

or more direct reports who manage operational tasks and/or a Change

Manager who can oversee new initiatives.

FUNCTIONS OF PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT

The functions of Production Management depend upon the size of the firm.

In small firms the Production Manager may have to look after production

planning and control along with Personnel, Marketing, Finance and Purchase

functions. In medium sized firms, there may be separate managers for

Personnel, marketing and Finance functions. But the production planning and

control and Purchase And stores may be under the control of Production

management department. In large sized firms the activities of ProductionManagement are confined to the management of production activities only.

As such, there are no hard and fast rule or guidelines to specify the function

of Production Management, but in the academic interest we can mention

some of the functions, which are looked after by the Production Management

department. They are:

(i) Materials: The selection of materials for the product. Production

manager must have sound

Knowledge of materials and their properties, so that he can select

appropriate materials for his

product. Research on materials is necessary to find alternatives to satisfy

the changing needs of the

design in the product and availability of material resumes.

(ii) Methods: Finding the best method for the process, to search for the

methods to suit the available resources, identifying the sequence of process

are some of the activities of Production Management.


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(iii) Machines and Equipment: Selection of suitable machinery for the

process desired, designing the maintenance policy and design of layout of

machines are taken care of by the Production Management department.

(iv) Estimating: To fix up the Production targets and delivery dates and to

keep the production costs at minimum, production management department

does a thorough estimation of Production times and production costs. In

competitive situation this will help the management to decide what should

be done in arresting the costs at desired level.

(v) Loading and Scheduling: The Production Management department has

to draw the time table for various production activities, specifying when to

start and when to finish the process required. It also has to draw the timings

of materials movement and plan the activities of manpower. The scheduling

is to be done keeping in mind the loads on hand and capacities of facilities

available.

(vi) Routing: This is the most important function of Production

Management department. The Routing consists of fixing the flow lines for

various raw materials, components etc., from the stores to the packing of

finished product, so that all concerned knows what exactly is happening on

the shop floor.

(vii) Dispatching: The Production Management department has to prepare

various documents such as Job Cards, Route sheets, Move Cards, Inspection

Cards for each and every component of the product. These are prepared in a

set of five copies. These documents are to be released from Production

Management department to give green signal for starting the production.

The activities of the shop floor will follow the instructions given in these

documents. Activity of releasing the document is known as dispatching.

(viii) Expediting or Follow up: Once the documents are dispatched, the

management wants to know whether the activities are being carried out asper the plans or not. Expediting engineers go round the production floor

along with the plans, compare the actual with the plan and feed back the

progress of the work to the management. This will help the management to

evaluate the plans.


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(ix) Inspection: Here inspection is generally concerned with the inspection

activities during production, but a separate quality control department does

the quality inspection, which is not under the control of Production

Management. This is true because, if the quality inspection is given toproduction Management, then there is a chance of qualifying the defective

products also. For example Teaching and examining of students is given to

the same person, then there is a possibility of passing all the students in the

first grade. To avoid this situation an external person does correction of

answer scripts, so that the quality of answers are correctly judged.

(x) Evaluation: The Production department must evaluate itself and its

contribution in fulfilling the corporate objectives and the departmentalobjectives. This is necessary for setting up the standards for future. What

ever may be the size of the firm; Production management department alone

must do Routing, Scheduling, Loading, Dispatching and expediting. This is

because this department knows very well regarding materials, Methods, and

available resources etc. If the firms are small, all the above-mentioned

functions (itox) are to be carried out by Production Management

Department. In medium sized firms in addition to Routing, Scheduling and

Loading, Dispatching and expediting, some more functions like Methods,

Machines may be under the control of Production Management Department.In large firms, there will be Separate departments for Methods, Machines,

Materials and others but routing, loading and scheduling are the sole

functions of Production Management. All the above ten functions are

categorized in three stage, that is Preplanning, Planning and control stages.


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JOB PRODUCTION

In this system Products are manufactured to meet the requirements of a

Specific order. The quantity involved is small and the manufacturing of the

product will take place as per the specifications given by the customer.

Job production involves producing a one-off product for a specific customer.

Job production is most often associated with small firms (making railings for

a specific house, building/repairing a computer for a specific customer,

making flower arrangements for a specific wedding etc.) but large firms use

job production too.

Examples include:

Designing and implementing an advertising campaign

Auditing the accounts of a large PUBLIC COMPANY.

Building a new factory

installing machinery in a factory

The following are the important Features of job shop type production

system:-

Machines and methods employed should be general purpose as product

changes are quite frequent.

Planning and control system should be flexible enough to deal with thefrequent changes in product requirements.

Man power should be skilled enough to deal with changing work

conditions.

Schedules are actually nonexistent in this system as no definite data is

available on the product.

In process inventory will usually be high as accurate plans and schedules

do not exist.

Product cost is normally high because of high material and labour costs.

Grouping of machines is done on functional basis (i.e. as lathe section,

milling section etc.)

This system is very flexible as management has to manufacture varying

product types.


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Material handling systems are also flexible to meet changing product

requirements.

In this system products are made to satisfy a specific order. However that

order may be produced-

only once

or at irregular time intervals as and when new order arrives

or at regular time intervals to satisfy a continuous demand

Job production, sometimes called jobbing, involves producing a one-

off product for a specific Customer.

Job production is most often associated with small firms (making railings for

a specific houseBuilding/repairing a computer for a specific customer, making flower arrangements for a specificWedding etc.) But large firms use job pr

oduction too.

Examples include:

Designing and implementing an advertising campaign

Auditing the accounts of a large public limited company

Building a new factory

Installing machinery in a factory

Machining a batch of parts per a CAD drawing supplied by a customer

Fabrication shops and machine shops whose work is primarily of the job prod

uction type are often

Called job shops. The associated people or corporations are sometimes

called jobbers.


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Benefits and disadvantages

Key benefits of job production include:

work is generally of a high quality

a high level of customisation is possible to meet the customer's exact requir

ements

significant flexibility is possible, especially when compared to mass producti

on

workers can be easily motivated due to the skilled nature of the work they

are performing.

Disadvantages include:

higher cost of production

requires the use of specialist labour (compare with the repetitive, low-

skilled jobs in mass

production)

slow compared to other methods(batch production and mass production)

Essential features

There are a number of features that should be implemented in a job producti

on environment, they

Include:

Clear definitions of objectives should be set.

Clearly outlined decision making process.

Job production s used to refer to when a product is produced with the labour

of one or few workers.


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Job production is scarcely used for bulk and large scale production and

mainly used for one offProducts or prototypes,as it is inefficient; however, q

uality is greatly enhanced with job productioncompared to other methods.In

dividual wedding cakes and made-to measure suits are also examples of Job

Production.New, small, firms often use job production, before they get a chance to

expand.

Production is usually motivating for workers, because it gives the workers an

opportunity to produce the Whole product and take pride in it.

JOb Shop Production usually refers to manufacturers that produce items that

are "one of a kind".

Classification of Job production

(1) The Job produced only once: Here the customer visit the firm and book

his order. After The completion of the product, he takes delivery of the

product and leaves the firm. He may Not visit the firm to book the order for

the same product. The firm has to plan for material, Process and man power

only after receiving the order from the customer. The firms have no Scope

for pre-planning the production of the product.

(ii) The job produced at irregular intervals: Here the customer visits the firm

to place orders For the same type of the product at irregular intervals. Thefirm will not have any idea of Customers visit. Here also planning for

materials, process and manpower will start only after taking the order from

the customer. In case the firm maintains the record of the Jobs Produced by

it, it can refer to the previous plans, when the customer arrives at the firm

to Book the order.

(iii) The Jobs Produced periodically at regular intervals: In this system, the

customer arrives At the firm to place orders for the same type of product at

regular intervals. Here firm knows Very well that the customer visits atregular intervals, it can plan for materials, and process And manpower and

have them in a master file. As soon as the customer visits and books the

Order, the firm can start production. If the volume of the order is

considerably large and the Number of regularly visiting customers are large

in number, the Job Production system slowly transform into Batch Production

system.


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Batch production is the manufacturing technique of creating a group of

components at a workstation before moving the group to the next step in

production. Batch production is common in bakeries and in the manufacture

of sports shoes, pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs), inks, paints and

adhesives. In the manufacture of inks and paints, a technique called acolour-run is used. A colour-run is where one manufactures the lightest

colour first, such as light yellow followed by the next increasingly darker

colour such as orange, then red and so on until reaching black and then

starts over again. This minimizes the cleanup and reconfiguring of the

machinery between each batch. White (by which is meant opaque paint, not

transparent ink) is the only colour that cannot be used in a colour-run

because a small amount of white pigment can adversely affect the medium

colours. The chemical, tire, and process industry (CPT) segment uses a

combination of batch and process manufacturing depending the product andplant.

Advantages:

There are several advantages of batch production; it can reduce initial

capital outlay because a single production line can be used to produce

several products. Batch production can be useful for small businesses who

cannot afford to run continuous production lines. If a retailer buys a batch ofa product that does not sell, then the producer can cease production without

having to sustain huge losses. Batch production is also useful for a factory

that makes seasonal items, products for which it is difficult

to forecast demand, a trial run for production, or products that have a high

profit margin.

Disadvantages:

Batch production also has disadvantages. There are inefficiencies associated

with batch production as equipment must be stopped, re-configured, and its

output tested before the next batch can be produced. Idle time between

batches is known as downtime. The time between consecutive batches is

known as cycle time. Cycle time variation is a Lean Manufacturing metric.


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Continuous production is used for products that are made in a similar

manner. For example, a certain car model has the same body shape and

therefore, many of the same model cars can be made at the same time

without stop, reducing manufacturing cost.

CHARACTERISTICS:

1. A production line is set up.

2. Each worker completes one task and passing down the production line to

the next worker.

3. The workers are semi skilled or unskilled.

4. The workers must be able to switch from one part of the production lineto another. They are called a flexible workforce

5. The production line can be changed quickly, so that different products can

be made.

6. Often individual parts of the product are bought from other companies

and assembled on the production line.

7. The production lines run for a certain amount of time and then the

product is changed.

Examples:

FURNITURE

ELECTRICAL GOODS

CLOTHING

NEWSPAPERS

BOOKS

SAMPLE PRODUCTS


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Mass production (also called flow production, repetitive flowproduction, series production, or serial production) is the production oflarge amounts of standardized products, including and especially onassembly lines. The concepts of mass production are applied to various kindsof products, from fluids and particulates handled in bulk (such as food, fuel,

chemicals, and mined minerals) to discrete solid parts (such as fasteners) toassemblies of such parts (such as household appliances and automobiles).

The term mass production was defined in a 1926 article in the EncyclopediaBritannica supplement that was written based on correspondence with FordMotor Co. The New York Times used the term in the title of an article thatappeared before publication of the Britannica article. It was also referencedby Sir Chiozza Money, the Fabian banker, politician and author, writing inthe London Observer in 1919, comparing the efficiency of Mass Productiontechniques as used in America, with British practice.

Mass production of assemblies typically uses electric-motor-powered movingtracks or conveyor belts to move partially complete products to workers,who perform simple repetitive tasks. It improves on earlier high-output,continuous-flow mass production made possible by the steam engine.

Mass production of fluid and particulate matter typically involves pipes withcentrifugal pumps or screw conveyors (augers) to transfer raw materials orpartially complete product between vessels. Fluid flow processes such as oilrefining and bulk materials such as wood chips and pulp are automatedusing a system of process control which uses various instruments tomeasure variables such as temperature, pressure, volumetric throughput

and level, providing feedback to a controller that holds a setpoint.

Bulk materials such as coal, ores, grains and wood chips are handled by belt,chain, slat, pneumatic or screw conveyors, bucket elevators and mobileequipment such as front end loaders. Materials on pallets are handled withfork lifts. Also used for handling heavy items like reels of paper, steel ormachinery are electric overhead cranes, sometimes called bridge cranesbecause they span large factory bays.

Mass production is capital intensive and energy intensive, as it uses a highproportion of machinery and energy in relation to workers. It is also usually

automated to the highest extent possible. With fewer labour costs and afaster rate of production, capital and energy are increased while totalexpenditure per unit of product is decreased. However, the machinery that isneeded to set up a mass production line (such as robots and machinepresses) is so expensive that there must be some assurance that theproduct is to be successful to attain profits.


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One of the descriptions of mass production is that "the skill is built into thetool", which means that the worker using the tool need not have the skill.For example, in the 19th or early 20th century, this could be expressed as"the craftsmanship is in the workbench itself" (not the training of theworker). Rather than having a skilled worker measures every dimension of

each part of the product against the plans or the other parts as it is beingformed, there were jigs ready at hand to ensure that the part was made tofit this set-up. It had already been checked that the finished part would beto specifications to fit all the other finished partsand it would be mademore quickly, with no time spent on finishing the parts to fit one another.Later, once computerized control came about (for example, CNC), jigs wereobviated, but it remained true that the skill (or knowledge) was built into thetool (or process, or documentation) rather than residing in the worker'shead. This is the specialized capital required for mass production; eachworkbench and set of tools (or each CNC cell, or each fractionating column)is different (fine-tuned to its task).

Characteristics of Mass Production

Particularly suited for high demand items Production lot size is very high and production rate is continuous Product variety is very low, which may be one of its kind Special purpose tools and equipments may be needed Skill level of workers may be moderately low as repeated work on

same machine is needed

Entire plant is designed to cater to a few special varieties of products Higher investment in machine is needed due to specialized machine

and special purpose operation
http://www.google.co.in/imgres?q=mass+production&hl=en&sa=X&biw=1024&bih=389&tbm=isch&prmd=imvnsb&tbnid=ztkeeuV4OkYOnM:&imgrefurl=http://biography4u.com/production.html&docid=t7jcocd9lGE5BM&w=550&h=306&ei=oId4Tt6wApG3rAfT6Z2qCw&zoom=1


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Advantages & Disadvantages of Mass Production

The economies of mass production come from several sources. The primarycause is a reduction of nonproductive effort of all types. In craft production,the craftsman must bustle about a shop, getting parts and assembling them.He must locate and use many tools many times for varying tasks. In massproduction, each worker repeats one or a few related tasks that use thesame tool to perform identical or near-identical operations on a stream ofproducts. The exact tool and parts are always at hand, having been moveddown the assembly line consecutively. The worker spends little or no timeretrieving and/or preparing materials and tools, and so the time taken tomanufacture a product using mass production is shorter than when usingtraditional methods.

The probability of human error and variation is also reduced, as tasks arepredominantly carried out by machinery. A reduction in labour costs, as wellas an increased rate of production, enables a company to produce a largerquantity of one product at a lower cost than using traditional, non-linearmethods.

However, mass production is inflexible because it is difficult to alter a designor production process after a production line is implemented. Also, allproducts produced on one production line will be identical or very similar,and introducing variety to satisfy individual tastes is not easy. However,some variety can be achieved by applying different finishes and decorations

at the end of the production line if necessary.

The Ford Model T produced tremendous affordable output but was not verygood at responding to demand for variety, customization, or design changes.As a consequence Ford eventually lost market share to General Motors, whointroduced annual model changes, more accessories and a choice of colors.

With each passing decade, engineers have found ways to increase theflexibility of mass production systems, driving down the lead times on newproduct development and allowing greater customization and variety ofproducts.


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Example of Mass Production

Production of biscuits in a factory can be taken as an example of mass

production. At every stage a particular operation is performed using a

specific machine. As is shown below, packs of identical biscuits are produced

in an industrial unit

Stage: 1: MIXING: Flour + fat + sugar + bicarbonate + additives Stage: 2: MOULDING: Dough is laminated in a laminator. Stage: 3: GAUZE ROLLS: Laminated dough is cut as per size and

shape.

Stage: 4: BAKING: Biscuits cut into shapes are baked in the oven Stage: 5: COOLING: Biscuits are cooled in conveyors once they are

baked.

Stage: 6: PACKAGING: The final product is then packed into pouches and

cartons.


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Process Production: This system is extended form of mass productionwhere production is carried on continuously through a uniform predetermined

sequence of operations. Generally under this system finished product of one

process is used in the next process as raw material till the last process. Process

production calls for the setting up of automatic machines and equipment as far as

possible. Large industries like petroleum refining, heavy chemical industries

generally use this system of production. Under this system, generally one principal

raw material is transformed into several products at different stages of operations.

For examples, crude oil is processed into kerosene gasoline and other products.

Production is carried on continuously through a uniform and standardized sequence

of operations. Highly sophisticated and automatic machines are used. Process

production is employed in bulk processing of certain materials. The typical

processing Industries are fertilizers plants, petrochemical plants and milk dairies

which have highly automated systems and sophisticated controls. They are not

labor-intensive and the worker is just an operator to monitor the system and take

corrective steps if called for. Manufacturing cost in process production is lowest.

Size and capital investments are very huge in this production method

Production process ofManufacturing of cement

The main raw materials used in the cement manufacturing process are limestone,sand, shale, clay, and iron ore.

Mining of limestone requires the use of drilling and blasting techniques. Material is loaded at the blasting face into trucks for transportation to the crushing

plant. Depending on size, the minor materials (sand, shale, clay, and iron ore) mayor may not be crushed .

Each raw material is proportioned to meet a desired chemical composition and fedto a rotating ball mill with water.

The black, nodular clinker is stored on site in silos or clinker domes until needed forcement production. Clinker, gypsum, and other process additions are groundtogether in ball mills to form the final cement products.

Each cement product is stored in an individual bulk silo until needed by thecustomer. Bulk cement can be distributed in bulk by truck, rail, or water dependingon the customer's needs.


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Assembly line

Most engineered products-from pencil sharpeners to aircraft engines-are

assembled units. During product design and development, designers

traditionally consider not only functionality but also ease of manufacture of

individual components and parts. However, little attention is given to those

aspects of design that will facilitate assembly of parts. Assembly-related

problems are typically discovered on the shop floor when it is either too late

or too expensive to remedy them.

Given the under-emphasize on assembly design, this paper examines the

current approach to teaching assembly design/drafting in the mechanic/

manufacturing engineering technology graphics curriculum. It presents an

alternative approach in which the focus is shifted from assembly drafting to

assembly design. Assembly models, which facilitate the construction,modification and analysis of complex assemblies, are a critical component in

the assembly design process. These modules are found in many parametric

solid models, including Pro/ENGINEER.

Assembly Modelling

Assembly modelers can be defined as advanced geometric modelers in which

the data structure is extended to allow representation and manipulation of

hierarchical relationships and mating conditions.19 Geometric modeling

systems, whether they are wire-frame, surface or solid, have been used

mainly to design or model an individual part rather than for the assembly of

parts.20 Their data structure is designed to store and manipulate geometric

data of individual parts only. Such systems, therefore, facilitate the analysis

of individual parts and components. Assembly modelers, on the other hand,

generate assembly-based data.


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MEDICAL PRODUCTS ASSEMBLY

The Arthur G. Russell Company has built hundreds of machines for the

assembly of medical products such as syringes and blood collection tubes.

One of the most critical aspects of syringe assembly is the handling of sharpneedles. Needles are produced in many different sizes and must be handled

with absolutely no damage to the sharp point. The device you see operating

here is one station of a large in-line syringe assembly machine. Needles and

plastic parts are fed, assembled, glued and inspected with vision systems on

a typical assembly machine. It is standard for us to completely assemble and

inspect 800 or more parts per minute of a typical needle product. On the

station below, needles are loaded into a hopper and transferred by vacuum

to the wheel shown on the right.

At the bottom of the wheel, needles are transferred to a belt to be presentedto a vacuum pickup head. This servo driven assembly provides extremely

accurate and high-speed handling of needles. Once the needles have been

picked up, they are rotated 90 degrees and inserted into the plastic hubs of

the syringes. After they leave this station, glue is applied to each hub-needle

assembly and the glue is cured using ultraviolet light. Vision inspections

follow along with the addition of other parts of the product, followed by final

vision inspection and offloading. We have extensive experience in high-

speed assembly of all types of medical products as well as a thorough

understanding of FDA requirements for medical product assembly.


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CASE STUDY

Lean production at Portakabin

Introduction

Portakabin is an international company. It produces some of the mostadvanced building systems available. The company is part of the 700million turnover Shepherd Group. The Shepherd Group is one of the largestfamily-owned companies in the European building industry and employs3,500 people. It focuses on three main areas:

manufacturing construction property.

The name Portakabin is a registered trade mark. This instantly recognisablesign means that no other company can use the Portakabin name on itsproducts. Donald Shepherd, the founder of Portakabin, came up with theidea of stand-alone re-locatable buildings in the 1960s. Since that day, onlybuildings produced by Portakabin can be called Portakabin buildings.Portakabin uses modular buildings. This means they are made up of one ormore modules that are constructed in a factory environment. These are thenlinked together to form multi-purpose buildings.

Typical examples of Portakabin buildings include:


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Portakabin buildings can be erected almost anywhere in the world.Portakabin is able to deliver the same high quality buildings across the globebecause it closely monitors processes and standards during production at thePortakabin site. Portakabin is able to deliver value tocustomers by manufacturing products that exactly meet customer

requirements.

Lean production is an approach to production that seeks to minimise waste

and inefficiency. In short, it means doing more with less. A lean company

will make the very most of its resources. Lean production is based on the

principle that any use of resources that does not create value for the

consumer is waste. This case study focuses on how Portakabin uses lean

production methods to ensure it produces a quality product that gives value

to the customer.

What is lean production?

The aim of lean production is to reduce the quantity of resources used. Leanproduction should mean less use of labour, materials, space and time.Portakabin uses three main production methods.

Portakabin is working towards eliminating waste in each of the three areas.Lean production makes it possible to eliminate waste by reducing defects sothat products are right first timeand are of a quality that meets customerrequirements.

Quality is a top level objective for the company therefore Portakabin uses aQuality Management System. The purpose of this is to make sure that


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every aspect of what the company does is designed to give customers whatthey want, for example, a safer learning environment or a more inspiringoffice. High quality is supported through a process known as Kaizen.

Kaizen is a Japanese term which means continuous improvement. Kaizen is

typically achieved through small, regular steps rather than the occasionallarge change. It enables everyone at all levels in the organisation tocontribute to improvements. Everyone who works for Portakabin isencouraged to suggest ways of improving production. New ideas bubble upfrom employees at every stage. For example, an employee in stores mayhave a good idea about how to manage stock more effectively. Everyone istherefore working to improve qualityand give better value to customers. Portakabin is approved to meet theInternational Standards ISO 9001 and ISO 14001. In order to gain theseawards, companies must prove their achievements to InternationalStandards Organisations. Being accredited to International Standards tellscustomers that an organisation meets the tough guidelines set by awardingbodies.

Meeting ISO 9001 shows that Portakabin has a Quality Management Systemwhich among other things ensures that:

it has a documented set of procedures for all key processes in the businessand that these processes are checked for efficiency. outputs are checked for defects and put right where necessary.Meeting ISO 14001 shows that Portakabin also has a well organised

environmental management system. An environmental managementsystem helps an organisation to reduce its impact on the environment andminimise pollution.

The emphasis on quality can be illustrated by the Portakabin Lilliputproducts. Lilliput Childrens Centres are designed to be child-focused. Theymeet the tough safety and care standards that have been created to protectchildren:

The Childrens Centres provide a resource for the whole community.


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They can be built in half the time it takes to build using traditionalmethods. Multi-functional rooms can be used as kitchens, crche facilities, andtraining rooms as well as nurseries.This contrasts with the much slower process of traditional building with

bricks and mortar. These buildings take far longer to construct and buildingwork may be delayed, for example, by poor weather.

Just-in-time production

Just-in-time is perhaps the best known method utilised within a leanproduction environment. It is a process which aims to reduce the costs ofholding stocks. Finished goods, work in progress and raw materials arekept to a minimum level by ensuring that stocks are only produced whenthey are needed.

Quality management system: A system that is created to manage thedelivery of quality products and services by an organisation.

International Standards: International Standards Bodies create standardsfor the ways in which organisations are run and products and services

provided. They also cover processes carried out.

Environmental Management System: A set of rules and guidelines tohelp everyone understand how best to ensure high standards ofenvironmental care.


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Just-in-time: Production that produces goods to order. The business doesnot hold any significant level of stock, either of finished products or requiredsupplies e.g. raw materials.

Work in progress: Partly finished items that are currently being worked on

but have not been completed.

Raw materials: Basic material inputs e.g. ores (metal production),grain (bakery products), cocoa (chocolate).

3.Batch production

A batch consists of a run of the same or similar products, such as those for ahospital development. Batch production combines the advantages ofproducing a relatively large quantity while at the same time tailoring to meetcustomer needs.

1.Flow production: The production of the modules flows through severalstages in the factory. Value is added according to what the customerwants.

2.Cellular production: Cellular buildings are constructed from room sizedmodules which are put together in a way that meets customersneeds.Production methods at Portakabin Leads to efficiency and reduced wasteQuality Management System (approved to ISO 9001) EnvironmentalManagement System (approved to ISO 14001)

Holding stock adds to business costs in a number of ways:

Firms have to pay for the storage space where stocks are held. Cash is tied up in stored stocks rather than allowing working capital tobe used more efficiently. Regulations or customer requirements may change which could rendercurrent stocks unusable. Any defects in large quantities of stock may cause costs of rework.With just-in-time, the demand for new buildings pulls supplies through thesystem. This is a very important business principle. When demand increases

Portakabin orders and builds new component supplies, rather than havingthese in stock just in case. For example, the PortakabinUltima range consists of high quality workplaces for up to 1,000 people. Inorder to meet the demand from businesses for these buildings Portakabinonly holds the stocks it needs for orders in process. This reduces costs andensures that the components ordered specifically meet the requirements ofthe individual businesses.


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Detailed information technology systems are used to manage the flow ofproduction. These record supplies at every stage of production to ensurecomponents are available exactly when required. Good relationships withsuppliers are also necessary as any delay in delivery of raw materials canhold up the entire production process. JIT also helps the internal Portakabin

production process by providing components only when needed by the nextstage of production.

Reducing waste: The Portakabin lean production process encourages wastereduction. Building in a modular way is a lean process. The off-siteconstruction and installation of completed and fitted out modules means thatfewer workers are required on site and there is less transport needed.Portakabin has been able to reduce the volume of waste sent to landfill by60% over the last three years. This has been achieved by:

1. Cutting out waste from the manufacturing system.

Portakabin has thought carefully about how it can improve design to reducewaste in manufacturing. Examples of how this has been achieved include:

clever design of the modules. This maximises the use of standard widthmaterials and minimises cutting to fit. re-use of materials, for example, door and window shapes cut out frominsulated wall panels are re-used for floor insulation. changes in materials used. For example, a new type of insulating foam hasreduced material use by 10%.

steel beams are supplied to the factory already cut to the precise lengthrequired the boards used for floors in Portakabin modules are pre-sized. Notrimming is required. As a result no wood particles or dust is created.

2. Recycling waste

The Portakabin Group recycles 65% of waste generated in off-sitemanufacturing: Staff are trained always to think about recycling. For example they learn to

use colour coded bins for different types of waste. Recycling in a Portakabinfactory is much easier to manage than it would be on a building site. Portakabin has set up waste management teams. These are made up of aproduction manager and waste contractor. A permanent trainer works forthe company and employees are regularly given refresher courses to updatethem on new ideas. Pallets used for transporting Portakabin products are recycled at everystage of the supply chain.


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Benefits of lean production

Lean production can be seen as providing a win/win/win situation.

Financial benefits

The Portakabin production methods reduce the cost of constructing high

quality building projects. The lead time between a customer placing anorder and the end product being ready is much shorter through the use ofthe latest technologies under controlled conditions.

The main financial benefits include: predictable construction. The construction is factory based so it is notdisrupted by weather conditions or site related problems. 99.6% ofPortakabin projects are delivered on time and on budget. This compares witha traditional construction industry average of 63% on time and49% on budget speed of construction. Build times are up to 50% faster than those in

traditional building projects quality control. The Portakabin Quality Management Systems and use oflean manufacturing techniques guarantee high quality at every stage ofproduction.

Environmental benefits

There are a number of important environmental benefits, including: Better thermal performance. Tests carried out on the Ultima buildingsshow that they exceed air permeability requirements by 70% meaning that

the buildings have minimal air leakage and are therefore thermally efficient Ozone-friendly materials. The insulation materials used in the walls, roofand floors have an Ozone Depleting Potential (ODP) of zero meaning thattheir manufacturing process does not harm the ozone layer reduced noise and pollution. Fewer vehicle movements to constructionsites minimise traffic pollution


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recycling of materials. The buildings are constructed in sections. Later they

can be taken apart in simple steps. The steel is 100% recyclable so 96% ofthe total building is recyclable.

Social benefits

There are also benefits to the wider community. For example:

improved health and safety. Factory-based construction is much safer thana traditional construction site there is far less noise, lorry movements and other nuisance factors to localcommunities. There are some potential drawbacks of lean production. Forexample, everyone involved in supplying the new buildings is dependent onthe previous stage of production. Delays in deliveries of stock when using aJust-in-Time system can affect the next stage. Adhering to quality standardscan take extra time and people which all add costs to businesses. However,if managed carefully,the benefits of adopting a lean approach to production far outweigh thedrawbacks.

Conclusion

Portakabin provides solutions to help other organisations to manage theirchanging accommodation requirements. Its modular buildings are puttogether using lean production methods. Lean processes provide anenvironmentally-friendly approach in a world of scarce resources.Materials are used more effectively. Time is used more efficiently. Lesswaste is generated at every stage of lean production. Portakabin modularbuildings can be put up very quickly. Problems associated with conventional

new buildings such as delay or overspending are eliminated. The net effect isa win/win/win situation for Portakabin, its customers and the environment.


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Computer App. In Tourism Co.

Computer Is Used For Tourism Product Development, Marketing,Distribution and Training of Tourism Sector Personnel

Information Technology and The Tourism Industry Components. TheTourism Industry Is Made Up Of Three Major Components: Namely,

(I) Transport Sector, Which Includes Air, Water And Surface

Transport,

(Ii) Accommodation Sector, All Types Of Establishments That Offer

Lodging To Visitors (Hotel, Motel, Guest Houses, Caravans Etc.)

(Iii) Attraction Sector Which Comprises Manmade And Natural

Attractions Which Are Developed To Satisfy Visitors Educational,

Recreational, Aesthetic Needs Etc.

The Travel Agencies Are Performing Indispensable Task Of BeingIntermediary By The Use Of Computers N Computers Reservation

System (Crs).

Computer Reservation Systems Are Primarily Used For Inventory

Management by Airlines, Hotels, and other Tourism and Hospitality

Enterprises.

Enhanced And Sophisticated Crs Configurations And Functionality Offer

Companies An Integrated Solution For Several Processes Including Managing

Sales, Bookings, Customer Relationship Management And Service, Other

Marketing Practices, Yield Management, Payments And Accounting Even At A

One-To-One Customer Basis (Sigala Et Al., 2001).

Integrated Crss Aim To Organize Companies Internally By Enabling

Organizational Reengineering/ Restructuring Changes That In Turn

Streamline Processes And Foster Functional Efficiency And Effectiveness.

Moreover, The Term Central Reservation System Refers To The Crs

Developed By Hotel Chains For Centralizing The Reservation Process Of All

Their Affiliated Properties And Enabling Multichain Management. The Major

Benefits Of Such Systems Are Operational Efficiencies And Staff Reductions.

Braham (1988) Briefly Outlined The Processes, Functionalities, And Benefits

Of A Crs As Follows:


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* Flexible Inventory Booking Capability

* Immediate Availability Update

* Overbooking Management

* Complete And Detail Reservations Screen

* Individual And Group Reservations And Blockings* Travel Agency Information Entry,Activity Reportsand Commission Handling

* Guest Information Enquiry

* Reservations Linked To City Ledger

* Advance Deposit Posting And Auditing

* Request For Deposit And Deposit Received

* Modifications And Cancellation Confirmations

* Free-Form Comments Field On All Reservations

* System Generated Confirmation Numbers On All Reservations

* User Identification

* Confirmations Printed Automatically Or On Demand

* Forecast Reports

* Current And Future Dates To Five Years Historical Information

* Detailed Inventory Control

* No-Shows Reports And Handling (Charging And Billing)

* Customer Information Past, Present, Future Retained In System.

The Primary Reason For Using Computers In The Handling Of Reservations Is

To Increase Yield Metrics, But This Entirely Depends On The Level Of

Systems Integration (Sigala Et Al., 2001). This Is Because Computer

Reservation Systems Not Only Help Tremendously In Processing

Reservations, But They Also Support Decision-Making In Marketing And

Sales (E.G. Yield Management, Discount Policies, The Creation Of Guest

Records Etc.).

Integration Between Crss And Distribution Channels Can Improve Efficiency,

Facilitate Control, Reduce Personnel, And Enable More Rapid Response Time

To Both Customers And Management Requests, Whilst Enabling Personalized

Service And Relationship Marketing (Braham, 1988; Oconnor, 1999;

Sheldon, 1997). Overall, Most Crss Tend To Serve Several Business

Functions As Follows (Buhalis, 2003):

* Improve Capacity Management And Operations Efficiency

* Facilitate Central Room Inventory Control

* Provide Last Room Availability Information

* Offer Yield Management Capability

* Provide Better Databases Access For Management Purposes


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* Enable Extensive Marketing, Sales And Operational Reports

* Facilitate Marketing Research And Planning

* Travel Agency Tracking And Commission Payment

* Tracking Of Frequent Flyers And Repeat Hotel Guests

* Direct Marketing And Personalized Service For Repeat Hotel Guests* Enhance Handling Of Group Bookings.

Overall, Braham (1988) And Sigala Et Al. (2001) Analyzed The Levels Of

Integration At Which Hotels Can Exploit Crss And Identified The Benefits

That Such Systems Integration Can Provide As Follows:

* Integration With External Reservations Networks: Examples Here Would

Be Airline Global Distribution Systems, Or Partners Corporate Reservation

Systems. Traditionally, Third Party Reservation Systems Such As Hotels.Com

Operated By Obtaining Guaranteed Allocations Of Rooms From Hotels In

Advance That Could Then Be Sold Directly To Travel Agents And The Public.

However, Inventory Allocation Does Not Allow The Sale Of The Last Available

Room And Disadvantages Efficient Multi-Channel Distribution And Yield

Management Strategies. To Optimize Occupancy And Average Room Rates,

Seamless Integration Between Company And External Reservation Systems

Is Required So That Real-Time Room And Rate Inventory Is Made Available

To All Distribution Channels.

* In-House Reservations Networks: Hotel Chains And Consortia Integrate

Their Crss With Each Property Based Reservation System. Seamless

Connectivity Allows Cross-Selling Between Hotel Properties And Multi-Unit

Distribution Strategies. Nowadays, Intranets Are Increasingly Used For This

Purpose.

* Single-Property Reservations Systems: These Systems Handle

Reservations That Come From Different Sources, E.G. Telephone, Letter, Fax

Etc., Solely For A Hotel Property. This Level Of Integration Refers To The

Internal Integration Of The Reservation System With Other Business

Systems.

* Property Management System (Pms): Integration Between The Crs And

Pms Is Required For Enhancing Guest Services By Enabling Crm (Customer

Relationship Marketing) Practices, Express Check-In/Out Procedures As Well

As For Increasing Operational Procedures, E.G. Housekeeping, Staff

Scheduling, Just-In-Time Procurement.


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Conclusion

There Are Many Prominent Mediums And Uses Of It In The Travel And

Tourism Industry. They Have Enormous Contribution To Tourism Business

Word Wide.

Tourism In Todays World Is A Very Big Economic And Social Activity,

Generating A Large Amount Of Income, Employment And Foreign Currency

And Investment Opportunities.

Though, Currently, The Developed Nations Are Getting The Lions Share Of

The Benefit Of Tourism, There Is A Promising Future For The Developing

Nations Also. The Paramount Use Of It In Tourism Business Activity By Itself

Does Not Mean Anything, Unless It Advances The Idea Of Human

Development. It Should Contribute To The Overall Development Of Country.

Webliography

www.wikipedia.com

www.google.com

www.yahooanswers.com

News Papers Referred

Times of India

Economic Times
http://www.wikipedia.com/http://www.wikipedia.com/http://www.google.com/http://www.google.com/http://www.yahooanswers.com/http://www.yahooanswers.com/http://www.yahooanswers.com/http://www.google.com/http://www.wikipedia.com/

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