P u b l i cS p a c e s

A KEY TOOL TO ACHIEVE THE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS

JULY 2016

WRITTEN BY

Kristie Daniel, Program Director, Livable Cities

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Sian Fitzgerald, Executive Director, HealthBridge

Florian Lorenz, Consultant

©Photos

Cover: istockphoto; others: Kristie Daniel

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K e y M e s s a g e sProviding safe, quality, and accessible public spaces is a key strategy to achieve sustainable development.

Walking and cycling are uniquely beneficial forms of urban transport and should be prioritized in transport and urban policy.

Public open spaces, such as parks and green spaces, provide important benefits to urban communities and should be prioritized in urban policy.

Local public markets are vital urban-rural linkages that safeguard a healthy food supply for urban residents and need to be supported by urban policy.

National urban policies should establish monitoring mechanisms for walking and cycling, local public markets, and public open spaces.

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I n t ro d u c t i o nCities are places of both boundless opportunity and unprecedented challenges. Cities act as cen-tres for culture, learning, and science. However, cities are also places where many of the world’s problems are intensified. The world’s cities account for 60-80 percent of energy consumption and 75 percent of carbon emissions, while occupying just 3 percent of the earth’s land.1 More people moving to cities creates pressure on the delivery of services such as water, sanitation, and public health.2 And, significant inequality still exists within our cities, where not everyone is able to benefit from the opportunities cities offer. The global community recently acknowledged cit-ies’ unique role in sustainable development by including cities in the Agenda 2030 for Sustainable Development.

Agenda 2030 for Sustainable Development

In September 2015, world leaders committed to achieving 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and 169 targets as part of the Agenda 2030 for Sustainable Development. These goals and targets are intended to provide direction to government leaders, civil society, and communities on the ways to end extreme poverty, fight gender inequality, achieve health, and protect our environ-ment. SDG 11 focuses on cities: “Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable”. Given that by 2050 more than two-thirds of the world will be urban dwellers,3 suc-cess in achieving the cities goal sets the stage for achieving the targets in many other SDG goals. Agenda 2030 is an ambitious framework and in order to achieve success, governments and com-munities will need to choose strategies and interventions that have the greatest impacts across a number of goals and targets.

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Public Spaces: an Opportunity

Public spaces are those spaces that are open and accessible to the public. Public spaces include streets, local public markets, parks, public squares and beaches. UN-Habitat considers public spac-es “a vital ingredient of successful cities” and the places in a city that build a sense of community, culture, social capital, and community revitalisation.4 Public spaces create livable communities and facilitate the enjoyment of the higher-density neighbourhoods typically found in cities. Public spaces play a key role in achieving safe, inclusive, resilient, and sustainable cities and have been identified as a specific target under SDG 11:

TARGET 11.7: By 2030, provide universal access to safe, inclusive and accessible, green and public spaces, in particular for women and children, older persons and persons with disabilities.

Public spaces have the potential to contribute to several development goals. Public spaces are where people interact with the city, with the environment, and with their neighbours. In keep-ing with HealthBridge’s focus on health and health equity, we have identified four SDGs for which creating quality, accessible, and safe public spaces will make an important contribution to achieving the goal:

GOOD HEALTH AND WELL-BEING (SDG 3) Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages.

GENDER EQUALITY (SDG 5) Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls.

DECENT WORK (SDG 8)Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all.

CLIMATE ACTION (SDG 13) Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts.

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Benefits of Public Space for Achieving the Sustainable Development Goals

Open Public Spaces

↓ Non-Communicable Diseases (NCDs)

↑ Safety for Women and Workers

↑ Urban Resilience

↑ Climate Change Mi ga on and Adapta on

↑ Air Quality

Streets

↓ Non-Communicable Diseases (NCDs)

↑ Safety for Women and Workers

↑ Climate Change Mi ga on

↑ Road Safety

↑ Air Quality

Markets

↓ Non-Communicable Diseases (NCDs)

↑ Job Opportuni es

↑ Social Capacity

↑ Climate Change Mi ga on

Good Health and Well-Being Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages.

Gender Equality Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls.

Decent Work and Economic GrowthPromote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and produc ve employment and decent work for all.

Climate Ac onTake urgent ac on to combat climate change and its impacts.

Although public spaces have the potential to address several additional development goals, includ-ing Ending Poverty (SDG1) and Ending Hunger (SDG2), these four SDGs are specifically addressed as part of HealthBridge’s Livable Cities program. This document highlights the impact that public spaces can have on the health and wellbeing of city dwellers, and clearly articulates the links to specific SDGs. This paper will be used to inform HealthBridge’s response to the SDGs in general, and international processes such as Habitat III, among others. It will also be used to provide Health-Bridge’s local partners with the background necessary to actively engage with their national and local governments on public spaces. Although these four development goals are considered sepa-rately, they are inter-related and progress in one area depends on progress in another area.

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G o o d H e a l t h a n d We l l - B e i n gSDG 3: Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages.

Health and well-being for everyone, regardless of income, age, or gender, is an essential component of sustainable development. Although significant progress has been made in improving health in recent years,5 health gains have not been distributed equally.6 In almost all parts of the world non-communicable diseases (NCDs), such as heart disease and respiratory diseases, as well as road traffic deaths, are the leading causes of disability and premature death.7 In 2012 heart disease caused 7.4 million deaths, stroke caused 6.7 million deaths, lower respiratory infections and chronic obstructive lung disease together accounted for 6.2 million deaths, and road injuries caused 1.3 mil-lion deaths.8 Many of these causes of death have increased from 2000 and will continue to increase in the coming years.

Providing public spaces in cities will make an important contribution to three health targets:

TARGET 3.4: By 2030, reduce by one-third premature mortality from non-communicable diseases through prevention and treatment and promote mental health and well-being;

TARGET 3.6: By 2020, halve the number of global deaths and injuries from road traffic accidents;

TARGET 3.9: By 2030, substantially reduce the number of deaths and illnesses from hazardous chemicals and air, water and soil pollution and contamination.

Target 3.4: NCDs

Public spaces are the main places in the community that support people to be physically active. Physical inactivity is a well-known risk factor for NCDs. 9,10 A lack of physical activity has been iden-tified as the fourth leading risk factor for global mortality accounting for 6% of deaths11. Opportuni-ties for regular physical activity within day-to-day life have declined over recent decades, especially for urban dwellers. Due to urbanisation and motorisation, more and more urban residents need to find ways to integrate physical activity into their leisure time. 12

Leisure-time physical activity, or active play, is particularly important for children’s healthy develop-ment. 13,14 Providing safe public spaces for children to be active close to home is an important strat-egy to keep children healthy, as time spent outdoors is consistently positively related to children’s physical activity levels. 15 However, there are many challenges associated with encouraging adult populations to incorporate physical activity into their leisure-time activities, 16 and this is resulting in increasing levels of physical inactivity. Encouraging active travel, which involves replacing auto-

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mobile trips with walking or cycling, has proven to be an effective strategy for encouraging adults to integrate physical activity into their daily life and reduce their risk of many NCDs. Studies have demonstrated that walking and cycling for transport is associated with a reduction in cardiovascu-lar risk, particularly among women,17 which is a population at particular risk for inactivity.

Public spaces also play a role in people being able to eat a healthy diet. Unhealthy eating is a well-known risk factor for NCDs. 18 The World Health Organization estimates that 1.7 million deaths worldwide are attributable to low consumption of fruits and vegetables.19 The consumption of high levels of high-energy foods, such as processed foods that are high in fats and sugars, promotes obe-sity compared to low-energy foods such as fruits and vegetables. 20

In the past, food availability was largely determined by what could be grown nearby. There was a strong connection between the rural community and urban residents through their local public markets, an important public space in the community. Historically, cities developed around their local public markets as they were considered such an important part of daily living.21 However with globalization, food is now able to travel great distances and supermarkets are replacing local public

markets in developing countries,22,23. This trend is changing the accessibility, availability, and af-fordability of both healthy and unhealthy foods and is contributing to the transition to diets high in calories and low in nutrients.24 Local markets continue to be the main distributer of healthy foods in many cities throughout the world and are particularly important for the poor, who rely on markets in order to be able to buy smaller quantities, negotiate lower prices and request credit opportuni-ties.25 On the other hand, supermarkets, especially in developing countries, tend to sell predomi-nantly highly-processed foods that are low in nutritional value.26

Target 3.6: Road Safety

Improving public spaces for active travel would create the additional health benefits of reducing global deaths and injuries from road traffic accidents. A significant proportion of global road safety deaths are pedestrians and cyclists, because insufficient attention is being paid to the needs of

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these active travellers.27 Child pedestrians are particularly at risk and are among the most vulner-able road users. In sub-Saharan Africa, for example, children are more likely to walk to school and to do so over long distances on roads that put them in proximity to dangerous traffic conditions, which substantially increases their risk of injury and death due to motor vehicle collisions.28

Safety measures that eliminate the conflicts between vehicles, pedestrians, and cyclists will reduce road collision injuries and deaths. Danish studies, for example, showed a 35% reduction in cyclist casualties after cycle tracks, cycle lanes separated from vehicle lanes, were constructed alongside urban roads.29 In addition, reducing vehicle kilometres travelled and increasing walking and cy-cling may further reduce the risk of road collision injuries and deaths. Substantial increases in the distances cycled in cities, including Copenhagen (Denmark), London, and New York, are associated with a decrease in the numbers of cyclists killed or seriously injured. 30

Target 3.9: Air Pollution

A final important contribution that public spaces can make to health is to reduce emissions that cause air pollution. Replacing vehicle trips with walking and cycling is a key strategy for doing so. The motor vehicle transportation sector contributes 23% of global CO2 emissions, which are a ma-jor contributor to poor outdoor air quality. 31 Poor air quality contributes to the risk of NCDs, such as stroke, and respiratory diseases, such as asthma.32

Air pollution is typically concentrated near major transportation arteries, which receive a lot of traffic and are often congested. The volume and speed of traffic on such roads contributes to air pollution. Studies emphasise that those living on or near busy traffic roads (within 300 metres) are exposed to significantly higher levels of pollutants than those who live elsewhere. 33 In addition, there is evidence to suggest that driving motor vehicles increases exposure among drivers. Vehicle drivers and their passengers may inhale up to 18 times more air pollution than those outside the vehicle, even compared with cyclists on busy streets.34

Public Spaces Development to Achieve SDG 3

Focusing on creating public spaces that support physical activity and healthy eating would, there-fore, be an effective population intervention to impact three health SDG targets. Public spaces, such as streets, public open spaces, parks, and local public markets are the urban environments that can encourage, or discourage, physical activity and healthy eating. 35 Easy access to safe, quality parks and public open space provides residents with opportunities to be active during their leisure time. Having walkable access to safe, conveniently located parks is particularly important for chil-dren, as parks provide the necessary spaces for children to engage in active play. 36,37 The features of parks that support physical activity include: areas for being active; characteristics such as aesthetic appeal and diversity of programs; the condition of the park and its facilities; accessibility of the park from people’s homes; and, safety for park users.38

Streets with separated sidewalks and cycling lanes, safe crossings, as well as destinations like shops, schools, and workplaces, are important to encourage walking and cycling for active travel. 39 The evidence suggests that population level interventions, such as providing walking and cycling infra-structure, promote the shift from using motor vehicles towards walking and cycling. 40 Five studies (from Denmark, England, the Netherlands, and the United States) reported increases in cycling

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after the implementation of fairly substantial infrastructure improvements such as building cycle parking, extending networks of on- and off-road cycle routes, or modifying junctions to create ad-vance stop lanes for cyclists.41 ,42, 43

There is a demonstrated need to redirect transport policies and public investment to encour-age pedestrians and cyclists over cars.44 Transport and urban policy that mandates investments in walking and cycling infrastructure and develops regulations such as design standards has been positively correlated with physical activity. 45,46 Emerging findings from contemporary interventions such as the London congestion charge or the UK National Cycle Network suggest that these may be encouraging walking or cycling, but evaluation studies are often not designed to assess effects on important population health determinants such as physical activity. 47

Having local public markets close to residents is an important strategy for urban dwellers to be able to purchase healthy foods. The location of local markets is also an urban design element needed to increase access to healthy fresh foods for community members. In deciding where to shop, consumers are strongly influenced by how far they must travel, with proximity of the market and time savings often cited as reasons for visiting a particular food outlet.48 In developing countries in particular, people typically shop several times a week for food and it is therefore important that the markets be located close to where people live and work. Distance to a market is also important to low-income residents, as they are the least likely to have access to a motor vehicle and must walk, cycle or take public transit to buy food.

Benefits of Public Space for Good Health and Well-Being (SDG 3)

↑ Walking and Cycling

Open Public Spaces ↑ Green Spaces

ve Play

↑ Physical Ac vity

Streets↓ Vehicle Emissions

↓ Vehicle Emissions

↓ Road Collisions

↓ Car Usage

Markets↑ Access to Healthy Foods IMPACT

↓ Non-Communicable Diseases (3.4)

↑ Road Safety (3.6)↑ Air Quality (3.9)

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G e n d e r E q u a l i t ySDG 5: Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls

Gender equality is a human right and will be achieved only when women and men enjoy the same opportunities and rights in all aspects of life.49 Gender equality must be a key facet of development efforts. 50 Despite the importance of women’s empowerment to reducing poverty and promoting development, gender equality has not been achieved. Six out of 10 of the world’s poorest people are women, which is in part attributable to the fact that women do most of the unpaid work within families and communities.51 Violence against women and girls continues to be pervasive and seri-ously limits women’s and girls’ freedom. 52

Providing safe public spaces in cities will make an important contribution to the gender equality target:

TARGET 5.2: Eliminate all forms of violence against all women and girls in the public and private spheres, including trafficking and sexual and other types of exploitation.

Target 5.2: Violence Against Women and Girls

Creating public spaces that are safe for women and girls is critical to achieving this target. Violence against women and girls is a grave violation of human rights. Violence, which includes harassment, happens in public and private places and is an everyday occurrence for women and girls around the world.53 ,54 In 2012, a study conducted in New Delhi found that 92 per cent of women reported hav-ing experienced some form of sexual violence in public spaces in their lifetime, and 88 per cent of women reported having experienced some form of sexual harassment (including unwelcome com-ments of a sexual nature, whistling, leering, or making obscene gestures) in their lifetime.55 Women and girls who have experienced violence or fear harassment are more likely to avoid public spaces, which reduces their freedom to move around their community. This impacts their ability to partici-pate in school, work, and public life. 56

Accessing and securing safe transportation is important for women’s empowerment and for wom-en’s participation in society and the economy.57,58 In a study by UN-HABITAT of 9 cities in various developing countries, only 1.6 percent of woman had private automobiles, which suggests active travel and public transport play an important role for women’s mobility.59 However, in many parts of the world, securing safe gender-friendly transport is difficult, as harassment and assaults directed towards women are frequent on streets and while using public transport. 60 An unsupportive trans-portation environment is one of the most important socio-economic problems affecting the liveli-hoods of women, and forces women back into poverty.61 Women and students employ many coping strategies, which include altering their work and course schedules. This increases their anxiety and affects their ability to be freely mobile in their everyday lives.62 Ultimately, harassment in public spaces impacts gender equality, since it increases women’s dependence on men and increases

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mistrust between the sexes.63 Altogether, street harassment genderizes the streets by distributing power in a way that perpetuates male dominance and female subordination.64

Public Spaces Development to Achieve SDG 5

Given the importance of public spaces for women to fully participate in community life, it is impor-tant to maximize the opportunities for ensuring that women and girls are safe and comfortable in public spaces. Although violence in the private domain is now widely recognized as a human rights violation, violence against women and girls in public spaces remains a largely neglected issue.65 The physical environment is an important contributor to gender-based harassment,66,67 and actions to improve safety for women and girls in public spaces would contribute to reducing gender-based violence.

Evidence suggests reducing congestion on sidewalks, by widening sidewalks and giving pedestrians more room, would reduce the ability of men to physically harass women. 68 Congested sidewalks

put men and women in close proximity to one another providing an opportunity for men to touch women. It is important to ensure sidewalks are clear of litter and garbage and are well-maintained, as blocked sidewalks force women to use alternate routes, which are often desolate and less po-liced.69 A project in South Africa showed a strong relationship between levels of violence and inad-equate infrastructure. Narrow paths, open fields, distant bathrooms, unsafe transport hubs, and poor lighting facilitated gender-based violence.70

The physical characteristics of parks that create safer environments for women include lighting, the presence of a diversity of people, well-maintained spaces that are free of vandalism, and access to help.71 One of the most important strategies for creating safe public spaces for women is includ-ing them in the planning process. Women and girls are the experts on their needs and use of public spaces and can provide important information on the safety issues and concerns they face.

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Benefits of Public Space for Gender Equality (SDG 5)

↑ Par c on of Women and Girls

↑ Safety

Open Public Spaces

↑ Safety

↑ Par c on of Women and Girls

Streets

IMPACT

↓ Violence Against Women and Girls (3.4)

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D e c e n t Wo r k f o r A l lSDG 8: Promote inclusive and sustainable economic growth, employment and decent work for all

Roughly half the world’s population still lives on the equivalent of about US$2 a day, and a contin-ued lack of decent work opportunities means it is difficult for many to escape poverty.72 The infor-mal economy is an important contributor to jobs as it comprises one-half to three-quarters of all non-agricultural employment in developing countries.73 Unfortunately, informal employment often means poor and unsafe working conditions and the absence of social benefits such as pensions, sick pay and health insurance. 74 Women, migrants and other vulnerable groups of workers who are excluded from other opportunities have little choice but to take informal jobs. 75

Providing public spaces in cities will make an important contribution to the decent work goal, espe-cially Target 8.8:

TARGET 8.8: Protect labour rights and promote safe and secure working environments for all workers, including migrant workers, in particular women migrants, and those in precarious employment

Target 8.8: Promote Safe Working Environments

Public spaces have an impact on working conditions as they are the “workplaces” for many informal workers. Informal workers use streets, local public markets, and public open spaces to sell food, clothing and other items. In many countries informal workers also sell various services on streets such as haircuts, shoe repair, and bicycle maintenance.76 Cycle rickshaws, couriers, and cargo work-ers use public streets to transport their passengers. These workers contribute significantly to their local communities. Informal workers generate employment for themselves and others, maintain a household on their income, contribute to cleanliness and safety on the streets, provide friendly, personalized service to customers, and contribute to city revenue via payment for licenses, permits, fees, fines, and taxes.77 In addition, many of the goods sold by street vendors are made by small lo-cal industries, thereby further benefiting local economies.78

For most street and market vendors, their occupation is the main source of income for their fami-lies.79 Unfortunately, in many cases employment in similar formal sectors does not offer the same opportunities for income generation. The retail food environment is one such example. After exam-ining the food environment in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, researchers found that traditional local public markets employed up to 2.9 workers per tonne of vegetables sold, whereas a supermarket employed 1.2 workers. From a societal perspective, the researchers concluded traditional markets are better for employing more people than their modern equivalent. 80 Cycle rickshaws in Bangla-desh are another example of where the formal sector would not be able to provide the same income generation for the same number of people. Estimates suggest there are over 500,000 rickshaws in Dhaka who provide travel for passengers accounting for approximately 35 percent of all trips in

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the Bangladesh capital, making it the most popular form of transportation.81 Given the congested nature of Dhaka’s streets, it is difficult to imagine motorised taxis being able to employ the same number of residents.

Despite the invaluable service that informal workers provide to their local communities, these workers are often the victims of unsafe working environments. Cycle rickshaw drivers in Ban-gladesh are under constant threat of being banned from major streets, putting their livelihoods in jeopardy. 82 A study in Ghana found that market and street traders were exposed to a number of health and safety hazards including harassment, environmental diseases, traffic accidents, fire hazards, crime and assault, weather related discomfort, and injuries.83 This same study found that physical harassment from officials was particularly troubling. Although many of these traders pay an annual licensing fee to local government that gives them the right to trade in unofficial market areas, this offered little protection when government officials attempted to “decongest” streets. The decongestion efforts by officials resulted in destruction of the traders’ goods as well as physical abuse and imprisonment. 84

Public Spaces Development to Achieve SDG 8

Given the important role that the informal sector has in providing jobs for urban residents, it is important to maximize the opportunities for these workers to use public spaces safely. Efforts to legalize informal workers, through licensing and regulations, have the potential to create safer environments free from harassment. However, as the Ghana and Bangladesh (where rickshaws are currently legal) experiences demonstrate, legal remedies are no guarantee that informal workers will be protected. An additional strategy would be to ensure there is sufficient and specific space allocated within the public sphere for these workers to ply their trades.

Efforts to improve the walking and cycling environment, including the provision of sidewalks, would benefit street traders by reducing their exposure to air pollution and reducing the risk of being involved in a road collision. Ensuring sidewalks are wide enough to accommodate vendors would benefit both sellers and buyers by providing enough space for both. Allocating specific space within the pedestrian environment for the exclusive use of vendors would be of additional benefit. Provi-

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↑ Space for Informal Workers

Open Public Spaces

↑ Safety for Informal Workers

↑ Space for Informal Works

Streets

Markets↑ Employment Opportuni es

↑ Space for Low-Income Earners

IMPACT

↑ Promote Safe Working Environments (8.8)

Benefits of Public Space for Decent Work and Economic Growth (SDG 8)

sion of safe cycling routes would benefit both cycle rickshaw drivers and bicycle couriers. Finally, urban planners should give consideration to the informal sector when they are planning community services such as hospitals, parks, markets and public transit. These locations are places that provide a natural market for street traders.85 For example, flower and fruit sellers gather around temples, and food vendors are commonly found outside public hospitals and transit stations. Accommodat-ing these informal workers in the public spaces surrounding the centres would provide a commu-nity service and would be of benefit to traders.

Protecting and preserving local public markets would be an additional public space strategy of ben-efit to informal workers. Local public markets are hospitable for small traders, and when they are redeveloped into supermarkets and commercials centres this presents a risk to the livelihoods of traders.86 A recent example in Hanoi, Vietnam found that small-scale businesses and street ven-dors were ultimately forced to close after their local market was converted to a commercial centre because the conversion resulted in a significant decrease in customers for the vendors. 87

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C l i m a t e C h a n g eSDG 13: Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts

Countries across the world are experiencing the significant impacts of climate change, which in-clude changing weather patterns, rising sea levels, and more extreme weather events. These phe-nomena are disrupting national economies, affecting lives, and costing people, communities and countries. Greenhouse gas emissions from human activities are driving climate change and contin-ue to rise. Global emissions of carbon dioxide (CO

2) have increased by almost 50 percent since 1999

and are now at their highest levels in history. Emissions grew more quickly between 2000 and 2010 than in each of the three previous decades.88

Providing public spaces in cities will make an important contribution to two climate change targets:

TARGET 13.1: Strengthen resilience and adaptive capacity to climate-related hazards and natural disasters in all countries;

TARGET 13.2: Integrate climate change measures into national policies, strategies and planning.

Target 13.1: Resilience

Globally, the number of reported weather-related natural disasters has more than tripled since the 1960s, and these disasters result in over 60, 000 deaths annually, mainly in developing countries.89 Rising sea levels and increasingly extreme weather events will destroy homes, medical facilities, and other essential services. 90 With more than half of the world’s population living within 60 km of the sea, people may be forced to move as sea levels rise. Rising temperatures and variable pre-cipitation are likely to decrease the production of staple foods in many of the poorest regions. 91

For developing countries these types of disasters can cause a major setback to health and develop-ment for years.92 Communities will be required to absorb the stresses caused by such disasters and disruptions.

Public spaces contribute to the resilience of cities and help manage the stresses caused by disas-ters. Public spaces encourage local economies by supporting local job creation and goods exchange. This contributes to the economic self-sufficiency of a city, which is a key factor of a resilient city,93 as self-sufficient cities are less impacted by external disruptions. In addition, public spaces provide spaces for residents to connect to their neighbourhood, which contributes to creating social capital. Social capital refers to the trust, social norms and networks that impact social and economic activ-ity.94 Experiences in Japan and India demonstrated that social capital becomes a critical component of recovery after a disaster.95 Public spaces provide locations within neighbourhoods for all mem-bers of a community, regardless of age, gender, or income, to interact and build community trust. Public spaces impact how people feel and invest in their community. In a disaster, existing social

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networks, fostered by public spaces, become critical during relief efforts. Finally, public spaces of-ten become the emergency spaces in a community.

Recent experiences from Nepal’s 2015 earthquake demonstrated the importance of public open space to help communities deal with a catastrophic event. After the first earthquake, the Interna-tional Organization for Migration conducted a rapid assessment that showed all of the Kathmandu Valley’s open spaces used in the immediate aftermath of the earthquake. After the first earthquake, residents ran to the open spaces closest to their home. People admitted that the availability of these open spaces provided them with immediate safety.96 Following the earthquake many people in Kathmandu whose homes were undamaged still preferred to shelter in make-shift arrangements outdoors, despite heavy rains, due to fears of aftershocks. 97

Target 13.2: Mitigation

There are several ways public spaces can contribute to climate change mitigation. Parks, green spaces, and open spaces play an important role in reducing emissions that contribute to global cli-mate change. Trees filter airborne particulate matter (PM), produce oxygen and can help moderate temperature extremes that cause the Urban Health Island Effect (UHI). Regional modelling esti-mates determined that the tree canopy of the urban forest in the Greater London Area removed between 852 and 2121 tonnes of PM10 annually.98 Green spaces help cool the air and provide shade, which results in energy savings and improved climate quality in cities. For every tree planted to provide shade, there could be a direct reduction of roughly 10 kg in carbon emissions from power plants through reduced demand for air conditioning.99

The layout of streets has a major impact on climate change mitigation and health by impacting the ability of people to use active transportation such as walking and cycling. As stated earlier, the road transportation sector is a major producer of global CO2 emissions, which are an important contrib-utor to climate change.100 Transport emissions are rising faster than emissions from other sectors and are projected to be 80% higher than current levels by 2030. 101 Reducing the amount of motor-

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ized transport is a key strategy for reducing CO2. For example, if 60 percent of new US housing growth occurred in developments that supported walking, cycling and public transit, it would result in a savings of approximately 85 million metric tonnes of CO2 annually by 2030. 102

A final way in which public spaces can have a potential impact on climate change mitigation is through providing stronger urban-rural connections and giving farmers better access to local buy-ers. Local public markets, whether traditional wet markets in Asia or farmers’ markets in North America, are the places in the community that provide urban residents with a strong connection to their rural neighbours. Foods sold in local public markets are typically grown in the rural areas surrounding cities and therefore travel shorter distances than food imported from other countries. Although the impact of food transport on the environment depends largely on the type of vehicle used to transport food from field to market, 103 there is evidence to suggest that the transport of food is increasing emissions and contributing to global air pollution and climate change.104

Public Spaces Development to Achieve SDG 13

Focusing on creating public spaces is an effective intervention to impact both climate change re-silience and mitigation. Efforts to ensure that public spaces, especially green and open space, are available within walking distance of every neighbourhood can help strengthen bonds among neigh-bours and also provide the physical space needed for people to seek safety in an emergency. The 2015 earthquake in Nepal confirmed previous experiences from past earthquakes, such as in Gu-jarat (India) and Pakistan, that whenever possible people seek temporary shelter in the spaces that are nearby to their homes rather than big spaces far away from their home. 105

Planning public spaces in cities includes ensuring green and open spaces maintain a wide diversity of species and landscapes as this diversity plays a significant role in climate change mitigation and can help reduce the negative effects of climate change on urban areas. Planting trees in both parks and along streets becomes a key action that cities can take. To see the significant changes necessary in the transportation network that will reduce CO2 emissions will require significant investments in mobility and urban planning policies that focus on encouraging walking and cycling.106 Interventions such as the London congestion charge encourage walking or cycling and reduce motorized traffic, resulting in CO2 savings. 107

Finally, the location of local markets is an important element in reducing the food system’s contri-bution to CO2 emissions. The food system can contribute greatly to urban-rural connections and reduce the distance food needs to travel from farm to fork. In addition, local public markets can reduce the carbon emissions of the food system by locating markets close to home. Requiring con-sumers to drive to and from food outlets could result in greater emissions than the production and transportation phases of the food system. 108 In developing countries, in particular, people typically shop several times a week for food and it is therefore important for markets to be located close to where people live and work. 109 Local public markets typically sell food grown in nearby rural areas and can be located within walking or cycling distance from people’s homes.

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Benefits of Public Space for Climate Change (SDG 13)

Open Public Spaces

↑ Air Quality | Sequestra on

↓ Energy Consump on

↑ Community Cohesion

↑ Green Spaces / Greenery

Streets↓ Vehicle Emissions

↓ Car Usage

Markets↓ Vehicle Emissions IMPACT

↑ Strengthen Resilience (13.1)

↑ Climate Change Mi g on (13.2)

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C o n c l u s i o nQuality streets, where support for walking and cycling are given priority, improve road safety and reduce the emissions causing air pollution and climate change. Designing these streets to consider both women and informal workers will contribute to achieving gender equality and decent work.

Public open spaces, such as parks and green spaces, provide the spaces necessary for children to engage in active play and for adults to be active during their leisure time. De-signing these spaces to be inclusive of women and girls creates opportunities for them to engage fully in community life and contributes to gender equality. Providing opportunities for local traders to use these spaces safely and comfortably contributes to decent work. Public open spaces are critical for community cohesion, which supports cities’ resilience. Ensuring public open spaces include trees and greenery and are located in every commu-nity contributes to climate change resilience and mitigation.

Protecting and preserving local public markets is an important strategy for supporting urban-rural linkages that safeguard a healthy food supply for urban residents, which will contribute to health and well-being. Local public markets are an important public amenity that provides local jobs and contributes to the local economy. Finally, local public markets can contribute to climate change mitigation by reducing the distance food must travel from farm to table.

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With such clear benefits afforded by the provision of public spaces, governments and communities should consider public spaces a top strategic priority. This will require sig-nificant investments in urban planning for public open spaces, in mobility and urban plan-ning policies that focus on encouraging walking and cycling, and on urban policies that support local markets. In order for national and city governments to create successful public space interventions, they need the best available data. The development and use of linked health, environment, and urban planning can lead to actions related to walking and cycling, local public markets, and public open spaces that can address key SDGs, as illus-trated in this document.

Finally, civil society organisations are important stakeholders for implementing public spaces interventions, and their participation will be critical in the delivery of public spaces. Civil societies can act as the bridge between governments and communities by offering solutions grounded in local knowledge, highlighting the need for interventions among resi-dents, and engaging the community in developing solutions.

As communities, cities, and nations look for ways to address sustainable development, they need to consider the strategies that will have the greatest impact on the greatest number of SDG goals and targets. Providing safe, quality, and accessible public spaces is a key strategy that can achieve benefits across a number of goals such as Health, Gender Equality, Decent Work, and Climate Change.

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K e y R e c o m m e n d a t i o n sWalking and cycling should be the first mobility priority in urban policies, legal frameworks, strategies and actions.

> Land-use planning needs to ensure that cities are compact and with a mix of uses that al-low people to walk and cycle to their destinations.

> Streets need to be designed so as to provide wide, separated spaces for walking and cy-cling that can comfortably accommodate pedestrians, people with disabilities, and informal workers.

> Streets should be designed with women’s safety as a top priority.

Public open spaces that are safe, comfortable and accessible should be included in urban policies, legal frameworks, strategies and actions.

> Public open spaces, such as parks and green spaces, should be located within walking dis-tance of all residents.

> Public open spaces should be designed to include trees for shade and landscapes that maintain a wide diversity of species.

> Public open spaces should be designed with the safety and comfort of women and girls as a top priority.

> Public open spaces should be designed to include space for informal workers.

Local public markets should be preserved, protected and expanded in urban policies, legal frameworks, strategies and actions.

> Local public markets should be located within walking or cycling distance of all residents.

> Local public markets should be designed so as to strengthen urban-rural linkages.

> Local public markets should be designed to support small local traders.

Implementation strategies should ensure monitoring mechanisms for walking and cycling, local public markets, and public open spaces in urban policies, legal frameworks, strategies and actions.

Civil society organisations should be recognized as critical stakeholders for implementing urban policies, legal frameworks, strategies and actions.

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