Aimee Miller

Vocabulary

Fluency

Text Comprehension

There are several different aspects of vocabulary that need to be considered when teaching students how to use reading in order to learn effectively.

Graphic organizers

Morphology

Context

Word Relationships

Extending an interest in vocabulary

•Graphic organizers are visual representations that demonstrate how words are related to each other. Word walls, pictomaps, logomaps, semantic feature analysis, word maps and semantic maps are all examples of graphic organizes. Lines are used to connect shapes in order to help the student visualize how the words or ideas are connected. Making connections between ideas, even in the earliest of stages by using pictomaps, students can begin making important connections between vocabulary words.

GRAPHIC ORGANIZERS

Pictomaps are great for students that are just learning to read. This way they can visualize how these labeled pictures are related to the main idea located in the middle.

This is an example of a semantic map. The main idea or word is located in the middle, and students can help come up with other words that relate to or describe that central word.

Morphology involves learning important tools such as identifying root words, suffixes, prefixes, compound words, and contractions. It is necessary for students to make the connection that a single root word can have different meanings when letters are added onto or taken away from the root and that two words put together also make new meaning.

MORPHOLOGY

This fun website can help students learn more about root words, suffixes, and prefixes:http://www.ezschool.com/Games/English/prefixsuffix/index.html

•A fun game that could help with contractions can be located at the following website: http://www.oswego.org/ocsd-web/match/matchgeneric.asp?filename=jwildecontractions

•A few writing activities with answer keys can be found at this website: http://www.superteacherworksheets.com/phonics/contractions1_WBMQM.pdf

CONTRACTIONS

ROOT WORDS, SUFFIXES, PREFIXES

Something as simple as the video located below can aid in helping children understand compound words.

COMPOUND WORDS

One cannot stress the importance of context. When a word is taken out of context it can result in complete misunderstandings and become totally useless to the reader. Students must first be taught how to use context clues in order to be successful at reading to learn. There are several types of context clues that are used including synonyms, antonyms, definitions, and even examples within the text. It is important to use different reinforcement activities in order to teach the students how to use context clues. Begin by writing a sentence with a word missing and providing a word bank with a few options. Then let the student choose the word they believe fits best. Follow up by asking them why they made that choice. Another good activity is to provide sentences that contain homographs which are words that are spelled the same but have different meanings. Have students determine which way the word should be pronounced and why they chose that option. This will help students understanding that even though the word may look the same, it would sound silly to read it with the other pronunciation.

CONTEXT

I felt that the video located below did an excellent job of describing context and could also help students develop a better understanding of why it is important.

Students need to understand the different kinds of relationships that words have with each other in order to increase the comprehension of what it is they are reading.

•Antonyms: words that have opposite meanings •Synonyms: words that have the same or similar meanings•Homophones: words that sound the same but have different spellings and meanings•Homographs: words that have the same spelling but are pronounced differently•Figurative Language: words that are not literal in meaning•Multiple Meanings: the various meanings that words can have

WORD RELATIONSHIPS

•Some reinforcement activities for synonyms and antonyms could be to create a synonym or antonym word wall. The teacher will choose a word, and the students may add on to the wall when they find words that fit. Students could be given a newspaper article in which they must locate words that they could substitute synonyms for. The same could be done for antonyms. •I would reinforce homographs with a verbal fill in the blank method. I would first write the homograph on the board, tear. Afterwards I would have the students look at two sentences, “She had a streaming down her face,” and “She likes to the pages from her books.” We would then verbally discuss why we made the choices we did. •An activity that could be used for homophones would be similar to the one used for the homographs where students will be given a sentence with a missing word, such as, “My dad saw a while he was walking out in the woods.” The students will be given two words to select from i.e. dear and deer. Another activity would be to complete a homophone game where the student could move his game piece to the correct square if he locates the

right homophone. •Figurative language can be explained by reading books such as Crazy Like a Fox by Loreen Leedy and just through a lot of explanation. Similes and metaphors can be a hard concept to grasp.

EXTENDING AN INTEREST IN VOCABULARY

Making vocabulary interesting and appealing to students is incredibly important in helping students acquire a larger vocabulary. Some techniques that you can use to help students develop a larger interest in increasing their vocabulary do not even require direct teaching of vocabulary.

•Introducing students to things they might not be familiar with could encourage interest in learning what the object is and what it does. Things can be brought from home or experiences like cooking and painting might have students thinking and asking, “What is that? What does it do?” Hands-on learning is a great way to learn new vocabulary. Afterwards you should always ask your students questions about the experiences they are encountering with the objects. •Letting students watch educational videos or films and letting them bring magazines or books from home can also help expand vocabulary.•Reading books to your students could be especially helpful to students that have weak vocabulary skills. •Having students use their writing skills might also create interest in vocabulary. I like the idea of having students go on listening walks where

they have to be quiet the entire walk and are then asked to come back and describe what they heard on their walk. Having students write descriptive poems is another good tool.

What is that?

Major Fluency Strategies

Fluency Miscues

Decreasing Faulty Habits

Fluency means being able to read words automatically without having to spend too much trying to decode them, grouping words together in the proper way, and reading words with the author’s intended expression. When all of these things are happening at the same time, comprehension of the material can begin. A fluent reader will read at a good pace, with expression, and not have to spend time decoding words. A less fluent reader will misunderstand or not comprehend the entire message of the passage because they will spend too much time decoding what they are reading.

MAJOR FLUENCY STRATEGIES

There are many ways to help improve fluency in students. Some examples are listed below.

•Echo reading – A skilled reader will say a phrase and fellow students will immediately repeat the phrase. You should start with phrases then move to sentences as fluency skills improve.•Paired reading – A less skilled reader is paired with a more fluent reader. This activity will help model the appropriate fluency skills.•Readers’ theatre – Students will repeatedly read their scripted parts until comfortable with reading the passage but will not be asked to memorize it. Then a theatre is put on where costumes may be involved in which the students will read from their scripts.•Repeated reading – Students will practice their passages again and again until they can read it with no mistakes.•Tape assisted reading – Students will read their books along with a pre-recorded reading of the book. •Choral reading – Students read together in unison. This helps less fluent readers learn expression through their more fluent peers’ expressions.

FLUENCY MISCUES

A fluency miscue is when a student makes errors while reading and differs from what is written on the page. Common miscues include reversals, omissions, substitutions, repetitions, insertions, and non-pronunciations.

Oops!

Reversing letters, words, or the order that words are in can be caused by immaturity, lack of attention or incorrect left-to-right eye movement. It is important to note that if the reversal does not change the meaning of the sentence that it should simply be ignored. Fortunately there are several activities that can help with reversals.

•Color coding the edges of the desk can help. Green tape on the left side for “start” and red tape on the right side for “stop.”•Giving the struggling student a green wrist band for the left hand and a red wristband for the right hand is a useful tool for directionality.•Placing an arrow under the word that is being confused that points to the right can help the student understanding the direction in which her eyes should be moving.•Having students type letters on the computer keyboards can also be helpful.

•If the student is having problems reversing letters, an activity like the one to the right could be helpful.

•If the student is reversing the order that the words are in, the activity to the left might provide a great resource

•Omissions can occur for many different reasons including, reading too quickly, being careless or nervous, or not knowing how to pronounce the word. Some techniques to help with omitting words include using a marker in order to keep their place, choral reading, echo reading or simply telling the student to slow down if he is attempting to read too quickly.

•Substitutions usually occur when a student uses a similar word in looks or in meaning that is different from what is in the written text. Most substitutions should be ignored if the mistake does not change the meaning of the text. Another technique could be to ask the student to re-read the sentence if the meaning has been changed. Choral reading can also be useful to redirect substitutions.

•Repetition often occurs because the student is trying to decode a word or message in order to understand what it is she is reading. The student may need to be checked for sight problems, choral reading can be helpful, making the student aware of the repetitions if he does not realize he is doing it, or developing a card with a block cut out of it so that the student can highlight ever word as he is reading.

•Insertions are usually caused by the student embellishing or anticipating what comes next. This should only be corrected if it is changing the meaning of the passage. Having students slow down while reading or pointing at each word should help eliminate this problem.

•Non-pronunciation may be a sign of students not having the skill or confidence to want to say the word. Sometimes the student is waiting for the teacher or another peer to finish the word for them. You should give them several seconds to try to say the word before telling them what it is. Rereading the previous sentence can also be helpful. If the student skips the word and continues to read the sentence he may be able to go back and figure out the word. One of the most important things to remember is to always encourage the student and to thank him for trying his hardest.

DECREASING FAULTY HABITS

Faulty habits can give the teacher clues that there is something not quite right with the student’s fluency. Some of these habits are using the finger to point at words as the student reads, the head moving back and forth while reading, the lips moving while the student is reading silently, and the student speaking while reading when silent reading is taking place.

•Using finger pointing in the early years is not technically a bad thing and may actually assist young readers. If needed, you can take a transparent sheet, cut it into a smaller rectangle and draw a line in the middle of it so students can see above and below what they are reading but still feel confident about their place.•When the student is using head movements the best ways to correct this behavior is to make them aware that they are doing it. Another way would be to have the student cup her head in her hands so that she would be aware when her head is moving.•Lip movements and sub vocalizations can be curbed with the same techniques. Having the student hold a pencil between her lips while reading will help her be aware of when her lips are moving or when she is trying to talk during silent reading.

Text comprehension is when the student can make meaningful connections and truly understand what the passage or message means. It is also very important to tell your students what it is that you are trying to teach them before you begin teaching comprehension.

•Preparing Students to Read•Organizational Structures•Elaborative Structures•Questioning Structures•Teaching Structures

PREPARING STUDENTS TO READ

Students need to learn that there are two types of reading, reading for learning purposes and reading for enjoyment. Relating the new information to prior knowledge is very important along with previewing and predicting what is to come. Brainstorming, reading out loud, using think-sheets and the K-W-L technique are good ways to prepare your students for the reading.

•Brainstorming is a good way to get your students thinking about what they already know about the topic.•Read-alouds provide the students with an opportunity to listen and enjoy, have fluent reading modeled to them, and to learn new things.•Think-sheets allow students to learn the author’s pattern of organization and to predict what some of the content of the book might be.•K-W-L (what the students think they Know, Would like to know, and have Learned) The K helps students call on prior knowledge and relates to any background knowledge they may have on the subject, the W helps develop an interest in the reading, and the L helps students reflect on what they have learned in comparison with what they thought they knew before the book was read.

ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURES

Knowing how text is structured and organized helps students not only comprehend but also recall the information better. Organizational structures include comparison/contrast, cause and effect, details and facts, listing, main ideas, sequencing and summarizing.

Semantic maps can be used to help find the main ideas and also assist in listing details and facts. Cause and effect charts can be set up as situations arise in the book. You can ask the students to predict what the effect might by because of a certain cause. A book such as If You Give a Moose a Muffin by Laura Numeroff is a great way to show sequencing as well. You can ask students to compare and contrast characters or locations in the book or to compare and contrast one book to another. Have students list details that they remember about the book, characters, and locations. For sequencing the teacher can make cards that show events that happen throughout the book. Then the cards would need to be assembled in the order in which they occurred in the book. Questions like, “Which event took place first? Second?” and so forth could be asked to ensure that students comprehend what sequencing means. Summarizing can be taught orally or written. You could read students a story and ask them to tell you about the story using only one

or two sentences. Summarizing the events of the day is also an

affective way to teach summarization.

ELABORATIVE STRUCTURES

Elaborative structures start giving students the tools they need for personalizing their reactions and giving deeper meaning in their responses. It allows students to connect things they already know to the text. Elaborative structures include things like inference, critical thinking, mental imagery, and metacognition.

•Inference involves students making hypothesis based on their schemata. Show students a video and then stop it right at a climactic point. Have the students predict what might happen next. This way they have some kind of an idea of what is happening but will have to infer what might happen next.

•Critical thinking entails students making judgments or evaluations while reading. A good activity for this is after reading a book supply several quotes that a character from the book might have said. At least one of the suggestions should be false. See if the students can identify which one of the statements the character would not likely have said. This requires them to think critically about what they know about the character and make an inference as to whether or not the character would say that.

•Mental imagery, or the making of pictures in the mind while reading or being read to, is an important skill for readers. I would have my students sit quietly and tell them that I am going to read them a story, but I want them to close their eyes and try to picture what they are hearing in their minds. Another activity would be to read the children a story and have them draw a picture of something they heard in the story.

•Metacognition is the ability to monitor what we are understanding as we are reading. Having metacognition means that as the reader is reading they know what the purpose and plan for the reading has in store. The best plan of action for reinforcing metacognition is developing a plan and having questions premade for students that involves before, during and after reading i.e. what is my purpose for reading, do I understand what I am reading, and what can I do to help me remember.

QUESTIONING STRUCTURES

Questioning structures help students learn how to formulate their own questions.

•Inquiry charts help make connections between what the student already knows and what they gained through other sources. A chart is made where key questions are asked at the top. For each question the student will answer what they think they already know. Several different materials will be provided so that the students can answer the questions from each source. At the bottom of the chart the students give a summary of what they have learned from all of the different sources. •Reciprocal teaching must be modeled first and will work in groups. The students will then be asked to predict and make a list of what they might learn. The teacher will read specific sections of the text out loud.

After the sections are read, the teacher will ask questions about

important parts of the text. Finally clarify the important parts of speech and concepts.

TEACHING STRUCTURES

Teaching structures are strategies for teaching students to read. They are very specific and draw on background, prior knowledge, and use silent and oral reading. Teaching structures include guided reading, directed reading, and directed reading-thinking.

•Guided reading is where students are placed into groups according to their reading abilities and given books that they can easily decode. Teachers guide their students, monitor and help with the students’ reading and reading strategies. Teachers guide the students from the basic levels to the fluency levels. Talking about the pictures within the book and reading to the students are good examples of guided reading.•Directed reading is mainly teacher directed meaning the teacher asks the questions and determines the purpose of the reading. This is very useful with material that the students are not familiar with. The first step in DRA is explaining the new vocabulary and locations and asking the students about the title and pictures. After the purpose is stated, the students read the passage to silently to themselves. After the silent reading the teacher asks questions about whether the students’ predictions were correct or incorrect and asking them to prove why. Skills development is next where students work on specific skills

that the teacher believes needs work after seeing problems or new

skills are learned. Finally students are involved in follow up activities like drama or writing in order to

enrich the experience and learning.

Directed reading-thinking activities are better for familiar materials and expects the student to start taking responsibility for his work. Teachers direct students to view the titles, heading, subheadings themselves and guides their predictions by asking questions. Students read to themselves for the sole purpose of determining whether their predictions are correct and should be able to change predictions as they go. Just as in the directed reading activity students are asked to prove through the text whether their predictions were correct or incorrect. The teacher will then model skills used by the author, and then the students participate in an engaging activity to enrich their experience.

Sources:

YouTube Videos:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xMw0KcEZljEhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6xb9jSBKN4o

Photos:

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Thought_Bubble_Comics.pnghttp://educ.queensu.ca/research/spotlights/morphologyhttp://galleryhip.com/girl-student-studying-clipart.htmlhttp://pixgood.com/children-reading-cartoon-images.htmlhttp://www.dreamstime.com/royalty-free-stock-photos-thinking-boy-image25526698http://www.mommyish.com/2013/04/27/american-girls-have-gone-soft/http://www.theclassroomkit.com/spelling-activities.html

Books:(Foundations of ReadingONLINE COURSE. McGraw-Hill Create p. 49-446).

<vbk:9781121414075#page(49-446)>