religion and society in america religion and conflict in interwar america 1919 – 1941 week 8 –...

Religion and Society in Religion and Society in AmericaAmerica

Religion and Conflict in Interwar Religion and Conflict in Interwar America 1919 – 1941America 1919 – 1941

Week 8 – Lecture 3Week 8 – Lecture 3

Religion and Conflict in Interwar Religion and Conflict in Interwar America 1919 - 1941America 1919 - 1941

Introduction – A Tenuous HarmonyIntroduction – A Tenuous Harmony Pragmatism and the “Essence” of Pragmatism and the “Essence” of

ReligionReligion Religious Response – The Social Religious Response – The Social

GospelGospel Voices of ConflictVoices of Conflict

• The Red ScareThe Red Scare• White HoodsWhite Hoods• Yellow Peril (next class gathering)Yellow Peril (next class gathering)

Pragmatism and the “Essence” of Pragmatism and the “Essence” of ReligionReligion

PragmatismPragmatism: What is it and how : What is it and how should it be understood in light of should it be understood in light of historical developments?historical developments?

Key assumption of philosophers of Key assumption of philosophers of the time was their the time was their work must serve work must serve the public life or discoursethe public life or discourse

This is not a type of crude idea of This is not a type of crude idea of “what works” in society holds value“what works” in society holds value


Distinct from previous generation of Distinct from previous generation of philosophersphilosophers (Hume, Descartes, etc.) (Hume, Descartes, etc.) pragmatists are pragmatists are less concerned with less concerned with religious beliefsreligious beliefs, the role of , the role of reasonreason, , and normative claims of and normative claims of scripturesscriptures

Critical of objectivists viewsCritical of objectivists views of reality of reality that seemed to that seemed to separateseparate judgments judgments of of truth from the value of human truth from the value of human experienceexperience


Concern with utility or practicality Concern with utility or practicality enables philosophers to entertain enables philosophers to entertain ideas of ideas of religion as valuable because religion as valuable because it is purposefulit is purposeful


William JamesWilliam James (1842 – 1910) (1842 – 1910) 1897 publishes essay entitled “The Will to 1897 publishes essay entitled “The Will to

Believe”Believe” Argued against philosophical tide at the Argued against philosophical tide at the

time which was largely antireligious time which was largely antireligious Claimed religion not concerned with the Claimed religion not concerned with the

same issues as science, therefore the same issues as science, therefore the methods (hyper-skepticism) must be methods (hyper-skepticism) must be detached from understanding religiondetached from understanding religion


James argued the James argued the verdict for claiming verdict for claiming religion and its truth claims was still religion and its truth claims was still outout. James suggested one cannot . James suggested one cannot simply forfeit such evidence to simply forfeit such evidence to understand truth when human understand truth when human nature or psyche suggests there is nature or psyche suggests there is some type of religious understanding some type of religious understanding shared by humanityshared by humanity


1901 – 1902 lectures at University of 1901 – 1902 lectures at University of Edinburgh entitled Edinburgh entitled The Varieties of The Varieties of Religious ExperienceReligious Experience

Apologetic which argued human Apologetic which argued human beings beings necessarilynecessarily draw upon a fund draw upon a fund of spiritual power beyond the realm of spiritual power beyond the realm of materialismof materialism

Introduction – A Tenuous HarmonyIntroduction – A Tenuous Harmony

Important changing patternsImportant changing patterns of global of global connections developed in three areas in connections developed in three areas in the first half of the 20th centurythe first half of the 20th century

One, the development of global structures One, the development of global structures of of interstateinterstate, economic, and socio-cultural , economic, and socio-cultural relationshipsrelationships

Two, the emergence of Two, the emergence of globally competing globally competing sociopolitical ideologiessociopolitical ideologies for shaping the for shaping the nature of societies in the modern eranature of societies in the modern era


In the social, economic, political, and In the social, economic, political, and religious transformations framed by religious transformations framed by the two world wars and the Great the two world wars and the Great Depression, Depression, world visions and broad world visions and broad programmatic perspectivesprogrammatic perspectives were an were an important part of the global sceneimportant part of the global scene

3 major competing ideologies in 3 major competing ideologies in Western societyWestern society


Democratic liberalism Democratic liberalism - The World War I - The World War I settlement reflected this ideological settlement reflected this ideological position. The global terms set by President position. The global terms set by President Woodrow Wilson (son of a minister) in an Woodrow Wilson (son of a minister) in an ideological liberal internationalismideological liberal internationalism committed to the self-determination of committed to the self-determination of peoples, democratic political systems, peoples, democratic political systems, relatively capitalist market economies, and relatively capitalist market economies, and peaceful resolution of international peaceful resolution of international conflicts by public negotiation.conflicts by public negotiation.


CommunismCommunism – Articulated by Karl Marx – Articulated by Karl Marx (1818-1883), it built on a materialist (1818-1883), it built on a materialist interpretation of history, developing a interpretation of history, developing a vision of a society in which vision of a society in which production and production and distribution were controlled by the distribution were controlled by the community in a collectivized economycommunity in a collectivized economy. . The working class was to be the major The working class was to be the major vehicle for achieving this goal, and vehicle for achieving this goal, and class class interests rather than national identitiesinterests rather than national identities were seen as primary.were seen as primary.


Leninist communismLeninist communism became a major alternative became a major alternative to and competitor with to and competitor with Wilsonian liberal Wilsonian liberal democracydemocracy..

Great Britain, France, and the U.S. intervened Great Britain, France, and the U.S. intervened militarily in the militarily in the Russian civil warRussian civil war in 1918-19 to in 1918-19 to prevent the consolidation of Bolshevik rule of prevent the consolidation of Bolshevik rule of Russia but failed. Russia but failed.

In Germany, the In Germany, the Spartacist groupSpartacist group, which , which advocated a Communist state, led a series of advocated a Communist state, led a series of uprisings in 1919-20 against the emerging uprisings in 1919-20 against the emerging Weimar Republic and was defeated. Weimar Republic and was defeated.


In Germany, the In Germany, the SpartacistSpartacist group, which group, which advocated a Communist state, led a series advocated a Communist state, led a series of uprisings in 1919-20 of uprisings in 1919-20 against the against the emerging Weimar Republicemerging Weimar Republic and was and was defeated. defeated.

Communist attempts to gain power in the Communist attempts to gain power in the new republic of new republic of AustriaAustria (1919) and (1919) and BulgariaBulgaria (1923-25) were unsuccessful. (1923-25) were unsuccessful.

The Communist dictatorship of Béla Kun in The Communist dictatorship of Béla Kun in HungaryHungary lasted only a few months in 1919. lasted only a few months in 1919.


In In IranIran (Persia), Persian nationalists and (Persia), Persian nationalists and social democrats received support from social democrats received support from the Bolshevik regime in establishing a the Bolshevik regime in establishing a short-lived short-lived Soviet Republic of Gilan in Soviet Republic of Gilan in 19201920. .

The The new Communist Partynew Communist Party in China in China cooperated with the Kuomintang regime cooperated with the Kuomintang regime until a until a major split in 1927major split in 1927, and the , and the Communists went into revolutionary Communists went into revolutionary opposition.opposition.


FascismFascism - Movements that emerged after - Movements that emerged after World War I took a number of different World War I took a number of different forms, but they forms, but they shared an ideological shared an ideological perspectiveperspective that that subordinated the subordinated the individual to the stateindividual to the state, , opposed class opposed class struggle, and affirmed nationalist identitiesstruggle, and affirmed nationalist identities and a corporate state. Structures were and a corporate state. Structures were elitistelitist rather than egalitarian, and there rather than egalitarian, and there was an emphasis on the role of the great was an emphasis on the role of the great leader. leader.


Benito Benito MussoliniMussolini – first fascist leader – first fascist leader in Europein Europe

Became prime minister of Became prime minister of ItalyItaly in in 1922 and seized full power by 1926.1922 and seized full power by 1926.

Other states came under the control Other states came under the control of dictators in the interwar period, of dictators in the interwar period, including Poland (1926), Lithuania including Poland (1926), Lithuania (1926), Portugal (1932), and Estonia (1926), Portugal (1932), and Estonia (1934). (1934).


Changing climate of economic Changing climate of economic markets throughout the world and markets throughout the world and the responses to them profoundly the responses to them profoundly shape responses of religious shape responses of religious traditions in Americatraditions in America

No longer do the Christian/Protestant No longer do the Christian/Protestant benevolent societies of old seem to benevolent societies of old seem to address the weighty issues of address the weighty issues of internationalisminternationalism

Religious Responses – The “Social Religious Responses – The “Social Gospel”Gospel”

The The Social GospelSocial Gospel Movement Movement Movement initially among American Movement initially among American

Protestants, both black and white, Protestants, both black and white, to to relate theological and biblical relate theological and biblical insightsinsights to rapidly changing to rapidly changing economic forceseconomic forces

Charles M. Sheldon’sCharles M. Sheldon’s In His Steps: In His Steps: What Would Jesus Do?What Would Jesus Do? was an initial was an initial attempt to relate Christianity to attempt to relate Christianity to modern-day issuesmodern-day issues


By turn of the century, the Social By turn of the century, the Social Gospel is attached to the more Gospel is attached to the more moderate reformistmoderate reformist or or liberal liberal elementelement of churches and synagogues of churches and synagogues

Influence was great in the formation Influence was great in the formation of of Federal Council of Churches in Federal Council of Churches in Christ in AmericaChrist in America in 1908 in 1908


Washington GladdenWashington Gladden (1836-1918) (1836-1918) Minister in First Congregational Minister in First Congregational

Church in Church in Columbus, OhioColumbus, Ohio for much for much of his careerof his career

Served on City Council from 1900 to Served on City Council from 1900 to 19021902

Influenced by the writing of Horace Influenced by the writing of Horace BushnellBushnell


Applied Christianity Applied Christianity (1886); (1886); Social Social SalvationSalvation (1902); (1902); The Christian The Christian Pastor and Working Church Pastor and Working Church (1907)(1907)

Not a “systematic theologian”Not a “systematic theologian” Gladden’s body of literature and Gladden’s body of literature and

concepts espoused was the concepts espoused was the foundation for what became known foundation for what became known as “the Social Gospel” as “the Social Gospel”


Walter RauschenbuschWalter Rauschenbusch (1861-1918) (1861-1918) Born and educated in Rochester, New York Born and educated in Rochester, New York

receiving two degrees (1884; 1886)receiving two degrees (1884; 1886) Serves as pastor for German Baptist Serves as pastor for German Baptist

Church on the edge of “Hell’s Kitchen” for Church on the edge of “Hell’s Kitchen” for 11 years11 years

Returns to Rochester Theological Seminary Returns to Rochester Theological Seminary to become professor of church history in to become professor of church history in 19021902


Christianity and the Social CrisisChristianity and the Social Crisis (1907); (1907); Christianizing the Social Christianizing the Social OrderOrder (1912); (1912); A Theology for the A Theology for the Social GospelSocial Gospel (1917) (1917)

These works present a program of These works present a program of progressive democratic reformism as progressive democratic reformism as moving toward the kingdom of Godmoving toward the kingdom of God


““The progressive transformation of The progressive transformation of all human affairs by the all human affairs by the thoughtthought and and spiritspirit of Christ” of Christ”

Note emphasis on “spirit” and Note emphasis on “spirit” and “thought,” not letter of the gospel“thought,” not letter of the gospel

Rauschenbusch dies of cancer in Rauschenbusch dies of cancer in 1918 1918


Legacy:Legacy: Reinhold NiebuhrReinhold Niebuhr – “most brilliant – “most brilliant

and generally satisfying exponent” of and generally satisfying exponent” of the Social Gospelthe Social Gospel

Martin Luther King, Jr.Martin Luther King, Jr. – – “Rauschenbusch gave to American “Rauschenbusch gave to American Protestantism a sense of social Protestantism a sense of social responsibility that it should never responsibility that it should never lose”lose”


Samuel S. MayerbergSamuel S. Mayerberg (1892-1964) (1892-1964) Rabbi of Congregation B’nai Jehudah in Rabbi of Congregation B’nai Jehudah in

Kansas City, Missouri during the 1930sKansas City, Missouri during the 1930s Citizens of Kansas City suffered under the Citizens of Kansas City suffered under the

notoriously corrupt political leadership of notoriously corrupt political leadership of Thomas J. PendergastThomas J. Pendergast

Problems of fraudulent ballots, kickbacks, Problems of fraudulent ballots, kickbacks, bootlegging, etc. bootlegging, etc.

Mayerberg leads a reform crusade against Mayerberg leads a reform crusade against the entrenched political machinethe entrenched political machine


John Lancaster SpaldingJohn Lancaster Spalding (1840 – (1840 – 1916)1916)

Kentuckian who served as bishop of Kentuckian who served as bishop of Peoria, IllinoisPeoria, Illinois

Argued the church could not avoid Argued the church could not avoid problems of modernityproblems of modernity

Articulates the calling or shape of the Articulates the calling or shape of the Catholic faith through the subjects of Catholic faith through the subjects of politics and social causes politics and social causes


Pastoral LetterPastoral Letter (1920)(1920) Leo XIII (1878- 1903) demonstrates an Leo XIII (1878- 1903) demonstrates an

awareness of the dramatic shifting forces awareness of the dramatic shifting forces in economics which are shaping the lives in economics which are shaping the lives of Catholics worldwideof Catholics worldwide

1891 encyclical 1891 encyclical Rerum NovarumRerum Novarum encouraged Catholics to apply Christian encouraged Catholics to apply Christian tenets to the marketplace broadlytenets to the marketplace broadly


The arguments of American Catholic The arguments of American Catholic leaders such as leaders such as James Cardinal GibbonsJames Cardinal Gibbons (1834-1921) helped to shape the pope’s (1834-1921) helped to shape the pope’s thinking about thinking about Rerum NovarumRerum Novarum

Gibbons served as Archbishop of Gibbons served as Archbishop of Baltimore, MarylandBaltimore, Maryland

Asked to approach the Vatican on issues of Asked to approach the Vatican on issues of American labor and unionismAmerican labor and unionism


Gibbons must make the case between Gibbons must make the case between unionism in light of capitalism vs. labor unionism in light of capitalism vs. labor movements in Europe which are anti-movements in Europe which are anti-ChurchChurch

Suggests to pope “The presence among Suggests to pope “The presence among our citizens of those our citizens of those dangerous social dangerous social elementselements, which , which most come from certain most come from certain countries in Europecountries in Europe, is assuredly for us an , is assuredly for us an occasion of great regret and of vigilant occasion of great regret and of vigilant precaution…”precaution…”

Voices of Conflict – Red ScareVoices of Conflict – Red Scare

First abrupt disturbance to First abrupt disturbance to Americans following World War I was Americans following World War I was the intense attack of Bolshevism the intense attack of Bolshevism abroad and Communism in U.S.abroad and Communism in U.S.

May Day, 1919May Day, 1919 – several bomb blasts – several bomb blasts within U.S. including the rectory of within U.S. including the rectory of Our Lady of VictoryOur Lady of Victory church in church in PhiladelphiaPhiladelphia


One One anarchistanarchist bomber, identified as bomber, identified as an an Italian alienItalian alien, left a , left a tracttract outside outside the door of one target which read: the door of one target which read: “There will have to be “There will have to be bloodshedbloodshed; we ; we will will not dodgenot dodge; there will have to be ; there will have to be murdermurder; we will kill…there will have ; we will kill…there will have to be destruction; we will destroy…to be destruction; we will destroy…We are ready to do anything and We are ready to do anything and everything to suppress everything to suppress the capitalist the capitalist classclass.”.”


These incidents help to shape a popular These incidents help to shape a popular paradigm for many Americansparadigm for many Americans

Christian America vs. CommunismChristian America vs. Communism Of all the social issues of conflict during Of all the social issues of conflict during

this time, the threat of communism this time, the threat of communism created a created a unique responseunique response drawing drawing together Protestants, Jews, Catholics, together Protestants, Jews, Catholics, nonreligious, and blacks & whites into a nonreligious, and blacks & whites into a common frontcommon front


Many Americans simply assumed Many Americans simply assumed free-enterprise economics was a free-enterprise economics was a God-given systemGod-given system; therefore, ; therefore, communism was inherently anti-Godcommunism was inherently anti-God

Marxist atheism drew considerable Marxist atheism drew considerable opposition from churchesopposition from churches

People of Slavic ancestry become People of Slavic ancestry become target for the nationtarget for the nation


Fueling this anger was rising inflation Fueling this anger was rising inflation and the threat of unemployment and the threat of unemployment once the wartime economy slowedonce the wartime economy slowed

One target of this tension was the One target of this tension was the Industrial Workers of the World Industrial Workers of the World organization (Wobblies)organization (Wobblies)


Wobblies – started in Wobblies – started in 19051905 by Irish- by Irish-born born Mary Harris JonesMary Harris Jones, “Mother , “Mother Jones,” who became a vocal leader Jones,” who became a vocal leader for unionizing labor movements such for unionizing labor movements such as the miners and textile workersas the miners and textile workers

Roman CatholicRoman Catholic background background Distinguished between religious Distinguished between religious

reforms and non-religious reformsreforms and non-religious reforms


““Only religion can make a colony Only religion can make a colony successful and labor doesn’t have successful and labor doesn’t have religion.”religion.”

Helped to lead Helped to lead miners strikesminers strikes in in ColoradoColorado in 1913-1914 (65 in 1913-1914 (65 individuals killed during strikes; 45 individuals killed during strikes; 45 women and children)women and children)

Jones for her involvement and Jones for her involvement and Catholic background was despisedCatholic background was despised


Jones retires in 1923 leaving the Jones retires in 1923 leaving the Wobblies leadership to a new Wobblies leadership to a new generation of anti-religious leadersgeneration of anti-religious leaders

Protestant Protestant opinion dividedopinion divided in the in the early 1920s over Wobbliesearly 1920s over Wobblies

One riot in Centralia Washington One riot in Centralia Washington garnered the headline garnered the headline “Reds Murder “Reds Murder Former Soldiers”Former Soldiers” from a Presbyterian from a Presbyterian newspaper, newspaper, ContinentContinent


Northern Baptist Convention Northern Baptist Convention daringly daringly opposedopposed the popular “ ‘Red’ hysteria the popular “ ‘Red’ hysteria which indiscriminately classes all which indiscriminately classes all foreigners as Bolshevists”foreigners as Bolshevists”

Federal Council of Churches also Federal Council of Churches also steps in to try to calm agitationsteps in to try to calm agitation

Voices of Conflict – White HoodsVoices of Conflict – White Hoods

Ku Klux KlanKu Klux Klan Founded at the close of the Civil War Founded at the close of the Civil War

by Nathan Bedford Forest, by Nathan Bedford Forest, Confederate Calvary general who Confederate Calvary general who was its first leaderwas its first leader

““Lost Cause” mentality coupled with Lost Cause” mentality coupled with ethnic and racial hatred which ethnic and racial hatred which embraces idealized “Old South” embraces idealized “Old South”


By the dawn of the new century, the By the dawn of the new century, the Klan is undergoing a revival in Klan is undergoing a revival in membership both North and Southmembership both North and South

The Klan was so troubling to many The Klan was so troubling to many Protestant Americans not only Protestant Americans not only because of what it stood for, but because of what it stood for, but because it parodied many aspects of because it parodied many aspects of Protestantism in AmericaProtestantism in America

““Menace of the mirrored self” Menace of the mirrored self”


Espoused a program of civic reform Espoused a program of civic reform which attracted moralists bewailing which attracted moralists bewailing social change, prohibitionists, and social change, prohibitionists, and people hungry for clandestine ritualpeople hungry for clandestine ritual

Protestant ethos to ritual behaviorProtestant ethos to ritual behavior Catechesis was fundamental to Catechesis was fundamental to

shaping community ethosshaping community ethos


Questions in “catechisms”Questions in “catechisms”• Are you a native-born white, Gentile, Are you a native-born white, Gentile,

American citizen?American citizen?• Do you believe in the tenets of the Do you believe in the tenets of the

Christian religion?Christian religion?• Do you believe in and will you faithfully Do you believe in and will you faithfully

strive for the eternal maintenance of strive for the eternal maintenance of white supremacy?white supremacy?


Questions in “catechisms”Questions in “catechisms”• Are you absolutely opposed to and free Are you absolutely opposed to and free

of any allegiance of any nature to any of any allegiance of any nature to any cause, government, people, sect or ruler cause, government, people, sect or ruler that is foreign to the U.S.A.?that is foreign to the U.S.A.?

• Do you esteem the U.S.A. and its Do you esteem the U.S.A. and its institutions above any other institutions above any other government, civil, political, or government, civil, political, or ecclesiastical in the whole world?ecclesiastical in the whole world?


Ideals of the Ku Klux KlanIdeals of the Ku Klux Klan (1923) (1923)• 1. This is a white man’s organization; 1. This is a white man’s organization; • 2. This is a gentile organization;2. This is a gentile organization;• 3. It is an American organization;3. It is an American organization;• 4. It is a Protestant organization4. It is a Protestant organization

“ “Undesirables,” the objects of reform Undesirables,” the objects of reform (Catholics, blacks, Jews, etc.), were usually (Catholics, blacks, Jews, etc.), were usually not in geographical range of where the not in geographical range of where the Klan had its greatest membershipKlan had its greatest membership


During the Interwar years, violent During the Interwar years, violent outbreaks of Klan activity in the mid-outbreaks of Klan activity in the mid-WestWest

Example: Indiana (1920 – 21) Klan Example: Indiana (1920 – 21) Klan membership estimated at 240,000membership estimated at 240,000

1920 Census: Muncie, Indiana 92% of 1920 Census: Muncie, Indiana 92% of population was native-born population was native-born Caucasian Caucasian

religion and society in america religion and conflict in interwar america 1919 – 1941 week 8 –...

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