research methods and project

MODULE 7: RESEARCH METHODS AND PROJECT

Successful completion of this module will enable learners to:

• Design and undertake an original project in an area that is of interest to them – projects will be self-selected by learners in accordance with signoff by line manager with the guidance and assistance provided, must be practical in their orientation, illuminate complex managerial problems and deliver recommendations and interventions that will aid organizational decision making and/or management practice;

• Acquire and develop considerable specialized knowledge;

• Refine the analytical skills needed to evaluate, test the efficacy of, and apply academic theory to real management issues;

• Critically develop advanced written communication skills including the ability to produce high-quality written reports.

Learners should begin by reading and reflecting on the following literature: How to undertake a research project and write a scientific paper By Jeremy Rhodes

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Learner Handbook / Executive Leader Apprenticeship Programme

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Following the completion of pre-work, the module will provide learners with a structured programme designed to guide them towards its completion, supported in this process through:

• Leadership Tutor directed independent self-study and exploration of the modular reading, all of which is provided on the VLE.

• Pedagogical contact that focuses on directing and supporting learners’ independent self-study, guiding, supporting and informing the design, performance and writing up of assignments.

• The below knowledge seminars delivered during a residential:

Modular Reading

• Allen, Rebecca. The Teacher Labour Market, Teacher Turnover and Disadvantaged Schools: New Evidence for England. Education Economics, 2018.

• Cohen, Louis., Manion, Lawrence., Morrison, Keith. Research Methods. Routledge, 2007.• Du Plessis, Anna Elizabeth. Barriers to Effective Management of Diversity in Classroom Contexts: The out-of-field Teaching

Phenomenon. International Journal of Educational Research, 2019. • Finn, Kirsty. Multiple, Relational and Emotional Mobilities: Understanding Learner Mobilities in Higher Education as More than

‘Staying Local’ and ‘Going Away’. British Education Research Journal, 2017. • Hill, Alex., Mellon, Liz., Laker, Ben., Goddard, Jules. (2016) The one type of leader who can turn around a failing school, Harvard

Business Review• Leckie, George.; Goldstein, Harvey. The Evolution of School League Tables in England 1992–2016: ‘Contextual Value‐Added’,

‘Expected Progress’ and ‘Progress 8’. British Education Research Journal, 2017.• MacDonald, Stuart., Headlam, Nicola. Research Methods Handbook. The Centre for Local Economic Strategies, 2011.• Rhodes, Jeremy. How to undertake a research project and write a scientific paper. Annals of the Royal College of Surgeons of England, 2012.• Woodcock, Stuart.; Marks Woolfson, Lisa. Are Leaders Leading the Way With Inclusion? Teachers’ Perceptions of Systemic Support

and Barriers Towards Inclusion. International Journal of Educational Research, 2019.

1. Interrogating Literature: This session provides in-depth knowledge, critical analysis, and understanding of a literature review.

2. Research Design: This session explores how to design, justify and undertake original research within the field of education leadership.

3. Data Analysis: This session explores quantitative, qualitative and mixed methods approaches to data collection and analysis.

4. Identifying and Disseminating Findings: This session explores how develop coherent and persuasive written arguments, based on sound research evidence, leading to logical conclusions, recommendations and interventions.

Assessment

You need to write one 1,000-word Change Project Proposal and one 18,000-word Change Project Dissertation.

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It aims to give you, a learner, an understanding of management research, particularly applied research, which aims to inform management practice. The discussion in this stage of the module also offers you the opportunity, through directed reading and reflective practice applications, to develop a more in-depth understanding of particular methods in terms of the issues you might consider when choosing and implementing specific approaches.

The primary focus of this stage of the Change Project material will be on those factors related to choosing your research approach and developing your own research design, data collection, and data analysis. As you develop your Change Project, you may find you need to return to various sections of the Change Project material at different stages of your research. Indeed, completing management research is typically very iterative rather than a straight line process, and you will probably return to this material throughout the development of your Change Project.

When you are reading the literature that supports research in

management, you will see much of it is written to support the development of a traditional academic dissertation. This type of research is related to theory testing through developing an in-depth understanding of specific aspects of the theory and testing this understanding through fieldwork, or theory building through developing an understanding of the field and then linking it to key theory. In practice, academic research maybe somewhere in between these two ends of the research continuum of testing and building knowledge. The primary focus of traditional approaches to study is to develop and extend both knowledge and theory. Hence, academic research is a theory-driven approach, where the focus and driver for the research is the literature and theories.

An alternative type of research, and the one adopted by this programme, is practitioner or applied research, which aims to develop a better understanding of practical business or management problems, issues or opportunities to develop recommendations for action. Applied research is a problem-centered

approach where the project’s problem, issue, or opportunity drives the activities. This is not to suggest that you can only focus on the practical aspects of your project in this approach. In gaining a better understanding of the issue that you are investigating, consideration of the contributions of theory and what has already been done in the area, including academic research, will be important to your understanding.

During the course of your studies you will have undertaken a number of assessments that are aimed at developing a greater understanding of different aspects of practice in your own management context, drawing on activities and behaviours that you have experienced and observed. Reflecting on your experience and applying learning from different modules should have led to your developing a better understanding of a range of issues in management and business with a view to making recommendations for change. And as such, an applied approach to research is recommended to you when undertaking your Change Project. When taking this methodological

This guidance is designed to help learners develop an understanding of the Change Project, with particular emphasis on research design and methods, as required by Module 7.

CHANGE PROJECT GUIDANCE


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approach, you will need to identify an issue, problem or opportunity (hereafter referred to simply as an issue) that becomes the central focus of your investigation, and how you conduct your research. This approach, which follows an applied approach and ‘evidence-based management’ (EBM) is increasingly considered as an important process for developing research and teaching in applied, and management-based contexts.

The philosophy of EBM as an approach

EBM is a process or family of approaches that is about making decisions through the conscientious, explicit and judicious use of four sources of information: practitioner expertise and judgement, evidence from the local context, a critical evaluation of the best available research evidence and the perspectives of those people who might be affected by the decision. This definition helps to frame the requirements for the Change Project in that it:

• is an integrative approach – it does not take a small element of the problem but considers the issue as a whole within its context

• includes a broad range of both practitioner and academic evidence – identifying and evaluating what already exists both within the management context and the wider public domain; hence it is not theory or practice driven but recognises both are important to developing understanding

• considers stakeholder views of both the focus of the investigation and the potential impacts of solutions, generally through fieldwork

In addressing business issues within this approach, it is important to recognise that they do not occur in a vacuum or silo but are part of a wider system or process. Importantly, this approach requires you to be systematic and transparent in your approach to the design of the

investigation, the design and collection of primary and secondary evidence (or data), the analysis and interpretation of the data you collect, and the writing up of your investigation. Secondly, as you develop your study, we will be looking that you apply skills that show that you have been critical and evaluative, that you can synthesise and justify your evaluation and analysis and that you can use your synthesis and justification to develop your conclusions and recommendations. Using such an approach should help you build a more informed robust base on which to make decisions about your investigation and your findings so that you develop well grounded, appropriate conclusions and recommendations.

In considering the use of literature within an applied research context, are significant differences in applied research.

Firstly, one needs to identify a clearly specified answerable question derived from practice or policy, as this guides the review of the evidence, particularly the literature – what evidence is included (both practice and theory), the overall research strategy and the design strategy and methods that should be employed. For the Change Project therefore, it is important to note that the question drives the study and the choices that are made.

Secondly, a number of stakeholders may contribute to the development of the question and processes and therefore have a stake in the findings and recommendation. This highlights the importance of recognising that there may be a range of perspectives that are important to understanding the issue.

Thirdly, sources of information are not confined to published studies but to a range of studies both published and unpublished (for example, company-based material). In developing your Change Project, both academic and practitioner research as well as company data play an important role and it is expected that your study will include relevant material from a range of sources, although

the quality of these sources and the appropriateness to the requirements of the issue should be considered.

Fourthly, transparency and accessibility in the use of the data are important. Drawing together and evaluating multiple sources requires a clear process both for evaluation and synthesis in order to provide results that are more than the sum of the parts. For the Change Project, it is important that you have a clear approach to collecting literature and what is included or is not included, developing and articulating the evaluation and how it might be applied to support better understanding of practice.

For the Change Project, evidence drawn from the literature serves the purpose of developing a greater understanding of what is already known and indeed, not known, about your issue in order to develop a better understanding of your issue, practice more generally, the potential options for fieldwork and the possibilities in terms of recommendations and actions.

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1. Setting the context (approx. 200 words)

Introduce and explain your selected area of change using a clear statement of the problem or issue that is the focus of the investigation. Then identify your overall aims and scope and provide a brief overview of the context and setting for the investigation. Then, explain why the Change Project is important to the sponsoring organisation and may help to deliver high performance and growth/sustainable outcomes.

2. Research question(s) and objectives (approx. 100 words)

Discuss your research focus or research question(s) and objectives that you intend to address through your investigation.

4. Methodological design of the investigation (approx. 300 words)

Propose and justify an underpinning research strategy (i.e., research approach and fieldwork method) that you intend to use for the inquiry to address the research question(s). Ensure that you explain an overview of the key data you require and how you intend to collect it, details of sampling (e.g., interviewees, survey respondents), and how you will access them. Then indicate your intended sample size (e.g., number of interviews, number of survey responses, etc.) and how you intend to analyse the data and present your findings.

3. Literature related to your topic area (approx. 200 words)

Drawing on key academic sources provide an overview of how your reading around your research topic has informed your thinking and understanding of the issue, problem or opportunity, and has contributed to the design of your proposed investigation. Ensure that you provide a reference list comprising a minimum of ten sources.

5. Stakeholder management (approx. 200 words)

Consider how you will manage partnerships, people, and resources effectively. Explore the type of support and from which stakeholders you are seeking to support this project. Then discuss how you will manage complex relationships across multiple and diverse stakeholders. Consider how will various levels of organisational, including board structures, will be engaged throughout your study.

6. Ethical concerns with the research process (200 words)

Identify any ethical issues related to the research process by replying to all of the questions on the following page concerning your proposed research by marking with an ‘x’ as appropriate.

Before instigating the change project within an organisation, you are required to submit a Change Project Proposal, the sections of which are as follows:

CHANGE PROJECT PROPOSAL

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Yes NoHave the participants and subjects of the study been chosen because they are patients and/or clients of the National Health Service or Social Services in the UK, or equivalent health or social care systems in another country?

Are the participants and subjects of the study unable to give free and informed consent because they are not over the age of 18, or as a consequence of their mental capacity? (For more details on how mental capacity might impair the ability to give free and informed consent, please consult the Mental Capacity Act 2005.)

Are you asking questions that are likely to be considered inappropriate or to cause distress to any of the participants?

Are any of the subjects in a special relationship with the researcher that could affect their ability freely to give informed consent?

Is your project funded by a Research Council or other external source (excluding research conducted by postgraduate students)?

If you have answered Yes to any of these questions, your proposal will be reviewed in accordance with the requirements of the University Research Ethics Committee. If you are unsure whether any of these conditions apply, please contact your Leadership Tutor for further advice.

Once you receive your proposal back, marked and moderated by the National College assessment team, you will know whether you have authorisiation to begin your Change Project. No marks are awarded to the Change Project Proposal: it is returned as either Proceed (acceptable) or Resubmit (unacceptable). As such, authorisation will automatically given to any learner who passes. Any learner that fails this assessment component will not receive authorisation to begin the Change Project and will be required to re-submit under the guidance of the Academic Director of the National College.

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The identification and initial exploration of the issue, problem or opportunity (Literature Review)

Many academics argue the need to ensure that we are investigating the ‘right’ thing, in other words the issue rather than the symptoms, so it is important that you spend some time interrogating the accuracy of the issue at the start of the process. This will enable you to be clear about the issue to be investigated and the interdependencies and relationships with other aspects of the overall context. It will also enable you to articulate what you are investigating clearly. To do this you should consider the following steps.

• Review and question the data or evidence that has led you or the organisation to identify the issue. You may focus on internal evidence if you are looking at an organisational or management issue or on market or industry data if it is more of an externally based issue. However, it is important in applied approaches to research to use the practice

to guide your development of the topic including the context and interdependencies.

• Brainstorm, challenge or discuss the issue with a small number (possibly as few as two to three) key stakeholders and/or the project sponsor (if there is one) to get an idea of different perspectives and experiences.

• Conduct an initial review of key external evidence relating to the issue (key literature from relevant modules, industry or consultant data for example) in order to see what already exists to inform your thinking and understanding.

As part of this initial review and indeed throughout the collection process, it is important to consider what, in principle, constitutes evidence within the context of your issue that you are investigating, how it is contributing to and informing your understanding of the issue and its nature and context, and key decisions about articulation of the issue and how it might be explored and investigated.

You should aim to draw together the different elements of evidence from this initial exploratory stage, challenge assumptions – that is asking questions such as ‘what if?’ or ‘so what?’ A questioning approach is critical in any type of research but it is especially important in applied research in your own business context where it is easy to fall back on opinion and assumption. It is also worth highlighting that, like the main investigation, this initial interrogation may be somewhat iterative rather than a single set of steps.

Define the issue and identify the approach for the investigation (Research Methodology)

Having interrogated and evaluated the initial evidence, you should be in a position to (re)formulate, (re)state or be more specific about the issue, problem, question or opportunity. It is important that through your final defining of the issue that you can clearly explain what you are addressing and the context for the investigation.

The dissertation is the write-up of the Change Project and comprises five sections, now explained in detail.

CHANGE PROJECT DISSERTATION

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A clear understanding of what you are investigating means that you should also be in a position to identify what key areas from your programme may contribute when you are developing your investigation. Although we require you to draw on at least one module from your programme, it is possible that your issue will require you to take an even more integrated view and draw on several areas. You should be driven by the problem in deciding this, although you will need to identify one subject area as your main focus for your Change Project.

With a clear understanding of the issue, you should also be in a position to develop a clear idea of what method(s) will be most useful in collecting and analysing data to allow you to develop recommendations. The following sections consider different methods for collecting data. While the issue will be a key driver in your decisions about collecting and analysing different forms of data, it is likely other factors will also need to be considered, for example practical constraints.

Data analysis depends very much on what you have collected, how it is collected and what theoretical framework has been set. Essentially, your method of analysis must be consistent with your method; qualitative, quantitative, or mixed. Detailed explanation of each method is provided in the form of a Virtual Lecture on the VLE.

Collection and evaluation of the evidence (Results)

Having defined the issue and identified the methods for collecting the evidence, the next step is to collect and evaluate the data.

It is important when collecting the evidence for your investigation that you keep good records at this stage as you will need to discuss how you collected your evidence and how you analysed it in your report. In this way you should be able to show that your approach was both replicable and transparent. Evidence (results) for your investigation is likely to come from three key sources:

• Internal evidence in the organisation, the industry or market or indeed from different organisations depending on the dictates of the issue. Note that ‘internal’ in this sense means internal to the issue and the context in which it exists. Internal evidence may comprise of collecting and analysing secondary data related to the issue, or developing primary data through the use of qualitative, quantitative or mixed methods.

• External evidence from academic and practitioner research. You should note that we expect that you will engage with relevant academic literature and research as part of the Change Project. As you begin to gain a deeper understanding of the elements of the issue, you should find that drives you to draw on further literature.

• Stakeholder views – internal or external as the issue dictates.

Other strategies that might be used to gather and evaluate evidence such as:

• Logical reasoning – exploring the issue through the use of ‘what if?’ or ‘so what?’ type questions about the issue that we are addressing. This is also particularly useful when there is little or limited useable evidence about the issue available. In cases where external evidence from research or internal evidence is not available or perceived as too difficult to interpret and utilise, it is still possible to apply logic and reasoning (itself based, of course, on evidence, experience and theory). In these cases, explicit reasoning can be applied to consider the questions of how and if a particular managerial intervention is likely to have the desired benefits and what, if any, costs may be incurred.

• Questioning assumptions – questioning any underlying assumptions within the evidence or practice can develop a better understanding of the issue and context and contribute to more informed decisions. This can

be done by drawing on different evidence, practice or views and comparing and contrasting them to uncover anomalies and things that do not seem to make sense.

• Specifying the evidence – being specific about what constitutes relevant evidence in principle is important to the collection and evaluation process as it may impact upon and influence the decisions that are finally made to address the issue. Ongoing reflection of the value of the evidence throughout the collection process helps ensure that the issue remains central to the process and that there is ongoing relevance and rigour in relation to the sources.

In collecting data it is important that you are asking questions of each piece of evidence that you consider in terms of:

• how it helps inform your understanding of the issue

• how it relates to other forms of evidence and other evidence you have reviewed in the same form

• how robust it is in terms of quality

• whether you have enough or need to collect more – once you have collected a good selection of evidence you might ask yourself whether you are still learning anything new and if not then you probably have enough from that particular perspective

It is expected that you will discuss clearly what fieldwork and data collection you undertook as part of the project. This will include discussion of the method(s) and how they were chosen, why you chose this approach and how it was administered. You will also be expected to discuss your sample including how the constituents were selected and why. If you are using secondary data to support your fieldwork, you should discuss what sort of data you are using and how they are being used to support your primary method(s). However, if you are using secondary data as your main method, you will need to discuss what you are using and how you are bringing them together

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to reformulate them and do some meaningful analysis. For a mixed method approach, we are looking at how you conducted the research using the different methods, how they informed each other and how you are bringing the data together. In this section of your report any issues related to the data and how they were overcome should also be considered. You should draw on relevant literature and references to support your choices and key steps related to the fieldwork approach.

Synthesise the evidence and develop recommendations (Findings)

In this section you should discuss firstly how you prepared your data for analysis and then present your analysis. As discussed above, to make your discussion engaging it is necessary to focus on the critical or most relevant results or discuss your findings by looking at logical groups of results. It is not required that you go through your data question by question although you should include a full copy of your results in the appendices. You will need to draw on relevant literature as you work through your results to help develop a more analytical approach to the discussion and analysis.

Then, the final stage of the investigation process brings together your evaluation of the evidence in a way that enables you to make decisions about the recommendations and draw the conclusions. While this is the main aim of applied research, it might also be the case that the investigation highlights important gaps or inconsistencies that should be included in your discussion. Within this part of your Change Project, you should focus specifically on the issue, problem, question or opportunity and the critical evidence, regardless of the sources that help you to make decisions about your conclusions and recommendations.

You are required to explicitly explore the different views, including relevant academic models and frameworks, in order to build a theoretical understanding of your issue. This then informs your research proposition

or hypothesis (depending on your fieldwork approach). It also informs your fieldwork questions, and one of the activities in developing good research questions, whether you are using established questions from the ‘public’ domain or you are designing your own questions, is to consider not only how each question will contribute to answering your research question as an objective but what the specific theory driving you to ask this question is. Finally you can ask how the question might help you develop a better understanding of the practical context in which your research is set.

While the options for methodologies to collect field data are discussed in the next section, it is important to note that you need to be driven by your choice of method(s) not only by practical constraints but also by the theory, and it is useful as you start your review of the literature to consider the methods that have been used to support the literature that you are evaluating.

Draw together the findings from the literature and from fieldwork to develop the conclusions and recommendations (Conclusions and Recommendations)

You now need to bring together the findings to develop your conclusions and recommendations. In practice, to do this you will need to compare, contrast and evaluate the key findings from the data with key views from your literature review. This forms the foundation for the conclusions and recommendations that, once again, need to have academic underpinning given that the theory is the ‘red thread’ that links the different activities within a dissertation.

But remember, as noted, research, whether applied or academic, is an iterative process and you may well move back and forth between the phases of the investigative process as you develop both your research focus and objectives, and later conduct your investigation. Reflect upon the following questions.

What key problems might you anticipate in each of the major phases

of the investigative process, whichever process you are likely to follow?

How might you manage the relationships generally within and between each phase of your project regardless of whether it is within your own organisation or not and regardless of the approach that you are likely to take?

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HAVE A QUERY?

Administrative queries regarding residential or training days

Lisa Robson [email protected]

Appeals Prof Ben Laker [email protected]

CMI Management Direct Zoe Reynolds [email protected]

Complaints Nick Heard [email protected]

Day to day queries regarding your programme Leadership Tutor

Leadership Matters Jamie Ganley [email protected]

Marking Marking Team [email protected]

Manager Queries from employers regarding the programme or individual learners

Leadership Tutor

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Safeguarding concern Nick Heard [email protected]

Quality of teaching, learning and assessment Dr Matt Silver [email protected]

Queries from employers regarding new learners wishing to start programme

Leadership Tutor

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Referencing in the Harvard style

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Before getting onto the technical details of how to reference it is important to understand why referencing is important and the role of a referencing system.

Why reference? An important element of academic writing is the development of an evidence-based argument. In your own writing you will be expected to engage with, and to use, existing theories, models and concepts as well as the results of prior research and published sources of data or information relating to your subject. In developing your ideas and argument regarding a topic, you will therefore be drawing upon the existing body of knowledge in the subject under investigation. Whenever you draw upon the work of others, whether indirectly or through a direct quotation or extract from their work, you must acknowledge this clearly in the form of a citation within your text and by including details of the sources you have cited in a reference list at the end of your work.

It is important to cite references clearly and accurately in your work in order to:

• enable readers to trace your source material, and allow them to evaluate your interpretation of those ideas

• illustrate your ability to evaluate critically the existing literature about a topic

• demonstrate that you can use other peoples’ work to illustrate a point or support an argument

• provide evidence of the breadth and depth of your reading and your research

What needs to be referenced? Whenever the theories, ideas, concepts, data or information are not your own original work, you must provide details of the original source through accurate citing and referencing.

Examples include:

• direct quotations from another source

• paraphrased text that you have rewritten and synthesised but is based on someone else’s work and ideas

• statistics, data or other information derived from other studies

• theories and ideas derived from other authors

• interpretations of events or evidence derived from other sources

• facts that are not common knowledge and that must be supported by evidence

• tables and figures

What is a referencing system? A referencing system provides:

• rules on how to refer to the work of others in your own text; this is called ‘citing’

• rules on how to format a reference list showing full details of all the sources you have cited; this ensures a reader knows where they can be found

The key idea is that the information contained in the citation allows the reader to find details of the original source in the reference list. Your citing and referencing must therefore be both accurate and complete. Using a standardised referencing system allows you to do this in an efficient and consistent way.

Section 1 Referencing in academic writing


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The Harvard style Although there are many differences in detail, there are two main approaches to citing and referencing other peoples’ work within your own material. These are (a) numeric systems and (b) author–date systems. Numeric systems, as their name suggests, involve inserting numbers into the text, which are linked to a numbered reference list. Author–date systems use the author(s) surname(s) and the date of publication to cite a source. The full details of all cited sources are then collected together in alphabetical order in a reference list placed at the end of the main body of the text.

The Harvard style is an author–date system and The National College uses it for referencing in all research work, publications, assignments, projects, dissertations and theses. Unless told otherwise, you should use the Harvard style during your studies at The College.

If you are producing work for another institution or for submission to a publisher, you should make sure

you understand their referencing requirements, which may be different.

You should be aware that there is no single standardised version of the Harvard style and there are many variations in points of detail (such as punctuation) as you will see when you start to compare the different styles used in practice at different institutions and on various websites. The examples given in our guides can be used for your referencing at The College. Above all, it is important to be consistent in the way you cite and reference in your own work.

Getting started Good referencing starts before you start writing. When reading and researching for an assignment or carrying out a literature review you should keep an accurate record of the sources you consult while preparing your work. You should catalogue or organise a system for capturing the following information: author(s), date, title, publication details, place of publication and publisher, journal title,


Note that inclusion of a source type in this guide does

not indicate its suitability as a source for an academic

essay. The Academic Director and your Leadership

Tutor will provide additional guidance on the suitability

of sources. When in doubt, always seek their counsel

before submitting any academic essay, as inclusion

of an unsuitable source may result in lost marks.

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volume, issue and page numbers (for journal articles), URL and date of access (for online sources).

If you take verbatim notes from your sources (e.g. by cutting and pasting), make sure that you record that it is a direct quotation in your notes. This can help you avoid accidental word-for-word reproduction of the original material in your own work. Keep a record of the page numbers of any verbatim notes because whenever you quote directly from a reference source you must provide the page number(s) in your citation.

Citing and referencing as you write Do not wait until you have finished your assignment before you start citing and referencing: insert citations as you write and build up your reference list as you go. Keep everything up to date as you edit and check everything before final submission.

Bibliographic software There are several specialist bibliographic software packages available to help you with referencing. These typically consist of a database for storing and managing details of all your references along with an interface with word-processing software (such as Microsoft Word) that allows you to cite as you write and then to generate your reference list automatically in an appropriate format. In addition, many bibliographic software programs can import reference data directly from online databases, which can further ease the referencing task.

An example of a fully featured commercial bibliographic software is EndNote

(http://endnote.com/).

There are also some free bibliographic software programs available online including Zotero (www.zotero.org) and Mendeley (www.mendeley.com). Mendeley can also support the management of large numbers of pdf files.

Microsoft Word has a built-in referencing capability, which can be useful, although it lacks many of the features that make specialist bibliographic software so powerful.

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Key points to note Once you get used to referencing it becomes second nature. In the meantime, pay particular attention to the following points.

• Cite and reference as you go; do not leave everything until the end.

• Do not use numbered referencing or number your reference list: the Harvard style is an author–date system.

• Footnotes and endnotes are not used for referencing in the Harvard system. (If a footnote or endnote is required for other purposes and needs to include a citation, the normal rules of citing and referencing are followed. As a general rule, however, you should avoid using footnotes or endnotes in your assignments.)

• All sources cited in your text must appear in the reference list.

• Regardless of how many times a specific source is cited, it only appears once in the reference list.


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Academic referencing involves two key steps: citing the work of others in your text and constructing a reference list of all the sources you have cited. This section looks at how to cite the work of others in different situations.

Citing in the text In the Harvard style, an in-text citation comprises two elements: the author(s) surname(s) and the publication date of the source. There are two conventions that you can follow when citing other authors in your text. Below are examples of these two styles:

A number of customer service and cost factors where e-business can have an impact on the supply chain have been identified (Chopra and Meindl, 2009).

Or:

Chopra and Meindl (2009) identify a number of customer service and cost factors where ebusiness can have an impact on the supply chain.

In the first example, the citation entirely is enclosed in brackets and is provided as the evidence to support the statement or as the source of the idea or data. In the second example, the authors are being identified or named as proposing the idea. Only the publication date is included in the brackets; the authors’ names form part of the sentence itself. This style tends to put more emphasis on the authors being cited, which can be very useful if you want to put more stress on the original authors’ contribution. This can be particularly relevant if you want to contrast the views of different authors. Different phrases can be used when citing in this way, for example:

Turner (2017) argues that/proposes that/suggests that/states that…

According to Turner (2017)…

Both conventions can be used in a document; for any particular citation, select the style that is most appropriate.

Note that in neither example above are these direct quotations of the original authors’ words; instead they paraphrase what was written in the original work.

Direct quotations If you are making a verbatim quotation from another source you must still provide appropriate reference details and include the page number from which the quotation is taken. You must also show that it is a direct quotation through the way you lay out the material. Quotations should be given word for word and, of course, accurately.

Be aware that excessive use of direct quotes may be deemed as academic misconduct by the Academic Director, resulting in course failure.

A short quotation of less than 20 words, a single sentence or less than three lines, can be incorporated in the body of the text in single quotation marks. For example:

Learning involves ‘reflection, theorizing, experiencing and action’ (Taylor and Thorpe, 2004: 204).

Or:

Taylor and Thorpe (2004: 204) argue that learning involves ‘reflection, theorizing, experiencing and action’.

The ‘: 204’ after the date in the citation shows that the quotation is taken from page 204 of the cited work.

Longer quotations of three or more lines are set out separately, usually indented from the left and right margins. A smaller font size can also be used. Do not use quotation marks. Start the quotation on a new line leaving one blank line before you begin it. The citation appears

Section 2 In-text citations using the Harvard style


44




below the quotation, usually on the right-hand side, and includes the page number from which the quotation was taken, for example:

The most striking set of activities and achievements common to the operating-level entrepreneurs we studied were those related to their taking the initiative to create and pursue new business opportunities

(Bartlett and Ghoshal, 1997: 97)

A page number must always be given for a direct quotation or for tables, figures, diagrams or similar material taken from a source. If no page number is available (e.g. for an e-book), include a chapter or section heading to allow the reader to locate the original material.

(Note that conventions for showing page numbers can vary; sometimes ‘, p.’ is used after the date rather than a colon (:), e.g. (Bartlett and Ghoshal, 1997, p. 97). As always, be consistent in the style that you use.)

When to use direct quotations Your assignment should be written mainly in your own words, so you should not rely too heavily on direct quotations. Short quotations, however, can be particularly useful to present a definition or a particularly useful expression or turn of phrase that captures the essence of what the original author was saying. Longer quotations are more commonly used when you need to make a detailed analysis of the text concerned. In the majority of assignments, they should be used sparingly if at all.

Editing quotations Sometimes it may be necessary to edit a quotation.

• Use ellipses (…) to indicate where you have omitted words from the quotation.

• Use square brackets [ ] to enclose words that you have added. Retain the spelling conventions exactly as given in the quotation – so if American English spelling is used do not anglicise it.

If you do edit a quotation, ensure that you do not misrepresent the

meaning of the original source.

Italics and emphasis in quotations If the original quotation includes italics (or other emphasis such as underling or bold text) you should indicate this in your citation, for example: (Smith, 2013: 56, emphasis in original).

If you add the emphasis, this should also be made clear, for example: (Jones, 2017: 76–7, emphasis added).

Formatting the citation The author–date format is the standard citation format used in the Harvard style. This section discusses how this is used in practice under different situations.

Works with one author Include the author’s surname and the date of publication, for example: Alvesson (2002) or (Alvesson, 2002).

You must add the page number to the citation for direct quotations but you do not include the page number in the reference list.

Where you are citing an author of a particular chapter within an edited book containing several authors, you cite the author of the chapter concerned in the text citation. In the reference list you include the chapter author alphabetically (rather than the editor). See Section 4 for more details on how to cite and reference edited books.

Works with two authors Include both authors’ surnames before the date, for example: Casson and Godley (2010) or (Casson and Godley, 2010).

Works with three or more authors If the work has three or more authors, you should include only the first author in the citation and add ‘et al.’ (short for et alia, meaning ‘and others’), for example: Atkinson et al. (2000) or (Atkinson et al., 2000).

Within the reference list all the authors should be listed.

Note that in some variants of the Harvard style, if there are three authors all names are included in the citation and et al. is used only for four or more authors. The method

used here economises on word count without loss of clarity. If you are a submitting to a journal or other publication, ensure you understand and conform to their requirements.

Works with no author Where you are citing material or information from a publication that does not provide the original author, you should use the publishing organisation/institution, e.g. (Ministry of Defence, 2017), (Gartner, 2015) or (Tesco, 2016), or the publication title, e.g. (Business Week, 2013). If these details are not available, use Anon. (i.e. anonymous), e.g. (Anon., 1745).

Ensure that whatever you use in the citation matches what is used in the reference list.

Same author(s), but different works If you are citing different works published by the same author these are distinguished from one another by their publication date. They are then listed in the reference list in publication date order.

If you are citing different works by the same author(s) at the same point in the text, these should be cited as (Foucault, 1970, 1980, 1991).

Same author(s), different works but same year If you are citing different works published in the same year by the same author, you distinguish between them by adding a lower case letter after the year, e.g. 1993a, 1993b, etc. In the text these should be cited as, for example, (Hayes, 1993a) and (Hayes, 1993b) if cited in different places or as (Hayes, 1993a, 1993b) if cited in the same location.

Within the reference list, add a, b, c, etc. after the date (e.g. 1993a, 1993b, etc.) and list them in the order that they are cited in your text.

Citing dates of publication The date of publication always comes after the author’s name for all references. The publication date should be the actual date of the edition and not the reprint date. In printed books, the date is usually to be found on the page after the title page, and it is often described


45




as the copyright date. In printed reports, the publication date is sometimes located at the end of the document or on the back cover.

Impressions and reprints signify the reprinting of a book because the previous print run has sold out. They should not be confused with new editions as the content is the same and page numbers have not changed. Therefore there is no need to note impressions or reprints in your reference list, and the date you record should be the publication date, not the reprint date.

If the work has appeared in multiple editions, always use the latest edition given in the imprints page.

Works with no date If there is no date given, use (undated) or (n.d.). If the date is uncertain include either a question mark, e.g. (1976?) or use ca. (circa = ‘about’), e.g. (ca. 2003). Whatever you choose, be consistent.

Ensure that whatever you use in the citation matches what is used in the reference list.

Citing several sources in one place If a number of different sources are essentially saying the same thing or agree on a particular issue, you can include all the different authors in one string of citations, separated by a semi-colon (;). For example:

Research suggests that the majority of change initiatives fail to achieve their objectives (Strebel, 1996; Quirke, 2000; Senge et al., 2001).

Note that in this example the citations are listed in chronological date order, i.e. earliest first, although some versions of the Harvard style list them alphabetically. Be consistent throughout, whichever system you choose. Full details of each citation are then given in the reference list at the end of the work, ordered alphabetically in the normal way.

Citing a source more than once If you need to cite a source more than once, simply repeat the normal citation in full in the main text as required.

Note that expressions such as ibid (short for ibidem = the same place) and op cit (short for opero citato = ‘in the work cited’) are not used in the Harvard style.

Remember that a specific source should only appear once in the reference list regardless of how many times it is cited in the main text.

Citing a source cited by someone else You may on occasion read about the work of others, not in the original but via another source such as a book or article by a different author. You should always try to read the original source if possible but if you cannot do so and still want to refer to the material, you should use the phrase ‘cited in’ followed by the details of the text where you found it. Below are examples of in-text citation of a work by Drucker cited in a book by Torrington and Hall:

… (Drucker, 1970 cited in Torrington and Hall, 1998: 116)

Or:

According to Drucker (1970, cited in Torrington and Hall, 1998: 116)…

In the reference list: provide details of the Torrington and Hall book, not the publication by Drucker as you have not actually seen it.

The general rule is that your reference list should only include works you have read.

Referencing tables and figures It is important to label tables and figures correctly and cite the source of the information if relevant. Tables should be given a brief, but clear, explanatory title, normally placed above the table, and should be numbered. If the table has been taken from another publication you need


46




to cite the source, including page number, at the foot of the table, e.g.

(Davenport and Short, 1990: 56). If you have made any adjustments from the original this can also be indicated, for example: (adapted from Davenport and Short, 1990: 56). In either case the full reference details of the original source are given in the reference list.

Graphics other than tables are normally called figures. Accordingly a figure may be a chart, graph, photograph, drawing or any other illustration. Figures should be numbered and be given a short explanatory title or caption, normally placed above the figure. The source should be cited and referenced, including page number, as for tables.

Abbreviations in citing and referencing It is advisable to use abbreviations sparingly in referencing but they may be useful for long, frequently repeated terms. However, bear in mind that excessive use of abbreviations can reduce the readability of a piece of work. Other than in the reference list/bibliography, where abbreviations are

not recommended, you need to decide whether to spell out the given term in full each time or to spell it out initially and then abbreviate it thereafter. You should always use the expression in full, followed by the abbreviation, when first mentioning the term. For example:

As a consequence of the 2008 economic downturn the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) UK 2009 report (GEM, 2010) presents some interesting evidence about the state of entrepreneurship in the UK and its benchmarks with other G7 and G20 countries. The GEM report also notes that there are regional variations within the UK.

The full name (i.e. Global Entrepreneurship Monitor) rather than the abbreviation is used in the reference list.

Practical tips It is good practice to cite as you write to avoid missing out citations and to save time at the end. Make sure you include all the necessary information (e.g. page numbers) and that you create your reference list in parallel if referencing manually. If you are using bibliographic software make sure you know how to edit in-text citations (e.g. how to add page numbers).


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Alongside citing the works of others in your text, you will need to include a reference list, giving details of the works cited. This section looks at how to construct a reference list in the Harvard style.

About the reference list The reference list is a full list of all the sources you have cited in your text.

It is normally placed at the end of the main text, starting on a new page before any appendices.

Order of references in the reference list References should be arranged in alphabetical order according to the

first author’s surname (or publication title/publishing institution if no author can be identified). For example:

Section 3 Constructing a reference list in the Harvard style

Aaltonen, K. and Sivonen, R. (2009). Response strategies to stakeholder pressures in global projects. International Journal of Project Management, 27(2), 131–41.

Foucault, M. (1970). The Order of Things. London: Tavistock.

Foucault, M. (1991). Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. London: Penguin.

Granovetter, M. (2005). The impact of social structure on economic outcomes. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 19(1), 33–50.

PMI (2013a). The Standard for Portfolio Management, 3rd edn. Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute.

PMI (2013b). The Standard for Program Management, 3rd edn. Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute.

Schroeder, J. and Salzer-Mörling, M. (eds.) (2006). Brand Culture. London: Routledge.



of it may be reproduced, stored or transmitted by any means without the prior written permission of Oceanova Innovations Ltd. Any unauthorised use for commercial gain will constitute an infringement of copyright. 48


Points to note: • If an author has more than one

publication cited, these should be listed in date order in the reference list, with the earliest publication coming first.

• If an author has more than one publication in the same year, add a, b, c, etc. after the date (e.g. 2013a, 2013b, etc.) and list them in the order that they are cited in your text.

• Regardless of the type of source (e.g. book, journal article, etc.) all your references should be in a single list.

Referencing in the Harvard style • All sources cited in your text

must appear in the reference list, except for those you have shown as being cited by a third party and have not read yourself. (See Section 2 for more details.)

• Regardless of how many times you have cited a source in the text, it only appears once in the reference list.

• The Harvard style is an author–date system – so the reference list is not numbered.

Formatting your references The information to be given for entries in the reference list varies according to the type of source (e.g. book, journal article, etc.). Section 4 gives examples of the most widely used source types at The College.

Reference list or bibliography? In some cases, in addition to your reference list, you may be asked to provide a short bibliography. A bibliography is a list of all materials consulted in your research but not necessarily cited in your text. It represents the full library of sources used to prepare your final work. It provides a full list of all the sources you have consulted including those that you have not directly cited in your text. Set these out in the same way as the cited references. A bibliography can appear at the end of your work, after the reference list, if you feel that it is relevant to do so. In general, however, a bibliography is not required. If in doubt, check with your Leadership Tutor.

Practical tips If you are creating your reference list manually, do not wait until you have finished writing your document. Instead, add to the reference list each time you cite a new source. Similarly, remove a reference if it is no longer needed. Building and maintaining the reference list as you write can reduce errors and save time at the end of the writing process. Note that Microsoft Word offers a ‘Sort’ command (in the ‘Paragraph’ group of the ‘Home’ tab), which can help you sort the list into alphabetical order.

If you are using bibliographic software, the software should generate the reference list in the appropriate format either as you write or on demand.


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Different source types (books, journals, etc.) require slightly different details to be captured in the reference list. This section looks at a wide range of commonly used source types and shows how to cite and reference them in the Harvard style.

Coverage

The source types covered in this section include:

• journal articles (print and electronic)

• books and e-books

• conference papers

• working papers

• government and other organisational publications

• reference books, including dictionaries and encyclopaedia

• theses and dissertations

• information from the internet

• audio-visual resources

• newspaper and magazine articles

• study guides and lecture handouts

• unpublished documents and personal communications

Journal articles Journal articles are one of the most important source types in academic writing so ensure you know how to reference them correctly and capture the necessary reference information during your reading.

Articles in printed journals

Note that the journal title is italicised (or underlined) and capital letters are used for the first letter of any nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. If American English spelling is used in a title, do not anglicise it in the reference list. Only the first word of the article title has an initial capital, except for proper nouns.

The page range for the whole article is given after the issue number. (Not all journals have issue numbers in which case put the page range after the volume number.)


Section 4 Citing and referencing different source types in the Harvard style types in the Harvard style

In-text citation In reference list

(Surname, year)

(Granovetter, 2005)

Author surname, initials (year). Article title. Journal title, Volume(issue number), pages.

Granovetter, M. (2005). The impact of social structure on economic outcomes.

Journal of Economic Perspectives, 19(1), 33–50.

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If there are two authors, both authors’ names are used in the citation and in the reference list.

If there are three or more authors, the name of the first one followed by ‘et al.’ is used in the citation and all names are included in the reference list.

Articles in electronic journals

Where you have downloaded a pdf of an article from a journal that exists in hard copy you should enter the citation and reference in the same style as for a print journal article.

Some journals, however, are solely available via the Web. When referencing an article from an e-journal that is only available online you should include the Uniform Resource Locator (URL) and date accessed, using the following format.

If the article has a digital object identifier (DOI) number, put this in place of the URL, after

‘doi:’.


(Alvesson and Karreman, 2005)

Alvesson, M. and Karreman, D. (2000). Varieties of discourse: on the study of organizations through discourse analysis. Human Relations, 53(9),

1125–49.


(Lane et al., 2016) Lane, D. C., Munro, E. and Husemann, E. (2016). Blending systems thinking

approaches for organisational analysis: reviewing child protection in England.

European Journal of Operational Research, 251(2), 613–23.


(Atkinson, 2005) Atkinson, M. (2005). The development of an evaluation framework for

partnership working. Electronic Journal of Business Research Methods, 3(1), 1–10. Available from www.ejbrm.com/

vol3/v3-i1/v3-i1-art1-abstract.htm [Accessed 1 Mar 2006].


(DeRisi et al., 2003) DeRisi, S., Kennison, R. and Twyman, N. (2003). Editorial: the what and whys

of DOIs. PLoS Biology, 1(2), 57. doi: 10.1371/journal.pbio.0000057

[Accessed 1 Mar 2006].


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Alternatively, you can create a weblink using the DOI prefixed by http://dx.doi.org/ as in the following example:

Books

Books are another important source type. The information you need for referencing is usually to be found on the front and back of the ‘title page’, which is normally one of the first two or three pages of the book. The back of the title page (also called the copyright, imprint or biblio page) typically contains the copyright statement and details of publisher, publication date, edition and place published.

Books (single author)

Note that you should distinguish the title of the book by using italics (or underlining it) and capital letters are used for the first letter of any nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. If American English spelling is used in a title, do not anglicise it in the reference list. Whichever type of formatting you use, be consistent, i.e. use the same style throughout your entire list.

Books (two authors)

Both authors’ names are used in the citation and in the references:

Books (three or more authors)

If there are three or more authors, the surname of the first author followed by ‘et al.’ is used in the citation and all authors’ surnames are included in the reference list.


(Bunge, 2004) Bunge, M. (2004). How does it work? The search for explanatory mechanisms. Philosophy of the

Social Sciences, 34(2): 182–210. Available

from http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0048393103262550

[Accessed 12 Jun 2015].


(Surname, year)

(Achinstein, 2001)

Author surname, initials (year) Title: Subtitle, edition number. Place of

publication: publisher.

Achinstein, P. (2001). The Book of Evidence: Beginners Guide. Oxford:

Oxford University Press.


(Alvesson and Deetz, 2000) Alvesson, M. and Deetz, S. (2000). Doing Critical Management Research.

London: Sage.


(Slack et al., 2013) Slack, N., Brandon-Jones, A. and Johnston, R. (2013).

Operations Management, 7th edn. Harlow: Prentice Hall.


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Books (same author(s), same year but different works)

In the reference list the books should be listed in the order in which they are cited in your text.

Books (same author(s), but different years)

Note that in the reference list both books are listed separately in the usual format in order of publication date.

Books (edited book)

Include (ed.) or (eds.) after the last name in the reference list but not in the in-text citation.

Books (chapter in a multi-author edited book)

If citing a particular chapter in a multi-author edited book or reader:

Only the first word of the chapter title has an initial capital, except for proper nouns. The page range of the chapters is given after the name of the publisher, prefaced by ‘pp.’.

Books with more than one edition

Where different editions of a book exist, the edition details (e.g. 3rd edn.) are included in the reference list after the title unless it is the first edition, which you do not need to state. For example:


(Hayes, 1993a), (Hayes, 1993b)

Or:

(Hayes, 1993a, 1993b) if cited in the same place in the text

Hayes, N. (1993a). A First Course in Psychology, 3rd edn. Walton-on-

Thames: Nelson.

Hayes, N. (1993b). Psychology: An Introduction, 2nd edn.

Harlow: Longman.


(Quirke, 1996), (Quirke, 2000)

Or:

(Quirke, 1996, 2000) if cited in the same place in the text

Quirke, B. (1996). Communicating Corporate Change. Maidenhead:

McGraw-Hill.

Quirke, B. (2000). Making the Connection. Aldershot: Gower.


(Schroeder and Salzer-Mörling, 2006)

Schroeder, J. and Salzer-Mörling, M. (eds.) (2006). Brand Culture. London:

Routledge.


(Müller, 2012) Müller, R. (2012). Project governance. In: Morris, P. W.,

Pinto, J. K. and Söderlund, J. (eds.) The Oxford Handbook of Project

Management. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 297–320.


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You should always use the date and number of the latest edition mentioned on the imprints page, which gives the publishing details.

Books within a series

If the publication is within a series that is well known this can be included in brackets after the title. For example:

Books (online and e-books)

e-Books that are facsimiles of paper editions can be referenced as ordinary paper books if all details are available, adding [e-book] after the book title. For example:

If the book is only available online it can be referenced in a similar way to other online sources, adding [Online] after the title as in the following example:

If an online or e-book does not have page numbers, use the section or chapter heading in citations instead of page numbers if using direct quotes.

Conference papers The basic format for a conference paper entry in the reference list is:


(Slack et al., 2013) Slack, N., Brandon-Jones, A. and Johnston, R. (2013).

Operations Management, 7th edn. Harlow: Prentice Hall.


(Baker, 2010) Baker, R. P. (2010). The Trade Lifecycle: Behind the Scenes of the

Trading Process (Wiley Finance Series). Chichester: John Wiley and Sons.


(Gudmundsson, 2007) Gudmundsson, B. (2007). The British Army on the Western

Front 1916. [e-book] Botley: Osprey Publishing


(Marshall, 1920) Marshall, A. (1920). Principles of Economics, 8th edn. [Online] London:

Macmillan and Co. Available from www.econlib.org/library/Marshall/marP.html

[Accessed 15 Sep 2013].


(Surname, year) Author (year of publication). Title of contribution. In: editor(s) of conference

proceedings (if applicable) Title of conference proceedings, place and date

of conference. Place of publication: publisher, page range of paper.


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For conference papers published in conference proceedings:

The whole conference proceedings would be:

For papers not published in conference proceedings:

Working papers In general, working papers can follow the format for print books but adding details of the working paper series if known. (Being consistent throughout your reference list is the most important thing.) For example:

Government and other organisational publications Reports and other publications produced by national governments, organisations such as the United Nations, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), European Union as well as other non-governmental organisations and institutions frequently have no identifiable author. In such cases, unless the publication indicates otherwise, reference the publishing institution as the author; this is usually the agency or department producing the document (the details of which are usually found on the inside cover). For example:


(Julius and Print, 2009) Julius, A. and Print, C. F. (2009). The changing role of the finance function in UK companies. The College Working Paper 0901. The College-on-Thames:

The National College.


(Smith, 1992) Smith, P. (1992). Exploring network dynamics. In: R. Salle, R. Spencer

and J.-P. Valla (eds.) Business networks in an international context:

recent research developments: Volume 1: Proceedings of the 8th IMP

Conference, Lyon, France, 3–5 Sep 1992. Lyon: Lyon Graduate School of

Business, pp. 353–67.


(Salle et al., 1992) Salle, R., Spencer, R. and Valla, J.-P. (eds.) (1992). Business networks in an international context: recent research

developments: Volume 1: Proceedings of the 8th IMP Conference, Lyon,

France, 3–5 Sep 1992. Lyon: Lyon Graduate School of Business.


(Spinks, 2007) Spinks, N. (2007). Process governance: moving OM beyond

planning and control. Paper presented at 18th Annual Conference

of the Production and Operations Management Society. Dallas, TX, 4–7

May 2007.

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Documents from different government departments are sometimes published by a single publishing agency. In such cases reference the issuing department as the author, unless otherwise stated.

Sometimes there may be no author or publishing institution listed. Your only option then is to reference the title of your information source along with the year it was published. For example:

Note that if a reference is missing essential bibliographical material, it is acceptable to inform the reader of this.

Reference books Familiar reference books can be referred to by their title if no editor or compiler can be found. For example:

Dictionaries and encyclopaedias that have no named authors can be referred to using the publisher and date. For example:


(OECD, 2004)

(Department for Transport, 2011)

(Tesco, 2016)

OECD (2004). OECD principles of corporate governance. Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.

Department for Transport (2011). Cycle to work scheme implementation

guidance. Available from www.dft.gov.uk/pgr/sustainable/cycling/

cycletoworkguidance/pdf/518054/ [Accessed 3 May 2011].

Tesco (2016). Serving shoppers a little better every day. Annual report and financial statements 2016. Welwyn

Garden City: Tesco PLC.


(Health Promotion Success Stories, 1998)

Health Promotion Success Stories (1998). [no publication details given]


(Social Services Yearbook, 1999)

Social Services Yearbook (1999). London: Pitman.


(Oxford, 1996) Oxford (1998). Concise Oxford Dictionary, 9th edn. Oxford: Oxford

University Press.


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Note that general encyclopaedias (including Wikipedia) must be treated with great caution as source material in academic work. They can be very useful for initial exploration of a topic but are not generally regarded as credible academic sources.

Theses and dissertations It is acceptable to cite the work of another learner who has completed a thesis or dissertation. You need to provide details of the level of degree etc., and awarding institution in the final reference list.

Information from the internet It is important to give the date the information was retrieved from the internet as well as its location on the web by indicating the URL, since documents and site addresses change frequently. Below are some examples of online referencing.

General

To refer to a specific page or section of a website, take the information from the webpage itself or the associated homepage – use the title bar and the credits at the bottom of the page and your own date of accessing the page.


(Stride, 2009) Stride, H. (2009). The relationship between values and commitment: a study of supporters and staff in the

charity sector. PhD thesis, The National College, University of Reading.


(Surname/ organisation, year)

(Australian Broadcasting Corporation, 2007)

(PMI, 2011)

(Shane, 2009)

(Lev, undated)

Author/organisation (year) Title. Available from URL of site [Accessed date].

Australian Broadcasting Corporation (2007). Interview with

Semco’s business guru. Available from www.abc.net.au/7.30/content/2007/

s1864738.htm [Accessed 22 Jul 2011].

PMI (2011). Project governance. Available from www.pmi.org [Accessed

20 Sep 2011].

Shane, S. (2009). Global award for entrepreneurship research 2009 award

winner. Available from www.eaward.org/web/2009_Scott_A_Shane.aspx

[Accessed 23 Jun 2011].

Lev, B. (undated). Fundamental information and securities values: a survey of research and practice

concerning the value drivers of equities. Available from http://pages.stern.nyu.

edu/~blev/docs/ANewExecutiveSeminar.pdf [Accessed 10 Jan 2011].


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Notes

• If no author is credited then ascribe authorship to the smallest identifiable unit within the publishing organisation.

• Some webpages include two dates, one for when the page was established and another for when it was ‘last modified’ – always use the most recent date for your reference. If the date is not obvious, it may be at the foot of the page under copyright.

• If no date is given then write ‘undated’ or ‘n.d.’.

• The URL of the page, sometimes known as its ‘web address’, is what you will normally see in the ‘location bar’ at the top of your screen when viewing the document with your browser. Do not change the case of the characters.

Downloaded articles: many organisations allow you to download key documents such as reports and policies. In most cases these documents will come with information on author, date, title and publisher, and often include page numbers, and should therefore be referenced as a normal hard-copy document, along with the date accessed and the URL.

To refer to a general website in the text (but not a specific page/document) it is sufficient to give the URL address in the text. No entry is needed in the reference list.

Blogs

Blogs follow the general guidelines for online sources but include details of the blog from which the blog entry was taken. For example:

Podcasts


(www.mmc.com) No entry needed


(Surname, year)

(Lariviere, 2017)

Author (year). Title of blog entry. Blog title [Blog] Blog posting date. Available

from URL of site [Accessed date].

Lariviere, M. (2017). UPS and using contracts to share the risk of

building new capacity. The Operations Room [Blog] 9 May. Available from https://operationsroom.wordpress.com/2017/05/09/ups-andusing-

contracts-to-share-the-risk-of-building-new-capacity/#more5750 [Accessed

24 Aug 2017].


(Surname, year)

(Gawande, 2014)

Author/presenter (year). Title of podcast. Title of internet site [Podcast]

date. Available from URL of site [Accessed date].

Gawande, A. (2014). Why do doctors fail? The Reith Lectures

[Podcast] 29 Nov. Available from www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b04bsgvm

[Accessed 24 Aug 2017].


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Online video

Audio-visual resources Use the material accompanying the resource to obtain the author or originator, year, publication and publisher details. Include the medium type in square brackets after the title (or after the year if there is no title). For example:

TV/radio programmes and films The title, date and channel should be given wherever possible for TV/radio programmes.

Films should be listed alphabetically by title and should include the name of the director(s), date of release and production company. For example:

Newspaper and magazine articles Articles from newspapers or magazines can be cited in the same format as for journals, although you need to include the exact date of publication.

If an author’s name is mentioned, cite as usual:


(Surname, year)

(King, 2014)

Author/presenter/contributor (year). Title of video. Title of series (if

applicable) [Video]. Available from URL of site [Accessed date].

King, N. (2014). Descriptive and interpretive coding [Video].

Available from http://onlineqda.hud.ac.uk/_REQUALLO/FR/ Template_

Analysis/Analytic+Descript_coding.php [Accessed 24 Aug 2017].


(Greene, 2011) Greene, B. (2011). The Fabric of the Cosmos [DVD]. Boston, MA: Nova.


(BBC2, 2011) BBC2 (2011). Made in Britain, 22 Jul.


(Chicken Run, 2000) Chicken Run (2000). Animated film. Directed by P. Lord and N. Park.

Bristol: Aardman Animations.


(Treanor, 2011) Treanor, J. (2011). UBS raises trading losses to $2.3bn. The Guardian,

19 Sep.


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If no author’s name is given then refer to the publication name only:

If the newspaper is online, include [online], the URL and access date as for other online sources after the publication date.

Unpublished documents and personal communications If you cite a document, such as an internal report, that is unpublished you should include the details you have available and indicate that it is unpublished. For example:

If you are referring to a communication to you in person, cite the full name of the person in the text followed by (personal communication). There would be no entry in the reference list. If you do refer to such a communication, ensure you have permission to do so.

Research interviews

If you have conducted primary research interviews as part of your project, these would not normally be referenced using the Harvard system. Instead, relevant details of data collection are given in the main text. If in doubt, consult your Leadership Tutor.

Works in press

If a paper or book has been submitted for publication and has been accepted but not yet published use (in press) in place of the publication year, otherwise reference in the same way as a published document. If known, the further details can be added in brackets at the end of the reference, e.g. (Accepted for publication May 2018)

Missing information

• If author information is not available, you should use the publishing organisation/institution, e.g. (Ministry of Defence, 2017), (Gartner, 2015) or (Tesco, 2016) or the publication title, e.g. (Business Week, 2013). If these details are not available, use Anon. (i.e. anonymous), e.g. (Anon., 1745).

• If there is no date given, use (undated) or (n.d.). If the date is uncertain include either a question mark, e.g. (1976?) or use ca. (circa = ‘about’), e.g. (ca. 2003). Whatever you choose, be consistent.

• If no place of publication is available, use s.l. (sine loco = no place)

• If no publisher name is available, you can use s.n. (sine nomine = no name)

Ensure that you are consistent in your approach and that information in the reference matches the information in the citation.


(Independent, 1999) Independent (1999). Market leaders pick their market leader: who’s just the job in recruitment? The Independent

8 Dec.


(Big Company, 2016) Big Company (2016). Future strategic direction.

Unpublished report. London: Big Company PLC.


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APPENDIX Summary of key source types

Source type In reference list In reference list

Journal article (print – one author) (Granovetter, 2005) Granovetter, M. (2005). The impact of social structure on economic outcomes. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 19(1), 33–50.

Journal article (print – two authors) (Alvesson and Karreman, 2005) Alvesson, M. and Karreman, D. (2000). Varieties of discourse: on the study of organizations through discourse analysis. Human Relations, 53(9), 1125-49.

Journal article (print – three or more authors)

(Lane et al., 2016) Lane, D. C., Munro, E. and Husemann, E. (2016). Blending systems thinking approaches for organisational analysis: reviewing child protection in England. European Journal of Operational Research, 251(2), 613–23.

Journal article (online – URL) (Atkinson, 2005) Atkinson, M. (2005). The development of an evaluation framework for partnership working. Electronic Journal of Business Research Methods, 3(1), 1–10. Available from www.ejbrm.com/vol3/v3-i1/v3-i1-art1abstract.htm [Accessed 1 Mar 2006].

Journal article (online – DOI) (DeRisi et al., 2003) DeRisi, S., Kennison, R. and Twyman, N. (2003). Editorial: the what and whys of DOIs. PLoS Biology, 1(2), 57. doi: 10.1371/journal.pbio.0000057 [Accessed 1 Mar 2006].

Journal article (online – DOI weblink) (Bunge, 2004) Bunge, M. (2004). How does it work? The search for explanatory mechanisms. Philosophy of the Social Sciences, 34(2): 182–210. Available from http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0048393103262550 [Accessed 12 Jun 2015].

Book (single author) (Achinstein, 2001) Achinstein, P. (2001). The Book of Evidence. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Book (two authors) (Alvesson and Deetz, 2000) Alvesson, M. and Deetz, S. (2000). Doing Critical Management Research. London: Sage.

Book (three or more authors) (Slack et al., 2013) Slack, N., Brandon-Jones, A. and Johnston, R. (2013). Operations Management, 7th edn. Harlow: Prentice Hall.

Books (same author(s), but different years) (Hayes, 1993a), (Hayes, 1993b) (Hayes, 1993a), (Hayes, N. (1993a). A First Course in Psychology, 3rd edn. Walton-on-Thames: Nelson. year) Hayes, N. (1993b). Psychology: An Introduction, 2nd edn. Harlow: Longman.

Edited book (Schroeder and Salzer-Mörling, 2006)

Schroeder, J. and Salzer-Mörling, M. (eds.) (2006). Brand Culture. London: Routledge.

Chapter in edited book (Müller, 2012) Müller, R. (2012). Project governance. In: Morris, P. W., Pinto, J. K. and Söderlund, J. (eds.) The Oxford Handbook of Project Management. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 297–320.

Book (2nd or later edition) (Slack et al., 2013) Slack, N., Brandon-Jones, A. and Johnston, R. (2013). Operations Management, 7th edn. Harlow: Prentice Hall.


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Book (e-book) (Gudmundsson, 2007) Gudmundsson, B. (2007). The British Army on the Western Front 1916. [e-book] Botley: Osprey Publishing

Book (online) (Marshall, 1920) Marshall, A. (1920). Principles of Economics, 8th edn. [Online] London: Macmillan and Co. Available from www.econlib.org/library/Marshall/marP.html [Accessed 15 Sep 2013].

Conference paper in conference proceedings (Smith, 1992) Smith, P. (1992). Exploring network dynamics. In: R. Salle, R. Spencer and J.-P. Valla (eds.) Business networks in an international context: recent research developments: Volume 1: Proceedings of the 8th IMP Conference, Lyon, France, 3–5 Sep 1992. Lyon: Lyon Graduate School of Business, pp. 353–67.

Conference proceedings (Salle et al., 1992) Salle, R., Spencer, R. and Valla, J.-P. (eds.) (1992). Business networks in an international context: recent research developments: Volume 1: Proceedings of the 8th IMP Conference, Lyon, France, 3–5 Sep 1992. Lyon: Lyon Graduate School of Business.

Conference paper (Spinks, 2007) Spinks, N. (2007). Process governance: moving OM beyond planning and control. Paper presented at 18th Annual Conference of the Production and Operations Management Society. Dallas, TX, 4–7 May 2007.

Working paper (Julius and Print, 2009) Julius, A. and Print, C.F. (2009). The changing role of the finance function in UK companies. The College Working Paper 0901. The College-on-Thames: The National College.

Government/organisation report (Department for Transport, 2011) Department for Transport (2011). Cycle to work scheme implementation guidance. Available from www.dft.gov.uk/pgr/sustainable/cycling/ cycletoworkguidance/pdf/518054/ [Accessed 3 May 2011].

Government/organisation report (Tesco, 2016) Tesco (2016). Serving shoppers a little better every day. Annual report and financial statements 2016. Welwyn Garden City: Tesco PLC.

Dictionary/encyclopaedia (Oxford, 1996) Oxford (1998). Concise Oxford Dictionary, 9th edn. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Masters/PhD thesis (Stride, 2009) Stride, H. (2009). The relationship between values and commitment: a study of supporters and staff in the charity sector. PhD thesis, The National College, University of Reading.

Online source (PMI, 2011) PMI (2011). Project governance. Available from www.pmi.org [Accessed 20 Sep 2011].

Blog (Lariviere, 2017) Lariviere, M. (2017). UPS and using contracts to share the risk of building new capacity. The Operations Room [Blog] 9 May. Available from https://operationsroom.wordpress.com/2017/05/09/ups-and-usingcontracts-to-share-the-risk-of-building-new-capacity/#more-5750 [Accessed 24 Aug 2017].

Video (online) (King, 2014) King, N. (2014). Descriptive and interpretive coding [Video]. Available from http://onlineqda.hud.ac.uk/_REQUALLO/FR/ Template_Analysis/Analytic+Descript_coding.php [Accessed 24 Aug 2017].

Audio-visual material (DVD) (Greene, 2011) King, N. (2014). Descriptive and interpretive coding [Video]. Available from http://onlineqda.hud.ac.uk/_REQUALLO/FR/ Template_Analysis/Analytic+Descript_coding.php [Accessed 24 Aug 2017].


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Television or radio programme (BBC2, 2011) BBC2 (2011). Made in Britain, 22 Jul.

Film (Chicken Run, 2000) Chicken Run (2000). Animated film. Directed by P. Lord and N. Park. Bristol: Aardman Animations.

Newspaper/magazine article (named author) (Treanor, 2011) Treanor, J. (2011). UBS raises trading losses to $2.3bn. The Guardian, 19 Sep.

Newspaper/magazine article (no named author)

(Independent, 1999) Independent (1999). Market leaders pick their market leader: who’s just the job in recruitment? The Independent 8 Dec.

Unpublished company report (Big Company, 2016) Big Company (2016). Future strategic direction. Unpublished report. London: Big Company PLC.


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