Research(Methods(

It(is(actually(way(more(exci5ng(than(it(sounds!(

Why(do(we(have(to(learn(this(stuff?(Psychology(is(first(and(foremost(a(science.(

(((((((((

Thus,(it(is(based(in(research.(You(should(be(aware(of(three(hurdles(that(tend(to(skew(our(logic.((

Overconfidence(•  We(think(we(know(more(than(we(do.(•  82%(of(U.S.(drivers(consider(themselves(to(

be(in(the(top(30%(of(safe(drivers.(•  81%(of(new(business(owners(felt(they(had(

an(excellent(chance(of(their(businesses(succeeding.(When(asked(about(the(success(of(their(peers,(the(answer(was(only(39%.((

•  In(History:((•  “We(don’t(like(their(sound.(Groups(of(guitars(

are(on(their(way(out.”(–Decca(Records,(who(turned(down(The(Beatles(in(1962((

•  “Computers(in(the(future(may(weigh(no(more(than(1.5(tons.”(–Popular(Mechanics(1949((

•  “The(telephone(may(be(appropriate(for(our(American(cousins,(but(not(here,(because(we(have(an(adequate(supply(of(messenger(boys.”(–Bri5sh(Expert(Group(

Hindsight(Bias(•  “IWknewWitWallWalong”(phenomenon(( Monday(Morning(

Quarterbacking!!!(

AMer(the(Chris(Brown/Rihanna(incident….my(friend(said(she(knew(Chris(Brown(was(a(violent(kid!((Did(she(really?(

Cri5cal(Thinking((•  We(must(prac5ce(cri5cal(thinking(because(intui5on(isn’t(always(right:((–  If(I(drop(a(bullet(from(3(feet(off(the(group(at(the(same(5me(that(I(shoot(a(bullet(straight(ahead(3(feet(above(the(group,(which(will(hit(the(ground(first?((

–  Is(it(bePer(to(s5ck(with(your(original(answer,(or(switch?((

–  Is(one(gender(more(emo5onal?((

Applied(V.(Basic(Research(•  Applied(Research(has(clear,(prac5cal(applica5ons.(

•  You(can(USE(it(

•  Basic(Research(explores(ques5ons(that(you(may(be(curious(about,(but(not(intended(to(be(immediately(used.(

(Research(on(therapies(for(drug(addicts(has(a(clear(purpose.(( Studying(

how(kissing(changes(when(you(get(older(is(interes5ng…but(that�s(about(it.((

Terminology(

Hypothesis(•  Educated(guess(•  Testable(ques5on((•  Statement(of(rela5onship(between/among(variables.(

•  Generated(aMer(reading(other(published(studies(

•  A(variable(is(anything(that(can(vary(among(par5cipants(in(a(study.(

•  Par5cipa5ng(in(class(leads(to(bePer(grades(than(not(par5cipa5ng.(

Opera5onal(Defini5ons(•  Defines(what(the(observer(

will(be(defining(and(manipula5ng.((

•  How(will(the(variables(be(measured(in(�real(life�(terms.(

•  How(you(opera5onalize(the(variables(will(tell(us(if(the(study(is(valid(and(reliable.(

•  Ensures(that(we(can(replicate(the(study(and(get(the(same(results.((

Let�s(say(your((hypothesis(is(that(chocolate(causes(violent(behavior.(((

•  What(do(you(mean(by(chocolate?(

•  What(do(you(mean(by(violent(behavior?(

Case(Study(•  A(detailed(picture(of(one(or(a(few(subjects.(

•  Tells(us(a(great(story…but(is(just(descrip5ve(research.(

•  Does(not(even(give(us(correla5on(data.(

•  Broca’s(Area((One(famous(case(study(is(John(and(Kate(Plus(8.((Really(interes5ng…(but…(what(does(it(tell(us(about(families(in(general?(

Naturalis5c(Observa5on(•  Watch(subjects(in(their(natural(environment.(

•  Do(not(manipulate(the(environment.(

•  Can(never(really(show(cause(and(effect.(

Survey(Method(• Most(common(type(of(study(in(psychology((• Measures(correla5on((• Cheap(and(fast((• Need(a(good(random(sample((• LowWresponse(rate(

• Wording(Effects((

Agree(or(Disagree(with(this(statement:(“I(enjoy(driving(with(the(windows(down.”(

What(percentage(of(people(in(this(room(probably(also(enjoy(driving(with(the(windows(down?(((

False(Consensus(Effect(

How(many(people(overes5mated(the(consensus(in(the(room?(((

Sampling(•  Iden5fy(the(popula5on(you(want(to(study.(

•  The(sample(must(be(representa5ve(of(the(popula5on(you(want(to(study.(

•  GET(A(RANDOM(SAMPLE.(

•  Random(Sampling(vs(Random(Assignment(

Correla5onal(Method(•  Correla5on(expresses(a(rela5onship(between(two(variable.(

•  Does(not(show(causa5on.(

As(more(ice(cream(is(eaten,(more(people(are(murdered.((

Does(ice(cream(cause(murder,(or(murder(cause(people(to(eat(ice(cream?(

Correla5on(•  People(who(eat(Oatmeal(are(more(likely(to(get(cancer(than(those(who(eat(Frosted(Flakes.(((

•  The(degree(of(obesity(rises(2%(for(each(hour(of(tv(watched(by(kids(between(12(and(17(years(of(age.(((

•  There(is(a(posi5ve(correla5on(between(milk(consump5on(and(incidence(of(cancer(in(most(socie5es.((

Types(of(Correla5on(Posi5ve(Correla5on((aka(direct(correla5on)(

•  The(variables(go(in(the(SAME(direc5on.(

Nega5ve(Correla5on((aka(inverse(correla5on)(

•  The(variables(go(in(opposite(direc5ons.(

Studying(and(grades(hopefully(has(a(posi5ve(correla5on.(

Heroin(use(and(grades(probably(has(a(nega5ve(correla5on.((

Correla5on(Coefficient(•  A(number(that(measures(the(strength(of(a(rela5onship.(

•  Range(is(from(W1(to(+1(•  The(rela5onship(gets(weaker(the(closer(you(get(to(zero.(

Which(is(a(stronger(correla5on?(

•  W.13(or(+.38(•  W.72(or(+.59(•  W.91(or(+.04((

Illusory(Correla5on((perceived(order(in(random(events(

•  You(can(find(your(birthday(in(Pi.(•  A($10.00(total((is(just(as(likely(at(McD’s(as($10.97.(•  Picking(lePers(in(Scrabble(that(spell(your(name(is(just(as(likely(as(picking(lePers(that(spell(any(other(word.((

•  An(event(that(happens(to(but(1(in(1(billion(people(every(day(occurs(about(6(5mes(a(day,(2000(5mes(a(year.(

•  A(truly(unusual(day(is(one(in(which(nothing(extraordinary(happens.(

Experimental(Method(

•  Looking(to(prove(causal(rela5onships.(

•  Cause(=(Effect(

Smoking(causes(health(issues.(

Within(Group(Design(vs(((((((((((((((Between(Group(Design(

•  A(research(design(that(uses(each(par5cipant(as(his(or(her(own(control(is(called(a(within.subjects!design.((

•  For(example,(the(behavior(of(an(experimental(par5cipant(before(receiving(treatment(might(be(compared(to(his(or(her(behavior(aMer(receiving(treatment.(Two(treatments(might(be(tried.((

•  If(two(treatments(are(used,(the(order(of(the(treatments(could(cause(an(effect.(

•  To(eliminate(the(possibility,(psychologists(use(counterbalancing,(a(procedure(that(assigns(half(the(subjects(to(one(of(the(treatments(first(and(the(other(half(of(the(subjects(to(the(other(treatment(first.(

Random(Assignment(

•  Once(you(have(a(random(sample,(randomly(assigning(them(into(two(groups(helps(control(for(confounding(variables.(

•  Experimental(Group(v.(Control(Group.(

Independent(Variable(

•  Whatever(is(being(manipulated(in(the(experiment.(

•  Hopefully(the(independent(variable(brings(about(change.(

If(there(is(a(drug(in(an(experiment,(the(drug(is(almost(always(the(independent(variable.(

Dependent(Variable(

The(dependent(variable(would(be(the(effect(of(the(drug.(

•  Whatever(is(being(measured(in(the(experiment.(

•  It(is(dependent(on(the(independent(variable.(

Beware(of(Confounding(Variables(

If(I(wanted(to(prove(that(smoking(causes(heart(issues,(what(are(some(confounding(variables?(

•  The(object(of(an(experiment(is(to(prove(that(A(causes(B.(

•  A(confounding(variable(is(anything(that(could(cause(change(in(B,(that(is(not(A.(

Lifestyle(and(family(history(may(also(effect(the(heart.((

Other(Confounding(Variables(

•  Placebo(effect(W(any(cases(when(experimental(par5cipants(change(their(behavior(in(the(absence(of(any(kind(of(experimental(manipula5on.(

•  Order(Effects(

Social(Desirability(Bias(

•  the(tendency(of(research(subjects(to(give(socially(desirable(responses(instead(of(choosing(responses(that(are(reflec5ve(of(their(true(feelings(

•  Is(Mrs.(Curtright(doing(a(good(job(teaching(AP(Psychology?(((

•  (Do(you(think(Mrs.(Curtright’s(teaching(will(have(a(posi5ve(or(nega5ve(affect(on(your(AP(Psych(exam(score?)(

•  Best(to(do(this(ques5on(without(Mrs.(Curtright(present.(

Experimenter(Bias(•  Another(confounding(variable.(

•  Not(a(conscious(act.(•  DoubleWBlind(Procedure.(

Hawthorne(Effect(•  But(even(the(control(group(may(experience(changes.(

•  Just(the(fact(that(you(know(you(are(in(an(experiment(can(cause(change.(

Whether(the(lights(were(brighter(or(dimmer,(produc5on(went(up(in(the(Hawthorne(electric(plant.(

Review of Correlation

Sta5s5cs(•  Recording(the(results(from(our(studies.(

•  Must(use(a(common(language(so(we(all(know(what(we(are(talking(about.(

Descrip5ve(Sta5s5cs(

•  Just(describes(sets(of(data.(

•  You(might(create(a(frequency(distribu5on.(

•  Frequency(polygons(or(histograms.(

(

Central(Tendency(•  Mean,(Median(and(Mode.(•  Watch(out(for(extreme(scores(or(outliers.($25,000.Pam!!!

$25,000.!Kevin!$25,000.!Angela!$100,000.!Andy!$100,000.!Dwight!$200,000.!Jim!$300,000.!Michael!

Salaries(of(employees(at(Dunder(Mifflen(Paper(in(Scranton:(

median(salary(=($100,000.(mean(salary(=($110,000.(mode(salary(=($25,000.((Great(place(to(work?((Living(in(Scranton(is(kind(of(cheap…(

•  In(a(normal!distribuGon,(the(mean,(median(and(mode(are(all(the(same.(

Distribu5ons(•  Outliers(skew(distribu5ons.(•  If(group(has(one(high(score,(the(curve(has(a(posi5ve(skew(

(contains(more(low(scores)(•  If(a(group(has(a(low(outlier,(the(curve(has(a(nega5ve(skew(

(contains(more(high(scores)(

Other(measures(of(variability(•  Range:(distance(from(highest(to(lowest(scores.(•  Standard!DeviaGon:(the(variance(of(scores(around(the(mean.(•  The(higher(the(variance(or(SD,(the(more(spread(out(the(distribu5on(is.(•  Big(vs(small(SD(

Other(measures(of(variability(

Shaq(is(7’1”(and(Johnson(was(6’3”.((Who(stands(out(as(taller(in(his(profession?(

American presidents: mean height = 71.5 in. SD = 3.3 inches. Johnson’s z-score = 1.67. Miami Heat players: mean height = 80.0 in. SD = 3.3 inches. Shaq’s z-score = 1.52. Lyndon Johnson is taller (relative to other presidents) than Shaquille O’Neal is (relative to his teammates).

(Scores(•  A(unit(that(measures(the(distance(of(one(score(from(the(mean.(

•  A(posi5ve(z(score(means(a(number(above(the(mean.(

•  A(nega5ve(z(score(means(a(number(below(the(mean.((

significant(difference(

•  In(an(experiment,(a(difference(that(is(unlikely(to(have(occurred(because(of(chance(alone(and(is(inferred(to(be(most(likely(due(to(the(systema5c(manipula5ons(of(variables(by(the(researcher ((

•  Video(on(Hypothesis(Tests((•  Video(on(Sta5s5cal(Significance((

Inferen5al(Sta5s5cs(•  The(purpose(is(to(discover(whether(the(finding(can(be(applied(to(the(larger(popula5on(from(which(the(sample(was(collected.(

•  PWvalue=(.05(for(sta5s5cal(significance.(((

•  5%(likely(the(results(are(due(to(chance.(

APA(Ethical(Guidelines(for(Research(•  IRBW(Internal(Review(Board(

•  For(humans(and(animals.(

Animal(Research(

•  Clear(purpose(

•  Treat(humanely(

•  Acquire(legally(

•  Minimize(suffering(

Human(Research(

•  No(Coercion((voluntary)(

•  Informed(consent(

•  No(significant(risk(

•  Anonymity(

•  Must(debrief(

Ex(Post(Facto(•  Study(that(falls(between(a(correla5onal(study(and(an(experiment.((

•  Researcher(examines(preexis5ng(subject(variables(by(forming(groups(based(on(the(differences(

•  Researcher(may(put(the(introverts(in(one(group(and(the(extraverts(in(the(one(group(and(then(determine(how(many(in(each(group(choose(a(certain(food.((

•  Unlike(experimental(research,(the(researcher(in(the(Ex(Post(Facto(study(does(not(manipulate(anything.(

Longitudinal(research(

•  studying(the(same(group(of(individuals(over(an(extended(period(of(5me.((

•  Data(is(first(collected(at(the(outset(of(the(study,(and(may(then(be(gathered(repeatedly(throughout(the(length(of(the(study.((

•  In(some(cases,(longitudinal(studies(can(last(several(decades.(

CrossWSec5onal(Study((•  People(of(different(ages(are(examined(at(the(same(5me.((•  Usually(done(with(cohorts,(so(researchers(can(examine(how(people(of(different(ages(perform,(behave,(or(respond(to(a(par5cular(func5on.((Ex:(Give(one(type(of(test(to(children(in(the(3rd,(4th,(and(5th(grades;(examine(the(differences(in(performance(across(these(age(groups.(

Cohort.sequenGal!Study(•  A!research!method!in!which!a!cross!secGon!of!the!populaGon!is!chosen!and!then!each!cohort!is!followed!for!a!period!of!Gme.(