retheorizing ujamaa | architecture for a strong community: teacher training center

Retheorizing UjamaaArchitecture for a Strong Community

Teacher Training Center

Michael Gorham

Committee Chair_ Hsu-Jen Huang, Ph. D.Faculty Advisor_ Ryan BachaTopic Consultant_ Susan Falls, Ph. D.

SCAD_ arch 2011

Accepted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Architecture

At

The Savannah College of Art and Design

______________________________________________________________________________Hsu-Jen Huang, Ph. D., Professor of Architecture, Committee Chair Date

______________________________________________________________________________Ryan Bacha, Professor of Architecture, Faculty Advisor Date

______________________________________________________________________________Susan Falls, Ph. D., Professor of Anthropology, Topic Consultant Date

Retheorizing Ujamaa | Architecture for a Strong Community:Teacher Training Center Tanzania

A Thesis Statement Submitted to the Faculty of the Architecture DepartmentIn Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Architecture

At

The Savannah College of Art and Design

By

Michael Gorham

Savannah, Georgia

June 3, 2011

MICHAEL GORHAM

Retheorizing UjamaaArchitecture for a Strong Community

Teacher Training Center

Dedication This work is dedicated in loving memory to Betty Buczek.

Acknowledgements

It is a great pleasure to thank the many people who made this thesis possible. The support over this past year has truly been invaluable.

I would like to thank my committee chair, Hsu-Jen Huang, Ph. D. for creating a positive and inspiring learning environment. Throughout my graduate experience, he constantly encouraged further exploration both architecturally and graphically.

I wish to express my gratitude to my faculty advisor, Ryan Bacha for his time reviewing some of the more technical aspects of my project and for early in the process helping me focus the scope of my study.

I am deeply grateful for the aid my topic consultant, Susan Falls, Ph. D. gave to me over the course of this year and for constantly expanding my perspective starting in Anthropology 101. She asked much need tough questions and taught me a range of global cultural theories.

I would like to thank Judith Reno for her help in beginning this thesis process with a thought-provoking atmosphere in the Graduate Seminar course.

I am indebted to my many friends and colleagues for providing a stimulating environment around the clock. I am especially grateful to Dan Nowak, Li-Wei Hsu, Brian Ziff, Carleigh Shannon, and Chris Crowe for their aid at critical points throughout the project.

I would like to thank the Wera family for their hospitality in Arusha and their help and planning through the rest of the journey.

I wish to thank my parents and siblings for their encouragement. My parents helped make this opportunity possible.

I am thankful for the cultural insight of my in-laws. Their experience played a vital role in the development of this thesis. I am grateful for my mother-in-law’s eye for grammar.

Lastly, and most importantly, I wish to thank my wife, Joanna. Her support, understanding, and care were central to fulfillment of this thesis. She contributed her artistic talents, cultural experience, and love. She traveled across the world and stayed

up all night to help me. It would be impossible to overstate my gratitude to her.

Table of ContentsList of Figures_001Thesis Statement_005Abstract_007>>Context_0091.0 Introduction_0111.0.1 History_0111.1 Economy_0121.1.1 Structural Adjustment_0121.1.2 International Financial Institutions Step In_0131.1.3 Capitalism’s Disconnect_0141.1.4 Moral Capital_0171.1.5 Micro-Economics_0171.2 Environment_0181.2.1 History of Conservation_0181.2.2Current Models are Incongruent_0191.2.3 Ecotourism and Conservation_0211.2.4 Internal Sustainability_0221.3 Education_0221.3.1 A Need for Better Teachers_0231.3.2 Chagga and Education_0241.3.3 Structural Adjustment and Education_0241.3.4 Language_0251.3.5 Language and Power_0261.3.6 Private Schools_0261.3.7 Need_0261.3.8 Brain Drain_0271.4 Summary_028>>Concept_0312.0 Ujamaa_0332.1 Potential for Education and Architecture_0352.2 More Than Just a Social Isssue_0352.3 Principles_0362.4 Theory in Practice_037>>Site_0453.0 Profile_0493.1 Surrounding Area_0493.1.1 Climate_0503.1.1.1 Wind_0523.1.1.2 Sun_0523.1.1.3 Building Comfort_0543.1.2 Transportation_0563.1.3 Amenities_0563.2 Immediate Site_061>>Program_0634.1 Client_0654.2 User Groups_065

4.3 Space Analysis_0664.4 Quantitative Space Synopsis_078>>Schematic Design_0815.0 Schematic Design Introduction_0835.1.1 Physical Site Constraints_0835.1.2 Programmatic Site Constraints_0835.1.3 Water Resources on Site_0855.2 Scholastic Design_0865.2.1 Classroom Code Compliance_0885.3 Administration and Management Design_0905.4 Market and Athletic Design_0905.5 Cafeteria Design_0915.6 Residential Design_0925.7 Materiality_0935.8 Contextual Identity and Time_0935.9 Socially Constructed Spatial Needs_0945.10 Architectural Opportunities_094>>Design Development_0976.0 Design Development Introduction_0996.1 Site Development_0996.1.1 Rainwater/ Month Average_1016.2 Administration Design Development_1026.3 Cafeteria Design Development_1056.4 Scholastic Design Development_1066.5 Clinic Design Development_1096.6 Workshop Design Development_1136.7 Residential Design Development_1146.8 Structural Design Development_117>>Final Design_1197.0 Final Design Introduction_1217.1 Final Administration Design_1227.2 Final Scholastic Design_1277.3 Final Cafeteria Design_1227.4 Final Workshop Design_1347.5 Final Clinic Design_1397.6 Final Residential Design_141>>Final Exhibit Design_1438.0 Final Exhibit Design_144>>Conclusion_1579.0 Conclusion_159Works Cited_162Bibliography_166

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List of Figures0a Maasai with donkeys transporting water1.0a Contextual systems1.1.3a Current bloated balancing act1.1.5a Entrepreneur in Stone Town, Zanzibar 1.2.1a Maasai living on the edge of Ngorogoro Crater1.2.3a Tour group at Lake Manyara1.3a Using education to realign systems1.3.2a Hierarchy of systems1.4a Contextual web2.1a Theory linking architecture to context2.4a-f Images from fuergando.de2.4g-l Images from Earth Architecture by R. Rael2.4m-q Images from http://www.cadc.auburn.edu/rural-studio/2.4r Images from http://www.travelthewholeworld.com/sudan.html2.4s-u Images from Earth Architecture by R. Rael 2.4v Parti diagrams3.0a Map of world designed by Buckminster Fuller3.1a Map including National Parks and major cities3.1b Map of Arusha region 3.1.1a Average rainfall3.1.1b Average temperature3.1.1.1a Wind diagram3.1.1.2a Sun diagram with optimal building orientation3.1.1.2b Sun angle table3.1.1.3a Comfort percentages before and after passive techniques3.1.1.3b Psychrometric chart 3.1.2a Road map of Arusha3.2a Site map3.2b Image of village near water pump East of site3.2c Image of road leading to site with sisal fence3.2d Neighboring property East of site3.2e Panoramic view from Southwest corner of site3.2f Diagram of views from site4.2a Potential student group4.3a Site spatial diagram4.3.1a Admin./management spatial diagram4.3.2a Agricultural spatial diagram4.3.3a Athletic spatial diagram4.3.4a Residential spatial diagram4.3.5a Scholastic spatial diagram4.3.6a Supporting spatial diagram5.1.1a Site soil constraints5.1.2a Site programmatic constraints5.1.2b Schematic site design5.2a Classroom design 5.2b Classroom interior

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5.2c Classroom day lighting5.2d Scholastic design5.2e Classroom design process5.2f Triangle motif5.3a Admin/Mgmt design5.4a Market and athletic design5.5a Cafeteria design5.6a Residential unit plan5.6b Residential unit front elevation5.9a Maasai dwelling 6.1a Site design development 6.1b Subsurface design6.2a Administration entriy design development 6.2b Interior administration design development6.2c View from administration building of scholastic space6.3a Cafeteria design development 6.4a Scholastic design development 6.5a Clinic waiting room6.5b Clinic design development 6.6a Workshop design development 6.7a Residential design development 6.8a Structural components 6.8b Structure for classrooms and cafeteria 6.8c Structure for the administration building7.1a Administration plan7.1b Administration courtyard7.1c View from administration building to scholastic space 7.2a Scholastic space plan 7.2b Classroom section perspective7.2c Classroom Wall section7.2d Classroom perspective and elevation7.2e Computer lab perspective and exploded library view7.3a Cafeteria east elevation7.3b Cafeteria plan7.3c View from cafeteria of Mt. Meru7.4a Workshop group plan7.4b Section of watertower 7.4c Workshop group perspective7.5a Clinic plan7.5b Clinic perspective7.6a Residential section perspective7.6b Residential plan8.0a Introduction board (15”x30”)8.0b Main board (48”x48”)8.0c Site board (30”x30”)8.0d Schematic classroom design board (30”x30”)8.0e Workshop and watertower design board (30”x15”)8.0f Classroom and cafeteria design board (30”x15”)8.0g Exhibit layout

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Thesis Statement

Architecture can improve education through the use of culturally specific design.

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Figure 0a Maasai with donkeys transporting water

Abstract

The Teacher Training Center fosters regional Tanzanian architecture by

utilizing ujamaa cultural ideologies. Ujamaa is an African social theory that finds

its origins in Tanzania’s traditional tribal culture. It is a Swahili word meaning, ‘I

am strong because we are strong’ or ‘I am because we are’. Regional architecture is

important on both cultural and environmental levels. Culturally, architecture can

embrace the traditions and values of a community. The influence of culture shifts

over time, as well as the uses of space, environment, and building materials. Regional

architecture fluidly changes with these circumstances. To make architecture relevant

for a given site it is important to study local resources, environmental factors and

climate change. Ujamaa is used as a framework for how these dynamic factors come

together. The idea works on various levels: individuals become parts of a community,

materials form into buildings, buildings form into settlements, and communities join

to act on a national plane. These connections that are made lead to a global scale,

but do not lose their local identities or significance. The intention of researching the

education, economy, and environment of Tanzania was to understand how the context

of the land influences the culture and, in turn, design decisions.

>>Context

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1.0 Introduction Tanzania’s development in educational, environmental and economical policies and practices has fl uctuated over the course of the nation’s existence and prior to its independence. Local and international interactions shift the balance between these intrinsically related systems. The paramount issue in sustainable practices is harmonizing environmental stewardship with economic development. Education plays an important role as the fulcrum of this psychological and cultural transition. By looking at man’s exchange of capital and self-preservation as a subsystem in the ecological context, these presumably opposing forces act in a symbiotic manner. At the local level, pedagogical uses of language infl uence both the educational and economic opportunities of Tanzanians. Market liberalization and globalization have altered Tanzania by way of macroeconomics. Through aligning the issues pertaining to education, environment, and economy, Tanzania will enhance the developmental process.

1.0.1 History The situation in present-day Tanzania cannot be understood without a familiarity with the young republic’s history. Social groups in the East African Region have been formed of tribes for much of history. Arab merchants immigrated to the island of Zanzibar approximately 200 years ago, in addition to Portuguese traders, and the Omani who initiated the appalling slave trade. Germany claimed the territory as part of German East Africa in the late nineteenth century. Under German occupation came Lutheran missionaries. The results of the First World War left the area in the control of the British Empire. Upon acquiring the land, the British renamed it Tanganyika. Independence from British rule was secured in 1961 for Tanganyika and in 1963 for Zanzibar. Three years later Tanganyika and Zanzibar merged to form the United Republic of Tanzania. 1 Compared to the other East African Nations, Tanzania

1 G. B. N. Ayittey, Africa in Chaos (New York, New York: St. Martin Griffi n, 1999), Johnson M. Ishengoma and Deborah J. Youngman, “Educational Equity in Tanzania: The Imperiled Promise of Reform,” Journal of Education (Boston University) 181, no. 1 (1999): 59-73.

economy

environmenteducation

Figure 1.0a Contextual systems

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received some of the most difficult circumstances attached to its sovereignty.1 The country was and is a polyethnic society. Many of the tribes’ nomadic routes crossed newly created national borders. Uniting various tribes under the central government was important in creating the new nation. Tanzania’s first leader, President Julius Nyerere, guided the one-party socialist state through the ongoing struggle to maintain a profitable market for its crops, such as coffee and groundnuts. With a population of nearly 33 million in need of economic stimulation, the government, in 1995, sought help from the west. However, connections to the former USSR set back opportunities for Tanzania to receive aid. The government applied for International Monetary Fund (IMF) loans and accepted the socio-economic conditions, which these entailed.2 This political transition set the stage for current economic, environmental, and educational quandaries.

1.1 Economy The landscape gives life to Tanzania’s population. Subsistence and small-scale farmers constitute the majority of Tanzania’s workforce. Many of these agronomists do not produce enough to contribute to global trade. Cash crops that do make their way to the international markets include cashews, sisal, coffee, tea, and tobacco. Others who rely on the bounty of the land include miners and ecotourism directors. Tourists journey to see the large mammals of the Serengeti and Africa’s tallest mountain, Kilimanjaro. Without proper care, this unique part of the world could become vulnerable to drastic loss of biodiversity and economic instability.

1.1.1 Structural Adjustment According to the statistician, Hans Rosling, the percent of the work force in Tanzania that participates in agriculture has dropped five points in five years. In 2001, 82% of the population worked on farms and in 2006 the number dropped to 77%.3 This decline can be attributed to larger farms absorbing greater amounts of capital and, in turn, buying or renting land from small-scale commercial or subsistence farmers. “Structural adjustment in the 1980s and market liberalization largely abandoned small-scale producers to the forces of the global market,” states D. F. Bryceson.4 She continues, saying, “The removal of agricultural subsidies and pan-

1 C. J. Galabawa, “Implementing Educational Policies in Tanzania,” African Technical Department Series, World Bank Discussion Papers (1990), Johnson M. Ishengoma and Deborah J. Youngman, “Educational Equity in Tanzania: The Imperiled Promise of Reform,” Journal of Education (Boston University) 181, no. 1 (1999): 59-73.

2 Jo Arthur, “Perspectives on Educational Language Policy and its Implementation in African Classrooms: a Comparative Study of Botswana and Tanzania,” Compare 31, no. 3 (2001): 346-362.

3 Hans Rosling, World Map, www.gapminder.org (accessed October 29, 2010).

4 Deborah Fahy Bryceson, “African Rural Labour, Income Diversification and Livelihood Approaches: A Long-Term Development Perspective,” Review of African Political Economy, no. 80 (2000): 171-189, Deborah Fahy Bryceson, “Agrarian Vista or Vortex: African Rural Livelihood Policies,” Review of African Political Economy 31, no. 102 (2004): 617-629.

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territorial pricing, combined with larger producer price fluctuations over time and space relative to inflationary prices for consumer goods have created a high-risk, low-return environment in which many small-scale peasant farmers cannot compete.”5 High risk of harvest failure due to drought forces additional populace to abandon the hoe and look towards other means of survival. Trade and handcraft are some ways that the rural population diversifies their household incomes. Laborers that shift from agrarian activities face the need to train for a new job. Educational facilities in rural settings have the potential to aid in this transition. Urbanization is increasing, but 74% of the population still live in rural areas.6 Services and opportunities are needed in pastoral regions where the majority of the inhabitants reside. There is nothing adverse, inherently, in the concentration of farmland under larger organizations and neoliberalism’s enduring effects on the country’s waning rural underpinning, that is, other than “the welfare and preparedness of existing populations currently experiencing depeasantization.”7

1.1.2 International Financial Institutions Step In Tanzania’s socialist beginnings may have been built on strong traditional political ideals but they were not profitable. Political capital was challenged by the power of economic capital in the world market. The country accepted prescribed structural adjustment policies from International Financial Institutions (IFI) and was held up as a model of reform.8 This was a time when many of Africa’s nations were undergoing a shift from colonial rule to sovereignty. Governments across the continent used the state as the driving force behind the economy. IFIs saw this as an unwanted presence in the market. While promoting neo-liberalism, they erected the idea that it was the ‘corrupt’ state versus the ‘efficient’ market. For the IFIs there was not a place for state influence in global trade. They set forth notions of ‘good’ and ‘bad’ governments on the conditions of African states’ levels of compliance to structural adjustment policies.9 It was found over time that this was truly not the case. More and more African governments were willing to endure the prerequisites for loans. Increased adherence to World Bank and other IFI policies led to the understanding that the timing and coordination of Structural Adjustment Programs were at fault.10

5 Deborah Fahy Bryceson, “Agrarian Vista or Vortex: African Rural Livelihood Policies,” Review of African Political Economy 31, no. 102 (2004): 617-629.


7 Deborah Fahy Bryceson, “Agrarian Vista or Vortex: African Rural Livelihood Policies,” Review of African Political Economy 31, no. 102 (2004): 617-629, (Harvey 2005)

8 World Bank, “Adjustment in Africa: Reform, Results and the Road Ahead,” (Oxford University Press) 1994.


10 D. Booth, “Timing and Sequencing of Agricultural Policy Reform,” Development Policy Review

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African governments became the scapegoat yet again since the problems were blamed on their lack of management.1 The poor continued to suffer as the World Bank tried to ‘Westernize’ the region’s economic system. Non-governmental organizations (NGOs), including Oxfam, looked to expose the effects of structural adjustments and hold the World Bank accountable for cutbacks and cost-recovery programs set in place in the health and education sectors, as well as, in relation to the environment.2 Social development concerns grew into mainstream initiatives through both internal and external pressures on the World Bank.3

1.1.3 Capitalism’s Disconnect Under any circumstances, it is essential for organizations to look beyond just the economic framework of a country. Finances do not occur in a vacuum. There are social and environmental implications. The term ‘sustainable’ or ‘sustainability’ encompasses more than environmental or economic factors. “Linked to the capital concept, sustainability is viewed as maintenance or accumulation of stocks of capital assets: unsustainable systems deplete or run down capital, spending assets as if they were income, and so leaving less for future generations. Gains in one capital can be expected to be associated with losses in another but, on balance, it is assumed that vulnerability is reduced.”4 The interconnectivity of the planet’s systems demands a holistic approach to development. What are largely known as ‘natural’ disasters, including land degradation and biodiversity loss, can be attributed to aspects of capitalism’s impact


2 J. A. Fox and L. D. Brown, “The Struggle for Accountabliity: The World Bank, NGOs, and Grassroots Movements,” (MIT Press) 1998, Deborah Fahy Bryceson, “Agrarian Vista or Vortex: African Rural Livelihood Policies,” Review of African Political Economy 31, no. 102 (2004): 617-629.

3 J. A. Fox, “The World Bank and Social Capital: Contesting the Concept in Practice,” Journal of International Development 9, no. 7 (1997): 963-971, Deborah Fahy Bryceson, “Agrarian Vista or Vortex: African Rural Livelihood Policies,” Review of African Political Economy 31, no. 102 (2004): 617-629.

4 J. Farrington, D. Carney, C. Ashley and D. Turton, “Sustainable Livelihoods in Practice: Early Applications of Concepts in Rural Areas,” ODI Natural Resource Perspectives, no. 42 (June 1999): 1-13, Deborah Fahy Bryceson, “Agrarian Vista or Vortex: African Rural Livelihood Policies,” Review of African Political Economy 31, no. 102 (2004): 617-629.

environment

economy

education

Figure 1.1.3a Current bloated balancing act

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on rural livelihoods in developing countries.5 The difference between development-as-modernization and capitalist development is which parties profit from the process. Usually women and the poor in society directly rely on natural resources for their livelihoods. Frequently they are undermined in the name of the ‘bottom line’ as capitalist ventures move into the places previously held by local peasant workers.6 Many of Africa’s environmental and economic problems are universalized and not examined within their context. Donor communities and IFIs set up sweeping agendas that, in turn, must be accepted by receiving countries, regardless of how accurately they address particular conditions in their communities.7 “In the end,” Turshen, Barker and O’Keefe concluded, “it would seem that the logic of capitalism, which is private profit, and the long-term conservation of the environment, which can only be managed collectively, are mutually exclusive.”8 Development affects a web of people, resources and fiscal capital. By understanding the multifaceted situation, developmental organizations can potentially enhance not just economic stability, but also political, social and environmental as well. The International Institute for Sustainable Development, among other world organizations, believes that in order to meet the basic needs of all and manage ecosystems in a way that protects them for the future, there must be a global partnership for sustainable development. They do not see individual nations as being in a position to do this on their own.9 Although these are the beliefs that many of the organizations are founded on, institutions and their policies struggle in “radically altering the structures and processes which underpin the unequal relations which they appear to decry.”10 Both the Rio and Brundtland Commissions failed to “question the role of the world’s dominant governments and institutions in preserving the

5 M. Turshen, C. Barker and P. O’Keefe, “Editorial,” ROAPE, no. 48 (1988): 1-4, Reginald Cline-Cole and Phil O’Keefe, “Mainstreaming the African Envrionment in Development?,” Review of African Political Economy (ROAPE Publications Ltd.), no. 109 (2006): 377-390.


7 R. Bush, “Africa’s Environmental Crisis. Challenging the Orthodoxies,” Review of African Political Economy (ROAPE Publications Ltd.), no. 74 (1997): 503-513, Reginald Cline-Cole and Phil O’Keefe, “Mainstreaming the African Envrionment in Development?,” Review of African Political Economy (ROAPE Publications Ltd.), no. 109 (2006): 377-390.


9 International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD), “5 Rio Documents,” Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, Agenda 21, Reginald Cline-Cole and Phil O’Keefe, “Mainstreaming the African Envrionment in Development?,” Review of African Political Economy (ROAPE Publications Ltd.), no. 109 (2006): 377-390.

10 Reginald Cline-Cole and Phil O’Keefe, “Mainstreaming the African Envrionment in Development?,” Review of African Political Economy (ROAPE Publications Ltd.), no. 109 (2006): 377-390.

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conditions in which environmental and developmental problems arise.”1 The large size of aid organizations requires a basis of resources and infrastructure in receiving countries that is foreign to developing countries. This creates an uneven distribution of aid to urban settings while neglecting poor rural communities. Amenities are put in place for western donors that do not create a sustainable solution for city centers. Restaurants and hotels are put in that locals cannot afford to visit. Parts of the local economy balloon while not creating a sustainable future for the country. This increases and perpetuates the need for aid. There is still too large a gap between what is written about developmental projects and what actually takes place. The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) declare a worthy intent to work towards. In 2002, the international community reaffirmed their commitment at the Johannesburg World Summit to the achievement of the MDGs. Despite promises and desires, the demands of a powerful few compromised the needs of many. Self-interest and unilateralism expressed by rich countries created issues around topics including climate change, trade liberalization and subsidies.2 Development, like any other organized activity, represents itself in a positive light. Those who do not work within the structure of developmental institutions can see or experience its shortcomings.3 It is difficult for organizations to experiment and try new site specific approaches because so much is at stake with the transition of capital and satisfying donor communities that want to see formulated results. With the notion that ‘time equals money’, very little time is spent examining the consequences of who and how projects will help. Projects are documented to show costs and outcomes. The documentation does not present an objective account of a social and economic situation, assessing the best possible route to address the possible issues. “Consequently, such documents have more in common with marketing texts than with social and economic analysis,” notes Maia Green.4 Understanding local situations and people instead of creating blanket programs could change the condition from being one in which money is just thrown at a problem to one in which sustainable change occurs.

1 J. Middleton, P. O’Keefe and S. Moyo, “The Tears of the Crocodile. From Rio to Reality in the Developing World,” London and Boulder (Pluto Press), 1993, Reginald Cline-Cole and Phil O’Keefe, “Mainstreaming the African Envrionment in Development?,” Review of African Political Economy (ROAPE Publications Ltd.), no. 109 (2006): 377-390.

2 A. Sharma, R. Mahapatra and C. Polycarp, “Dialog of the Deaf,” Down to Earth, September 2002: 25-27, Reginald Cline-Cole and Phil O’Keefe, “Mainstreaming the African Envrionment in Development?,” Review of African Political Economy (ROAPE Publications Ltd.), no. 109 (2006): 377-390.

3 Maia Green, “Globalizing Development in Tanzania: Policy Franchising through Participatory Project Management,” Critique of Anthropology (SAGE) 23, no. 123 (2003).

4 Maia Green, “Globalizing Development in Tanzania: Policy Franchising through Participatory Project Management,” Critique of Anthropology 23, no. 123 (2003).

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1.1.4 Moral Capital Relationships between nations are formed based on trade, cultural identity, political ideologies, and values. Tanzania’s weak economy reduces its ability to create strong trade-based relationships or throw its fiscal weight around. The country, instead, draws on an important non-economic contribution to the international community, moral capital. According to Waters, “In particular, Tanzania has a recognized capacity to make moral claims not just because of its poverty, but also because of its political stability, strong record of mediation between unruly neighbors, successful wildlife conservation policies, and hosting of refugees.”5 Such policies aid in forming relationships with other members of the East African Community, but they are ill-fitting in striking a typical trade-based relationship that the United States values.

1.1.5 Micro-Economics In developing countries, micro-economics in the informal sector help meet many basic needs of participants. “The World Bank claims that between one third and three quarters of total employment in most developing countries is in the informal sector.”6 Partaking in design-build projects could improve or diversify job skills while developing local infrastructure. Entrepreneurs in the informal sector usually sell products of a similar price, quality and other attributes because of their aversion to risk.7 This helps them enter the work force but leaves them susceptible to profit stagnation, lack of business growth, and a saturated market. Education leads to better opportunities both in their current 5 Tony Waters, “Markets and Morality: American Relations with Tanzania,” African Studies Quarterly 8, no. 3 (2006): 46-53.

6 Leila Webster and Peter Fidler, “ The Informal Sector and Microfinance Institutions in West Africa,” (Methuen) 1996, Marc-Andre Roy and David Wheeler, “A Survey of Micro-Entrerprise in Urban West Africa: Drivers Haping the Sector,” Development in Practice 16, no. 5 (August 2006): 452-464.

7 Marc-Andre Roy and David Wheeler, “A Survey of Micro-Entrerprise in Urban West Africa: Drivers Haping the Sector,” Development in Practice 16, no. 5 (August 2006): 452-464.

Figure 1.1.5a Entrepreneur in Stone Town, Zanzibar

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employment and future endeavors. “The level of market knowledge was more strongly correlated with the level of education, training, and literacy than with degree of experience and years in operation.”1 Micro-loans also have the potential to improve living standards. They allow business owners to get much needed equipment or training. Micro-loans have the ability to reach small communities or individuals that large-scale development initiatives sometimes miss. Although the informal sector is seen as a fringe community, their local work has global implications by reducing some need for aid and providing for physiological needs of the workers and their families.

1.2 Environment Mankind’s ability to alter its environment has increased exponentially subsequent to the Industrial Revolution. In this paradigm shift, the struggle over the control of and access to natural resources has ballooned. Humans have reached a point at which their combined consumption of resources is greater than what the earth is able to replenish each year. Environmental conservation has become a necessary part of public policy, as well as a part of life. Citizens and their governments are realizing that soil erosion, desertification, deforestation, and water pollution are not natural phenomena, but are attributed to poor practice in man’s interaction with his environment. Decreasingly are people referred to as ‘citizens’, the term more commonly used now is ‘consumers’. This change in mindset, that people consume and do not give back to civil society, is perpetuating the problems found in the natural world.

1.2.1 History of Conservation Tanzania’s experience with conservation and development has evolved over the years. Historically, tribes have used hunting as a means to provide subsistence and rites of passage. Colonial elites have transported their cultural tradition of hunting for sport to East Africa in the nineteenth century. By extorting their position of power, colonial hunters boxed off game resources in Africa for their own pleasure, restricting locals from their livelihood. The inhabitants went from being known as subsistence hunters to poachers. The game reserves created were not used to protect wildlife in the sense that they are today, but instead they were used to save the largest animals for the colonists to slaughter. Support for conservation only increased in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century when the concern over the threat of species extinction began to form. Interest in scientific fields of botany, zoology, natural history and evolution buttressed this growing concern for conservation. The practice of privileging a selection of animals and killing certain predators gave way to the protection of whole ecosystems after a greater understanding of ecology emerged.

1 Marc-Andre Roy and David Wheeler, “A Survey of Micro-Entrerprise in Urban West Africa: Drivers Haping the Sector,” Development in Practice 16, no. 5 (August 2006): 452-464.

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Attention to certain habitats over others continued due to European interest in the large and captivating species. The Europeans reclassified “game parks” into “National Parks,” where recreation and preservation were emphasized. The model of conservation used included the removal of people from parklands. They intended to preserve an alluring Eden-like landscape as a form of national pride. This, however, was void of catering to any of the local interests. Many times, water sources were blocked off from villagers’ use. Protectionism led to locals’ disinterest in wildlife management. Patrols were not well financed and this opened the door to poaching by non-local and well-resourced gangs. More recently, communities have been brought into the discussion. Governments and other institutions now see conservation and development as compatible. Locals are compensated and benefit from wildlife centers that they manage. Communities are not homogenous, nor do members always have the same interests at heart. They are dynamic and factional with groups like women, children, and minorities marginalized. National Parks do not always, but have the potential to, empower these groups. Inhabitants desire to sustain utilization of resources while global groups value species preservation and biodiversity. This does not always help preserve species with little economic value, but by making local livelihoods a core concern of conservation efforts, habitats have the potential to sustain both man as well as nature.2

1.2.2 Current Models are Incongruent The earth is a closed system, aside from the sun’s energy; resources tend not to enter the atmosphere. Subsequent to the Enlightenment, the idea of progress has been ingrained into the human experience. The judgment cast through the viewpoint of progress is that there is a never ending, upward-moving linear development path with ‘Western’ values and the ‘American Dream’ as the apex.3 For the past forty years, people have become increasingly aware that this growth trajectory and the earth’s carrying capacity do not coincide.4 “To solve the problems of an unjust and

2 Samantha Jones, “A Political Ecology of Wildlife Conservation in Africa,” Review of African Political Economy 33, no. 109 (2006): 483-495.

3 Gustavo Esteva, “Development,” in The Development Dictionary , ed. Wolfgang Sachs, 6-25 (London: Zed Books, 1992), Rolf Jucker, “Have the Cake and Eat It: Ecojustice Versus Development? Is it Possible to Reconcile Social and Economic Equity, Ecological Sustainability, and Human Development? Some Implications for Ecojustice Education,” (University of Wales Swansea) 10-26.

4 “The Steady-State Economy; Toward a Political Economy of Biophysical Equilibrium and Moral Growth,” in Toward a Steady-State Economv, ed. Herman E. Daly, 149-174 (San Francisco,

Figure 1.2.1a Maasai living on the edge of Ngorogoro Crater

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unfair world order we need to ‘live simply so that others may simply live,’” said Satish Kumar quoting Elizabeth Seton.1 Resources are finite and do not sustain an infinite growth model. The environment and development are currently seen as inseparable subsectors to the world economy. This track became part of mainstream political policy in the early 1970s and, in 1992, it was furthered with the “Rio Declaration on Environment and Development”. In Principle Two of the Declaration the “right to development” is emphasized. This is followed by “sovereign rights of states to exploit their own resources” in Principle Three. According to Rolf Jucker these twenty-seven principles “in a retrospectively rather stark display of neoliberal ideology, explicitly equates ‘economic growth’ with ‘sustainable development’ and warns that environmental concerns should not restrict ‘international trade’ [as stated in Principle Twelve].”2 The document does promote important human rights issues including the inclusion of women and youth, but the portions of the text that have been put into action in the nearly twenty years since it was constructed, “opened up huge sectors of the Southern economies to transnational corporate investment, accelerating the flow of resources to the North and exacerbating environmental destruction.”3 Through the productivist paradigm the North cannot see how the destructive shift under Reagan and Thacher toward unregulated “free markets” and “free trade” promotes a form of “recolonization”.4 The ideological parameters that drive international development policy are built on “the assumption that unlimited expansion is possible; in other words, that the economic sphere can have primacy over any other sphere.”5 This notion is misled and the heart of this fallacy is that the economic system, as well as any other culturally conceived system is contained within nature, not the other way around. In 1997, the government of Tanzania passed the National Environmental Policy (NEP) and identified six major environmental problems of vital national

1 Satish Kumar, “Simplicity for Christmas and Always,” Resurgence, no. 203 (2000): 3, Rolf Jucker, “Have the Cake and Eat It: Ecojustice Versus Development? Is it Possible to Reconcile Social and Economic Equity, Ecological Sustainability, and Human Development? Some Implications for Ecojustice Education,” (University of Wales Swansea) 10-26.

2 Rolf Jucker, “Have the Cake and Eat It: Ecojustice Versus Development? Is it Possible to Reconcile Social and Economic Equity, Ecological Sustainability, and Human Development? Some Implications for Ecojustice Education,” (University of Wales Swansea) 10-26.

3 Joshua Karliner, The Corporate Planet. Ecology and Politics in the Age of Globalization (San Francisco, California: Sierra Club Books, 1997), Rolf Jucker, “Have the Cake and Eat It: Ecojustice Versus Development? Is it Possible to Reconcile Social and Economic Equity, Ecological Sustainability, and Human Development? Some Implications for Ecojustice Education,” (University of Wales Swansea) 10-26.



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intercession. The issues seen as most urgent included: land degradation, poor access to good quality water for urban and rural poor, environmental pollution, loss of wildlife habitats and biodiversity, deterioration of aquatic ecosystems, and clearance of forest and woodlands. According to Jessica Andersson and Daniel Slunge in their Environmental Policy Brief, “The many cases of mismanagement, such as illegal logging, illegal hunting and destructive fisheries, seriously risk undermining in practice the implementation of policies for sustainable development. While the poor suffer the most from environmental degradation, the benefits from natural resource extraction frequently accrue to national elites and/or foreign entrepreneurs.”6 Tanzania’s biological wealth is perceived globally as rich and diverse. The land is recognized as a natural heritage site.7 Transparency in international trade could improve resource management, fair trade, and local livelihoods and environments.

1.2.3 Ecotourism and Conservation Environmental conservation has a potential ally in ecotourism. Conservation requires resources including a dedicated group of specialists and those willing to protect the environment. Ecotourism creates a flow of income while promoting the preservation of wildlife and their habitats. The natural resources of Tanzania can benefit local people, who in turn can protect threatened areas through ecotourism. Vital to the success of conservation is creating revenue for local people and not having it leak to outside businesses. Ecotourism businesses must walk a tight line because over-development has the capability of destroying the land on which they rely on for attracting business. Students are a crucial tourist group because they only need humble accommodations and do not encourage over-development.8 To continue the effectiveness of ecotourism, Tanzanians must avoid the pitfalls of ‘green-washing’. The overuse of sustainable claims in advertisements leads to reducing the value of legitimate claims. Tourism

6 Jessica Andersson and Daniel Slunge, “Tanzania - Environment Policy Brief,” Goteborg University (2005).

7 Melissa Thaxton, “Integrating Population, Health, and Environment in Tanzania,” Population Reference Bureau, USAID (2007).

8 Richard A. Niesenbaum and Barbara Gorka, “Community-Based Eco-Education: Sound Ecology and Effective Education,” The Journal of Environmental Education 33, no. 1 (2001): 12-16.

Figure 1.2.3a Tour group at Lake Manyara

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in National Parks also must take into account the behavior of the animals that they intend to protect. By exposing wildlife to humans on a regular basis, the animals may experience a disruption in their eating patterns. This is true for predators that are scared away from their prey when a truck rolls along. Christopher LaFranchi, an American resource economist conducted a study commissioned by the environmental group Greenpeace in 1999, “suggest that while ecotourism may not be perfect, it is far more advantageous for indigenous peoples than ‘industrial’ options such as logging and plantation style agriculture.”1 Ecotourism creates a long-term demand for conservation, while promoting long-term economic gains.

1.2.4 Internal Sustainability Sustainability is often looked at as an external goal. To truly create a sustainable system, many of the ways man seeks to satisfy desire must be internalized in a non-material way.2 “Having much obstructs living well. …Teachers of wisdom in the East and West … almost unanimously recommended adherence to the principle of simplicity in the conduct of life. That cannot just be a matter of chance. Summarizing the experience of generations, they drew the conclusion that the way towards a successful life seldom involves accumulation of possessions.”3 Modern architecture stemmed out of these social ideals, but over time, in many instances, it became an aesthetic application rather than a critical catalyst of social change.

1.3 Education Survival greatly depends on one’s ability to adapt. Education, whether it is formal or informal, instills pupils with knowledge for interaction with their

1 Rachel S. Cox, “Ecotourism,” CQ Researcher 16, no. 37 (2006): 866-888.


3 Wolfgang Sachs, Reinhard Loske and Manfred, et a!. Linz, Greening The North: A Post-industrial Blueprint for Ecology and Equity (London: Zed Books, 1998), Rolf Jucker, “Have the Cake and Eat It: Ecojustice Versus Development? Is it Possible to Reconcile Social and Economic Equity, Ecological Sustainability, and Human Development? Some Implications for Ecojustice Education,” (University of Wales Swansea) 10-26.

environment

education

economy

Figure 1.3a Using education to realign systems

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environment. Students learn from verbal and visual communication, as well as hands-on interaction. Language plays an important role in how people perceive information. Neither knowledge nor education is equally accessible. This is reinforced by, and reinforces power structures. Humankind’s ability to form and pass down a body of knowledge from generation to generation improves the species’ capability to adapt and survive.

1.3.1 Need for Better Teachers Tanzania’s first leader, President Julius Nyerere, was popularly known as Mwalimu, or teacher, and promoted national self-reliance through a well-funded educational system until the country’s finances dried up. At this point enrollment declined and completion suffered drastically. Teacher training functioned poorly due to economic constraints and these educators entered a profession of meager pay and conditions. As a result of weak training, low pay and poor conditions, teachers often inefficiently used time, sought respect from students by barking orders, and taught lessons in a teacher-centered approach. Classrooms were void of teacher aids, except the blackboard or textbook. Peer learning was actively discouraged in the majority of lessons; students were expected to sit passively receiving the “words of wisdom” from the teacher.4 In Vreede and Mgaya’s study, they found that lessons were centered on providing facts and very little on learning how to learn; students were not given the opportunity to give their views or challenge a problem. Many of the preceding findings painted a grim picture, but there were some examples of engaging instructors that made class time exciting and sparked a love of learning in their students.5 In order to improve primary and secondary school retention and completion rates, educators must have enhanced training themselves.

4 Gert-Jan de Vreed and Rabson J. S. Mgaya, “Technology Supported Collaborative Learning for Higher Education: Comparative Case Studies in Tanzania,” Inforamtion Technology for Development 12, no. 2 (2006): 133-130.

5 Gert-Jan de Vreed and Rabson J. S. Mgaya, “Technology Supported Collaborative Learning for Higher Education: Comparative Case Studies in Tanzania,” Inforamtion Technology for Development 12, no. 2 (2006): 133-130.

environment

economy

education

Figure 1.3.2a Hierarchy of systems

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1.3.2 Chagga and Education The Chagga from the Kilimanjaro region have been rather successful in educating their communities. The tribe has the highest percentage of women with a secondary school education. Girls have gained entrance to schools since the beginning of the ‘Western’ educational system during colonization by the Germans. Lutheran and Catholic missionaries sought to protect the Chagga from modernizing influences from abroad and thought that education could preserve the social traditions. The early missionaries did not see themselves as part of the detrimental outside influences. The Chagga, however, were not hesitant to learn from the colonists and saw their culture as something that they could preserve on their own without the unrequested protection from abroad. British officials introduced a system of tribal government led by chiefs. Ironically, there existed no authority in the form of a head chief in many tribes before the colonial power’s interference. President Nyerere later disbanded the chiefdom system as the United Republic of Tanzania was formed.1 The Chagga advocated for more schools with advanced technical and agricultural training than the government was willing to provide.2 Education has been a strong value held in this community through its existence, and this has improved their adaptability through the region’s many structural adjustments.

1.3.3 Structural Adjustment and Education Policies attached to loans effected Tanzania’s education. Schools introduced fees in primary education in the 1980s and 1990s to supplement the funds transferred from the educational department due to the International Monetary Fund’s structural adjustment requirements. Market liberalization, a result of the structural adjustments, created a condition in which textbooks no longer came from the central source of the Institute of Curriculum Development, but instead from any publishing company interested in forming schoolbooks. Authors and their books still followed a common syllabus for each specific class, but some Swahili scientific terms used for the same concept were different. To correct this, the East African Community would need to take a cross-border approach because language flows beyond national borders.3 Both the literacy and enrollment rates steeply declined during these years. Before this redistribution of funds, there was a 90% literacy rate with Swahili as the prominent language used.4 In 1988, literacy was as low as 59%, and after the school

1 Frances Vavrus, “Uncoupling the Articulation Between Girls’ Education and Tradition in Tanzania,” Gender and Education 14, no. 4 (2002): 367-389.

2 Z. E. Lawuo, “Education and Social Change in a Rural Community,” (Dar es Salaam University Press) 1984.

3 G. N. Shumbusho and F. Banda, “’Fueli’ = ‘hatabu’: issues in thte harmonisation and standardisation of Kiswahili scientific terminology in Tanzania primary schools,” Language, Culture and Curriculum 23, no. 2 (Jully 2010): 139-152.

4 Asa Wedin, “Language Ideologies and Schooled Education in Rural Tanzania; The Case of

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fees were withdrawn in 2002, the rate increased 10%.5 Throughout this time teachers would predominantly follow “top-down” orders with little creative input, supplying facts just so students could pass the tests.6 A return to supporting education must be built upon with further training for educators.

1.3.4 Language One of the greatest barriers to learning in Tanzania is language comprehension. The nation of Tanzania is comprised of over 120 tribes each with a unique language. Tourists and aid workers also bring their own native languages. English became an important tool for communication in the colonial era, as well as after independence. Swahili and English became Tanzania’s national languages. National unity was seen as vital to the post-colonial society and language was used as a means of achieving this goal. Although other indigenous languages have been marginalized, Swahili was viewed as a local language the country could join behind. Primary schools used Swahili as their sole form of communication starting in 1967. English is used in secondary and tertiary schools as the only means of communication between teachers and students.7 The transition between two different languages leaves many students in the dark, unable to even understand the conversation, let alone the lessons. Students struggle to achieve proficient English writing and speaking skills for secondary school. During primary education, English is treated as a foreign language with only a specific course dedicated to its use. All other classes are taught in Swahili. As students reach secondary school the situation is reversed and English is used as the medium of instruction.8 Swahili and years of understanding attached to the language are disregarded. The monolingual setup, where the second language is approached as a foreign language, detracts from the focus on subject matter. By structuring the educational system with bilingual learning, students would have the opportunity to use both languages more consistently throughout the school day and not have to navigate the anxiety of relying on an insufficient linguistic tool for secondary or tertiary school.

Karagwe,” (Stockholm University) 8, no. 6 (2005): 568-589.


6 Asa Wedin, “Language Ideologies and Schooled Education in Rural Tanzania; The Case of Karagwe,” (Stockholm University) 8, no. 6 (2005): 568-589.


8 H. I. Mohamed, “Classroom Disourse adn Discursive Practices in Higher Education in Tanzania,” Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 29, no. 2 (2008): 95-101.

“The illiterate of the 21st century will not be those who cannot read or write, but those who cannot learn, unlearn

and relearn.” – Alvin Toffler

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1.3.5 Language and Power The high status of English in Tanzania does not correlate with the inhabitants’ ability to speak or write the language. On the contrary, many teachers do not use English beyond the classroom. In employment, the language is mostly limited to the tourism and international business sectors.1 Throughout the country language use is split between the urban middle and upper socio-economic class and the poorer rural people. This rift likely formed due to the different structural needs that city and rural communities and, therefore, their schools pose. Education and linguistics are contextual by the nature of social, economic, and symbolic influences that effect their composition and quality.2 The considerable number who do not speak English are prone to remain poor farmers and low or unskilled laborers. Education and language policy are social constructs that tend to reproduce existing hierarchical edifices.3 English’s emblematic character for the social and economic elite perpetuates a strong support for the underused language. Groups form their identity through their use, however limited, of English.4

1.3.6 Private Schools Private schools often labor to overcome setbacks linked with entering the educational market, including lack of name recognition, unstable funding and patrons, and inexperience in school management. To improve private sector opportunities, school boards should take advantage of the experiences of their public-school counterparts through networking and involving school managers in mentoring arrangements. Students in private schools often benefit from better facilities, more tutoring and teachers with more experience. It is important that new schools learn from existing facilities instead of relying solely on trial and error. The early years of an institution profit from successful branding, soliciting government assistance, and learning from neighboring public sector schools.5

1.3.7 Need A greater number of students are seeking to further their education. The growth rate for enrollment at the University of Dar es Salaam doubled between


2 Odis Johnson Jr., “Ecology in Educational Theory: Thoughts on Stratification, Social Mobility and Proximal Capital,” Urban Review, no. 40 (2008): 227-246.

3 S. M. Neke, “THe Medium of Instruction in Tanzania: Reflections on Language, Educaiton and Society,” Changing English 12, no. 1 (April 2005): 73-83.

4 Odis Johnson Jr., “Ecology in Educational Theory: Thoughts on Stratification, Social Mobility and Proximal Capital,” Urban Review, no. 40 (2008): 227-246.

5 Gerard Lassibille and Jee-Peng Tan, “Are Private Schools More Efficient Than Public Schools? Evidence from Tanzania,” Education Economics 9, no. 2 (2001): 145-172.

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1999 and 2002. Despite the positive growth in enrollment, only about 54% of those who applied in 2003 were accepted. Therefore, many potential students who are not enrolled in a conventional university are compelled to search for a substitute option.6 Technical schools and training centers offer students the opportunity to continue their education and work towards practical employment applications.

1.3.8 Brain Drain Education often leads to upward social mobility and in developing countries careers that are supported by a higher education may be limited. Therefore, skilled workers shop for work outside their native country. This situation is commonly referred to as ‘brain drain’. The migratory outcome of brain drain is often frowned upon, because it potentially leaves the source country without any skilled labor. Tanzania’s development is important strictly because it affects Tanzanians. The costs and benefits of migration patterns should be viewed from the perspective of individuals, including Tanzanians beyond national borders. Policy discussion of Africa’s brain drain is plagued by a double standard that accepts restrictions on mobility of Africans, but in other corners of the world would be unimaginable. “There is no discussion in American policymaking circles of limiting brain drain out of West Virginia, even though there has been a mass exodus of skills there, but the analogous situation in Ghana calls for ‘action plans’ to limit brain drain.”7 Cases for stopping brain drain include: skills, capital, and leadership may be lost in the society that migrants leave, as well as family separation may cause suffering. Cases for migration without restrictions include: the migrants and their families are better off, by revealed preference of voluntary migration, remittances could boost incomes of those still in Tanzania, and migrants could positively affect societies both at home and abroad, while facilitating networks. Tanzania’s brain drain is predominantly minority Asian and white migrants leaving for other countries. Only 13% of immigrants to the United Kingdom from Tanzania are Black Africans. Tanzania’s technology goal for 2025 could help create jobs while not restricting individuals’ migratory freedom. As stated in the Development Vision “the necessary condition for the nation to achieve rapid overall development to meet

6 Eustella Peter Bhalalusesa, “The Dynamics of Teaching at a Distance in Tanzania: Reflections From the Field,” Open Learning (University of Dar es Salaam) 21, no. 1 (2006): 49-58.

7 William Easterly and Yaw Nyarko, “Is Brain Drain Good for Africa?,” in Skilled Immigration Today: Prospects, Problems and Policies, 316-362 (Oxford University Press, 2009).

economy

education environment

literacy

english

swahili

colonialism

power

building

development

materials

locally significant

architecture

wildlife

stewardship

short-term

long-term

Figure 1.4a Contextual web

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the development challenges of the twenty-first century is to ensure that all national sectors make full use of information and communication technology.”1 Education with the support of good policy is paramount for national development, skilled labor improvement and retention, and a sustainable future.

1.4 Summary Stimulating educational improvements can welcome a new relationship between economic production and environmental stewardship. This change in mindset returns to the traditional values of ujamaa. Humankind is inescapably dependent on the earth’s environment because, people meet their needs through exchanging and consuming nature’s resources. The planet’s inhabitants are only strong if it is strong. Making this notion central to human interaction and national development is important in creating a healthy future. Issues facing Tanzania’s prosperity including illiteracy, ecological degradation, and the socio-economic gap can over time be reduced through government initiatives and community involvement.

1 Gert-Jan de Vreede, Rabson J. S. Mgaya and Sajda Qureshi, “Field Experiences with Collaboration Technology: A Comparative Study in Tanzania and South Africa,” Information Technology for Development, no. 10 (2003): 201-219.

>>Concept

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2.0 Ujamaa Ujamaa, a Swahili word meaning ‘I am strong because we are strong’ or ‘I am because we are’ is a core East African philosophy. The social theory is credited to traditional pre-colonial rural living. As Tanzania became a sovereign nation, ujamaa resurfaced as an attempt to take a distinctly African step into the modern world. President Nyerere’s idea of ujamaa drew from the traditional African values of familyhood and communalism. The social philosophy he proclaimed was also influenced by a mix of Fabian socialism and Catholic social teachings that were infused into Tanzanians’ collective knowledge through their contact with European empires.1 National self-reliance was identified as a way to stimulate Tanzania’s weak economy. This was emphasized in Nyerere’s Arusha Declaration in 1967. Villagization accompanied the policy of ujamaa and was seen as only possible if it were grassroots controlled and voluntary. Many cultivators in rural Tanzania were skeptical of collective living. The Ruvuma Development Association (RDA) created seventeen pioneer villages in 1969 that exhibited tangible success through controlling their own affairs and grassroots cooperative activities.2 The RDA was later put under state control and quickly lost what made it so successful to begin with; its self-governance. A critical paradox formed two years after this affirmation, that villagization depended on freedom, unity, and self-reliance. Administrators began the compulsory settlement of the majority of Tanzania’s rural population into approximately seven thousand villages.3

Socialism was seen as an attractive alternative to having a foreign dominated economy. It also promoted hard work over reliance on international aid.4 A leading factor contributing to the failure of socialism in Tanzania was that administrators of the state apparatus intentionally took steps to stay off course. The President and a few others around him that believed in the cause “were increasingly overridden and undercut by those elements who never had had an interest in socialism, and who in fact feared it because it would erode their privileges.”5 Issa Shivji did not see Tanzania as a socialist nation in anything but a propagandistically and demagogically deployed name.6 When villagization was not occurring at the rate or with the results that the government deemed necessary, the program changed from Ujamaa to ‘Development Villages’ and in November 1973 Nyerere announced that ‘to live in villages is an order’.7

Villagization employed intensive, non-shifting agriculture that required heavy

1 (Ibhawoh and Dibua 2003)

2 (Schneider, Freedom and Unfreedom in Rural Development: Julius Nyerere, Ujamaa Vijijini, and Villagization 2004)

3 (Schneider, Freedom and Unfreedom in Rural Development: Julius Nyerere, Ujamaa Vijijini, and Villagization 2004)

4 (Loxley and Saul 1975)

5 (Schneider 2004)

6 (Schneider 2004)(Shivji 1970)

7 (Nursey-Bray 1980)

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fertilizers and modern farming products. This strategy was the World Bank’s preferred form of agricultural development due to the intensive dependency on investment of purchased production inputs in order to produce higher yields per unit of land.1 According to Payer:

“World Bank policy statements make it clear that the real aim of its smallholder programs is the destruction of what is left of subsistence production and the integration of all agricultural lands into the commercial sector through the production of a ‘marketable surplus’ of cash crops, for the domestic market or for export. [Unlike the politically explosive issue of aiding poor tenants exploited by well-connected landlords] the attack on subsistence farming will receive the whole-hearted support of the borrowing government, which shares the Bank’s hope that these citizens-until now relatively unproductive from the point of view of the national economy-will contribute their surplus to exports, to urban markets, and to the government directly in taxes. There will be no objection from the elites, and overcoming the resistance of the target population becomes a fascinating sociological challenge.”2

By the end of 1977, Tanzania’s foreign exchange reserves equated about five months imports, a comforting level. The IMF and the World Bank saw this as too high, and in routine annual consultations they now advised Tanzania to spend them in order to develop more rapidly. The International Financial Institutions declared that the size of the reserves were embarrassing to the country’s foreign aid donors, and they argued that a poor country should not hoard its assets. Furthering their argument, they proposed that at this time Tanzania should liberalize the government’s tight control of imports.3

In a few regions of pre-colonial and colonial East Africa, fortified villages built for provisional defense continued service under the conversion efforts of German missionaries. The missionaries found the clustered settlement pattern to be advantageous to their work.4 Nucleated settlements were necessary to create focal units for purposeful government actions and centers of medical aid, veterinary services, marketing operations, and education.5 Julius Nyerere strongly believed that African cultural heritage is compatible with modern socialism. His conviction held that traditional practices of mutual assistance and co-operation could be an effective building block in a modern socialist nation. These were attributes of a subsistence society and Tanzania’s shift into a surplus economy has impeded the incorporation of communal customs. The global economic system supports individuals working

1 (Payer 1983)(International Bank for Reconstruction and Development April 1977)

2 (Payer, The World Bank and the Small Farmer 1979)

3 (Payer, Tanzania and the World Bank 1983)

4 (Kjekshus 1977)

5 (Kjekshus 1977)

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for their own accumulation of wealth. Social capital found in traditional societies is replaced by economic capital in modern nations. Prior to the institutionalization of Development Villages, women in rural settings would help weed each other’s land, men would rebuild their thatched-roofed mud huts, and communities would come together for the harvests. As they moved into collective settlements, money was exchanged for labor and surplus goods; there was a greater incentive to spend time increasing one’s own stockpile rather than that of one’s neighbor.6

2.1 Potential for Education and ArchitectureWhere ujamaa failed as a political policy,

the concept has the potential to strengthen the educational field and inform architectural design decisions. Unlike the political sphere, where ujamaa was interpreted as socialism and dependent on villagization, in education there is a collective body of knowledge that throughout time people have contributed to and ‘become strong because we are strong’ as a whole. Tanzania’s future can be found in the collective spirit of education. People learn from their experiences but they also learn from those around them and those who came before them. Colleges are places where individuals come together to build upon and learn from the collective works of man. Teaching is a social activity and learning to educate in a college setting strengthens this skill. Advances one student makes helps other students by creating an example and by sharing the pupil’s experience. Learning takes place formally in a group, informally in public settings, and privately on one’s own. Architectural design in tune with these needs can create spaces that foster the learning experience, are enjoyable, and prepare students for their next step as teachers.

2.2 More Than Just a Social IssueLearning can happen anywhere, under a tree, on a street, in a field, etcetera.

With a large volume of people intent on scholastic activities and at a set location, facilities are needed. It was important to have a set location so that people know where to go in the rural setting and it created a destination for other secondary users. The school must be more than a universal generic building because a prescribed use and design increases the potential for the desired outcome. It will be used over time

6 (Ergas 1980)

architecture

ujamaa

environment

economy

education

Figure 2.1a Theory linking architecture to context

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with this function, and being designed to hold a specific use improves the experience. Architectural design shows that the program is valued and in this case education is valued. A central location creates an atmosphere where students can learn from their peers. By housing them, they do not need transportation and can focus on their studies. As a technical school, this facility does not add to Tanzania’s brain drain and directly improves the country. Locating the school in a rural setting near Arusha allows for a connection to international travelers that have the potential to interact with the center. Visitors can stay at the school or nearby and hold events there. Technical schools feed back into the community skills that help not just the individual but the collective as well. Teachers can go out into villages, craftsmen can make and repair things that are locally needed, and ecotourism directors can manage and preserve the environment while creating income. Ujamaa is engrained in the essence of the educational process and architectural opportunity.

2.3 Principles‘Powers of Ten’ by Ray and Charles Eames, exemplifies how subject matter

can be examined at different layers or scales. The principle of ujamaa is related to building construction and materiality, building layout, and community organization. Through the scope of construction, parts of a structure support the whole. At the level of building layout, spaces support each other and the nature of learning. Beyond individual buildings, community organization is influenced by the social value. The diverse frameworks from which the project can be viewed, each strengthen one another and the human experience.

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2.4 Theory in PracticeArchitect of the Gando Village Primary School in Burkina Faso, Diébédo

Francis Kéré lived by the traditional African philosophy that, “each member of a community has a duty to the whole community and if one member is to leave in search for a better life, he tries to compensate his loss by sending back aid.”1 He acted in the spirit of ujamaa by designing a school for the village. The school was not an end in itself; villagers learned how to construct with local materials and passive design techniques. This knowledge could then be transferred over to their own structures. Education for the youngest generation meant that knowledge would spread to the homes and later generations.

The use of local materials to construct the school was an important design decision for economic, environmental and educational reasons. The school was a financially viable option because it did not require shipping parts that would be expensive to replace. The soil used to form the foundation, walls, and ceiling was found on site. The roof structure did not necessitate heavy machinery, because it was assembled on site with pieces of rebar, a hacksaw, and a small welding machine.2 The truss system was designed to hold up the corrugated steel roof allowing hot air to escape between the two layers. Ecological benefits are found in the passive design techniques including the thick walls and ceiling acting as thermal barriers. The louvered wall openings allow for cross ventilation and appropriate natural lighting for the classrooms. The construction of the school was used to educate the community in compressed earth block building techniques, welding, and will serve as a hub for knowledge in the Gando Village well into the future.

1 (Kéré 2001)

2 (Rael 2009)

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Compressed Earth BlockArchitect_ Diébédo Francis KéréLocation_ Gando, Burkina FasoDate_ 2001

The mechanical press was invented in France around the time of the Revolution. It was inspired by the wine press and creates a modular unit that does not require formwork. Colombian engineer Raul Ramirez improved on the design, making a manually driven device that compresses a block every time the operator pulls the lever. Very little moisture is needed to produce the blocks; therefore blocks do not shrink or crack. Cement stabilizer is often required to ensure a standard product. Modern compressors operate with fossil fuels. The compressed earth block has the versatility of a brick while also benefitting from the social, economic, and environmental potential of rammed earth.1

1 (Rael 2009)

Figures 2.4a-f Images from fuergando.de

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Rammed EarthArchitect_ Jourda & PerraudinLocation_ l’Isle-d’Abeau, FranceDate_ 1984

Rammed earth has been used to construct walls for over two thousand years. The building process starts with erecting formwork and then compacting thin layers of soil, typically 4 to 8 inches at a time with a tamping device within the confines of the form. Tamping can be achieved either manually or with the aid of a tampering machine. The formwork can be positioned farther up the wall to continue the process and expand the wall.2

2 (Rael 2009)

Figures 2.4g-l Images from Earth Architecture by R. Rael

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Rammed Earth in TiresArchitect_ Rural Studio ThesisLocation_ Sawyerville, AlabamaDate_ 1995

Rammed earth in tires is an alternative way to create rammed earth walls without the need for formwork. The tires create the necessary form and are covered with a finishing layer of stucco. An additional benefit to this construction method is the flexibility of wall shape. Reusing old automobile tires helps divert the material from city dumps.1

1 (Reynolds 2011) (Rural Studio, Auburn University 2011)

Figures 2.4m-q Images from http://www.cadc.auburn.edu/rural-studio/

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Mud BrickArchitect_ Rafael Mattar NeriLocation_ Pecaya, VenezuelaDate_ 2003

Mud brick, also known as adobe, has been in use since the dawn of civilization. Archaeologists have found evidence of mud brick that dates back over 10,000 years. The combination of mud, straw, and water are mixed, shaped into bricks and bake in the sun until they are dry. The basic units are put together to form walls that can ascend multiple stories.2

2 (Rael 2009)

Figure 2.4r Images from http://www.travel thewholeworld.com/sudan.html

Figures 2.4s-u Images from Earth Architecture by R. Rael

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PartiExterior spaces are activated by adjacent building masses. The outdoor rooms guide circulation and encourage gathering in cool shaded spaces.

Figure 2.4v Parti diagrams

>>Site

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Figure 3.0a Map of world designed by Buckminster Fuller (site marked with circle)

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50 mi100 km

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3.0 ProfileFull name_ United Republic of TanzaniaPopulation_ 45 millionCapital_ Dodoma (official), Dar es Salaam (commercial)Largest city_ Dar es SalaamArea_ 945,087 sq km (364,900 sq miles)GNI per capita_ US $5001

3.1 Surrounding AreaThe site is 13 km south of Arusha (Figure 3.1b), and once a bridge connects

the site to the other side of the river, the drive to town will be under fifteen minutes. Arusha is currently growing south along Njiro Road; this trend in time may reach the Terrat Ward where the site is located. According to the 2002 census, the ward is comprised of 8,044 people. Currently the area is mostly traversed along dirt roads. Arusha has a network of both paved and unpaved roadways. The closest neighboring town to Arusha is the town of Moshi. The region consists mostly of subsistence farmers and herders. The towns cater to foreign tourists and support small-scale industries in the area.

1 (BBC 2010)

Opposite page: Figure 3.1a Map including National Parks and major cities (site marked with arrow)

050

10 mi10 km

3.1.1 ClimateThe site’s climate is influenced by its proximity to the equator (Latitude: S

03° 28.888, Longitude: E 36° 41.484) and the Indian Ocean (Figure 3.1a). Mt. Meru and Mt. Kilimanjaro create a microclimate in the region. Mosquitoes are minimal because of the property’s higher elevation (1234m) and mild climate. The elevation and proximity to the equator also keep the average temperature at a comfortable level year round (Figure 3.1.1b). A great influence on building materials in the region is the large population of termites. Any wood construction must be protected and watched. Tanzania experiences wet and dry seasons. The major wet season is focused around April. Precipitation usually returns for approximately two weeks in November (Figure 3.1.1a). Weather data is sourced from Autodesk’s Ecotect and Weather Tool.

Figure 3.1b Map of Arusha region (site marked with arrow)

051

0

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100

150

200

250

300

350

400

mm

Average

Average Rainfall

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec0

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7.9

9.8

11.8

13.8

15.7

in

0

5

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Max

Min

Average Temperature

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

C

32

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50

59

68

77

86

95

F

Figure 3.1.1a Average rainfall

Figure 3.1.1b Average temperature

052

3.1.1.1 WindEfficient passive building ventilation depends on utilizing the prevailing winds

of the area. The site experiences 70% of its breezes coming from the east to southeast (Figure 3.1.1.1a). This consistency aids in informing building fenestrations and orientation.

3.1.1.2 SunThroughout the year the sun stays within 30o of overhead at noon (Figure

3.212b). Half of the year the sun travels across the south side of structures and the other half of the year its path is to the north. According to Autodesk’s Weather Tool the optimal thermal building orientation is about 17 o south of east (Figure 3.1.1.2a). Shading strategies must be implemented on all sides of structures found on the site.

053

N

10

20

30

40

<13226439752966279492610591191

1324+Hours

10

20

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70

N

45315

135225

9amAz Alt

87.9

59.9

86.0

97.4

34.6

31.0

38.1

35.1

Date Mar 21 Jun 21Sep 21Dec 21

noon 3pm

72.7

17.4

56.6

159.6

79.2

61.9

81.9

68.6

-81.1

-36.3

-79.5

-135.1

70.0

56.1

66.8

60.8

Az Alt Az Alt

Figure 3.1.1.1a Wind diagram

Figure 3.1.1.2a Sun diagram with optimal building orientation Figure 3.1.1.2b Sun angle table

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3.1.1.3 Building ComfortA major contribution to the success of a building’s performance is its ability to

provide a comfortable interior climate. People adapt their surroundings to fit their physical needs (Figure 3.1.1.3b). The mild year round climate allows for passive cooling and heating techniques (Figure 3.1.1.3a). These methods are both better for protecting the environment and lower in lifecycle costs.

Ventilate

Ventilate or Evaporative

Evaporative

Evaporative or Air-Conditioning

Air-Conditioning

Ventilate or Air-Conditioning

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

Before

After

Comfort Percentages

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year

Selected Design Techniques:Passive Solar HeatingThermal Mass EffectsExposed Mass + Night-Purge VentilationNatural Ventilation

055

Opposite page:Top: Figure 3.1.1.3a Comfort percentages be-

fore and after passive techniquesBottom: Figure 3.1.1.3b Psychrometric chart

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3.1.2 TransportationThe rural region is less developed than that of the urban centers. Most roads

are unpaved and many are unnamed. Currently Internet map and directional service sites, including Google Maps, do not recognize the property’s location nor do they provide directions to the piece of land (Figure 3.1.2a). Within five to fifteen years, when the population grows in the ward and the government completes a bridge to traverse the river, mapping of the area will potentially improve.

Arusha has an airport to the west of the city and is near the Kilimanjaro airport. Travel to the city can also be achieved via the nine and a half hour bus ride from Dar es Salaam.

3.1.3 AmenitiesThe services in the immediate area are limited. Electricity and water can be

reached from the site. Three hundred meters from the property is a village water pump (Figure 3.2b). The local village population consists of people from the Maasai tribe. They rely on animal husbandry for survival. The college campus will benefit from the local knowledge of the land. At the same time, it will need to produce much

of its own foodstuffs and maintain much of its own equipment.

Opposite page: Figure 3.1.2a Road map of Arusha (site marked with arrow)

057

1 mi2 km

200 ft100 m

059

Opposite page: Figure 3.2a Site map (property lines marked in brown)Top: Figure 3.2b Image of village near water pump East of site

Middle: Figure 3.2c Image of road leading to site with sisal fenceBottom: Figure 3.2d Neighboring property East of site

060

View of Mt. Meru

View of Mt. Kilimanjaro

Top: Figure 3.2e Panoramic view from Southwest corner of siteLeft: Figure 3.2f Diagram of views from site

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3.2 Immediate SiteThe land is generally fl at with bumps from erosion and previous farming.

Important sight lines include the views of Mt. Meru and Mt. Kilimanjaro from the lot (Figures 3.2e&f) and the property from the Northeast intersection. There are very few trees and none of a great size. The soil in the North is poor with a high clay compound and a tendency to dry out. The soil on the Southern two-thirds of the site is better for farming. Sisal is used around the perimeter of the lots in this area to keep grazing animals from eating the crops (Figure 3.2c).

>>Program

065

4.1 ClientJubilant Wera, the property owner, resides in the Arusha region. He comes

from a village along the edge of Mt. Kilimanjaro. Mr. Wera has experience in the creation of another educational facility in Tanzania. His primary occupation is running his own tour company, Park East Africa, Ltd. The Wera family is also involved in the company.

4.2 User Groups

Potential students at the college will have passed secondary school and intend

on furthering their education in a two to four year college program. The path of their

studies will lead to the fields of education, tourism, or handcraft. Professors and staff

will be local and experienced in tertiary education.

Figure 4.2a Potential student group

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Reception Area

General Office Space


Private Office Space


Conference Room

Employee Lounge


Private Office SpaceRest-

roomRest-room

Storage Room

Storage Room

Figure 4.3.1a Admin./management spatial diagram

4.3 Space AnalysisPresenting specific uses for spaces assisted in fine tuning the layout to the requirements of the inhabitants. Generic facilities that are not tailored to the users’ needs lose the potential to function at their fullest potential. Analyzing the diverse needs of the college has led to a program that promotes learning and will provide for the years to come. The diagrams represent initial expected spatial needs, while the text reflects further investigation.

4.3.1 Administration/

ManagementThe college requires space for managing its program. Professors and administrators plan for the daily campus activities, as well as, meet with students, staff, and visitors. Enclosed spaces will be necessary for private matters. General open spaces can accommodated multiple employees and their needs.

4.3.1.1 ReceptionA space at the entrance of the administration and management facilities was desired to welcome and hold visitors and students waiting to meet with a professor or administrator. This location is beneficial for a secretary to receive and organize messages.

4.3.1.2 General Office SpaceCommunal office space is useful for professors and administrators to share ideas and resources. One office houses desks and supplies for professors and the other room is used by administrators. These spaces are both adjacent to the reception (4.3.1.1) area to allow for an ease of flow from waiting to meeting in the facilities. The office space requires

067

quality ventilation for health and comfort for the occupants. The space also benefits from a consistent diffused daylight at desk level and view to the outdoors from working stations to increase work performance.

4.3.1.3 Transitional OfficesAdjacent to the general office spaces (4.3.1.2), a transitional office space allows staff to step into a quiet space to meet will fellow employees, visitors, or students. The space can be broken down into private offices or it can be used as a meeting room. Lighting and ventilation requirements are similar to those of the common office space but flexible for the potential need to separate the space into smaller rooms. Acoustical considerations were made in order to protect to privacy of engagements taking place in the offices.

4.3.1.4 Multifunction RoomControl of lighting for presentations will be a welcomed feature of the multifunction room. The flexibility of the room allows for both conference meetings and moderate sized gatherings. A sink and countertop aid in minor food preparation within the room. By having a separate space from the general offices (4.3.1.2), meetings can take place without disturbing the continual flow of the administrational and professorial work. The multifunction room will be in close proximity to the other office spaces found in the administration and management facilities.

4.3.1.5 BookstoreQuality of work has been found to increase with the ability to take short breaks. A bookstore will aid in the process of refreshing the college staff. A direct connection to garden space (4.3.2.2) and daylight adds to the health of employees through improved circulation, flexibility, accessibility to fresh produce, and the sun’s vitamin D. The store

068

Crop Fields

Produce Storage

Equipment Storage

Cleaning Space

Gardens

Figure 4.3.2b Agricultural spatial diagram

creates an extension into the surrounding community, allowing for a greater dialog between the local villages and the Teacher Training Center. By engaging the community the school further developed the notion of ujamaa.

4.3.1.6 RestroomsHealth, sanitation, and accessibility are key features to the building’s restrooms. Grey water and squatting toilets reduce the consumption of potable water. Rainwater catchment aids in reducing the running costs of the restrooms. Natural ventilation reduces odor and improves the restroom experience. Sanitation was improved through the use of smooth finished surfaces that are easily cleaned and non-absorptive. Restrooms cater to the needs of all who occupy the building regardless of disabilities.

4.3.2 AgriculturalThe college is located in a rural setting feeding and housing full time students and staff. Locally and onsite grown produce is important in achieving this goal in a healthy, sustainable manor. The cost for transporting food is reduced and eliminated. Food is fresher and improves the students’ nutrient intake. Agricultural work on the grounds will employs local laborers and connects the school to the surrounding community.

4.3.2.1 Crop FieldsCrops are grown onsite to be used for meals in the cafeteria (4.3.6.1) and as a hands-on educational tool. Natural production is undertaken to ensure the health of the land and inhabitants.

4.3.2.2 GardensStudents and facility have the opportunity to grow vegetation in the gardens surrounding the facilities. Any garden space not reserved by students

069

Viewing Space

Rest-room

Sports Field

Viewing Space

Equipment Storage

Market

Figure 4.3.3a Athletic spatial diagram

and facility is taken care of by the groundskeepers. Gardens create shaded restful areas for studying and breaks.

4.3.2.3 Produce StorageLocated near the crop fields (4.3.2.1), the produce storage allows for surplus yield to be held onsite during harvest times. When any offsite grains are purchased by the school they are stored in these facilities as well. The building’s main functions are to protect foodstuffs from animals and weather.

4.3.2.4 Equipment StorageTending to the land requires various tools that are housed when not in use in an equipment storage facility. The gear last longer and is better organized under these conditions. The storage facilities are adjacent to the produce storage (4.3.2.3). Ventilation is necessary for any fuels and to provide a comfortable temperature for staff entering the area.

4.3.2.5 Cleaning StationAlong with the equipment storage (4.3.2.4), groundskeepers need access to a place to clean up both themselves and equipment after working. This space prolongs the lifespan of equipment and keeps the buildings free from soil tracked around by field hands.

4.3.3 AthleticStudents benefit from physical activity outside of the classroom. Catering to the athletic needs of students is achieved through the maintenance of a campus sports field (4.3.3.1) and its supporting structures.

4.3.3.1 Sports FieldAn internationally compliant soccer field is sustained onsite. The field serves both the students of the school and holds matches with local opponents. It

070

Rest-roomBedroom

GatheringSpace

Rest-room

Bedroom

Rest-roomBedroom

Rest-room

BedroomBedroom

Rest-room

Bedroom

Rest-room

Storage

Figure 4.3.4a Residential spatial diagram

is located on the north end of the site utilizing the rich soil.

4.3.3.2 Viewing SpaceSpectators have room to view matches along the edge of the field. This area also serves to link the market (4.3.3.5) to the athletic events.

4.3.3.3 Basketball CourtAdjacent to the health clinic (4.3.6.3) is a basketball court. The clinic separates the court from the soccer field (4.3.3.1) to reduce interference between the two games.

4.3.3.4 Equipment StorageSports and field equipment is housed near the sports field (4.3.3.1) and basketball court (4.3.3.3) in a secure room attached to the health clinic (4.3.6.3).

4.3.3.5 MarketThe market is housed under the overhang of the health clinic (4.3.6.3). This allows market goers to also be spectators of athletic matches and visit the clinic.

4.3.4 ResidentialStudents and staff live on campus fulltime to reduce travel time and improve the community life at the college. Apartments are the same for students and staff to allow for the transition between student and professional to flow more easily. The residential units all form off of an undulating courtyard. The courtyard contains much of the daytime activities. Each residential unit has shaded benches built into the front and a gated porch (4.3.4.2). The space is experienced as a gradation between public and private. Each residential unit has three apartments. The apartments share adobe walls to reduce material usage and improve shading. Units house six people, two to a room.

071

4.3.4.1 BedroomsStudent bedrooms are shared between two students each. The exception is with students who have family living with them. The rooms benefit from natural daylight near the students’ desks and a defused light through the corrugated plastic roof. Beds can be stacked for more floor space. Operable windows allow students to adjust the temperature and ventilation of their space. Each room is connected to a private courtyard (4.3.4.3) with a sink and cooking space. Bedrooms for staff are intermixed with the student living. The use of the same apartment for both students and staff allows for greater flexibility throughout the years as enrollment increases and fluctuates.

4.3.4.2 PorchesThe transition from the courtyard to the interior living spaces is buffered by a front porch. This space is enclosed by a gate to protect the inhabitants at night and anything left out in the space.

4.3.4.3 CourtyardsThe bedrooms (4.3.4.1) open to walled private courtyards. This space has the traditional setup of three stones for cooking. By cooking in the open air, inhabitants do not need to be concerned about the interior of the residential units overheating. The courtyards are shared between two bedrooms (4.3.4.1), as are the porches (4.3.4.2). The courtyard also creates a private space to do laundry and separates the toilets (4.3.4.5) from the interior of the living spaces.

4.3.4.4 ShowersThe showers use rainwater collected onsite. On the roof of the shower stall is a solar water heater.

072

Classroom

Classroom

Classroom

Classroom

Classroom

Classroom

Classroom

Classroom

Classroom

Classroom

Classroom

Classroom

Classroom

Classroom

Classroom

Computer Lab

Computer Lab

Computer Lab

Library

Workshop

Workshop

StudySpace

StudySpace

StudySpace

StudySpace

Garden

Figure 4.3.5a Scholastic spatial diagram

4.3.4.5 ToiletsA toilet is included with each apartment. This increases the cleanliness and lifespan of the fixtures both through the feeling of ownership and responsibility attached to the smaller contained user group. The type of toilet is low to the ground for squatting. This form reduces the water used, increases hygiene and is traditionally used in East Africa.

4.3.4.6 Water StorageRainwater from the roof of each unit is captured in a water tank next to the shower (4.3.4.4). The water is gravity fed to the shower and toilet (4.3.4.5).

4.3.5 ScholasticIn order to transition from students to teachers over the course of their involvement with the college, educational spaces have to support this metamorphosis. Breaking from the engrained educational format helps students become leaders. People learn from a wide variety of situations and techniques; creating spaces that entice group, individual, formal, and informal learning will open opportunities for continuous cultivation.

4.3.5.1 ClassroomsClassrooms shelter the daily meeting between professors and students. In addition to the typical coursework that will take place in these spaces, students also reach out to the youth in the region by teaching off-hour classes. This strengthens their skills while improving the lives of the local community. The spaces benefit from natural daylight, orientation that promotes cross ventilation, and a flat wall surface for a chalkboard.

4.3.5.2 LibraryA collection of resources in a library helps

073

reduce the cost for students in having to buy reference books that they could share. This space, in addition to housing books, creates a quiet study area. Controlled lighting and moisture help the books last longer. Deflecting natural light helps reduce the direct harmful sunrays and produces a comfortable defused light. The humidity in the region is low and suitable for book storage. Additional reading space and a checkout station increase the function of the library. Location near the classrooms (4.3.5.1) aids in supporting course research.

4.3.5.3 Computer LabsThe continual infinite flow of information found on the internet helps students further their education in unforeseeable directions. Computer labs allow students to connect to the world and also craft professional documents. Security is an additional concern due to the value of computer equipment. This issue is mitigated through the employment of steel doors on the computer labs. Direct light is controlled to reduce glare on computer monitors. Labs are within a close proximity to both the classrooms (4.3.5.1) and the residential (4.3.4) areas. This enables students to use the facilities during class time and after hours.

4.3.5.4 WorkshopCraft classes and maintenance work require workshops. Enough working spaces for multiple students promotes safety. Ventilation is a necessary component for respiratory health. Quality lighting including task lighting helps students work safely and efficiently. The high ceiling heights allow for large materials to be moved throughout the space freely. Workshops are located away from residential (4.3.4) and classroom (4.3.5.1) spaces to reduce noise pollution.

074

Rest-room

Rest-room

Storage

Storage

Parking

Cafeteria/Function HallKitchen

Residental

Laundry

Laundry

Laundry

Health Clinic

Figure 4.3.6a Supporting spatial diagram

4.3.5.5 Study SpacesStudy spaces differ from classrooms (4.3.5.1) based on their openness and informal aura. They are located near the gardens (4.3.2.2), with built in seating and shading. As gathering spaces the study spaces will function to bring students together to exchange ideas and also allow students to get out and learn in an outdoor environment.

4.3.5.6 StorageNecessary class supplies are stored behind the blackboard in the classrooms (4.3.5.1). The workshops (4.3.5.4), computer labs (4.3.5.3), and library (4.3.5.2) also have storage spaces for their respective supplies.

4.3.6 SupportingThe school’s activities are sustained through the aid of supporting spaces including: a cafeteria (4.3.6.1), kitchen (4.3.6.2), and health clinic (4.3.6.3). These spaces allow students to stay on campus while meeting their physical needs.

4.3.6.1 Cafeteria/Function HallStudents and staff have the option to gather throughout the day for meals in the cafeteria. When meals are not taking place, the large space is able to accommodate functions including: lectures, events, fundraisers, holidays, etcetera. The expansive roof will protect occupants from rain and solar rays.

4.3.6.2 KitchenThe cafeteria (4.3.6.1) requires the support of a kitchen capable of cooking for over three hundred people. A solar cooker will help heat food in an efficient manner. Space will be needed for both cooking and post-meal cleaning. Students studying culinary arts practice their trade by cooking in the kitchen while reducing the need for a large staff.

075

4.3.6.3 Health ClinicDue to the site’s remote location, medical aid for minor issues is administered at a health clinic onsite. The space consists of a reception area for patents to wait, a pharmacy, and the doctor’s office. The clinic is located near the scholastic (4.3.5) spaces and residential (4.3.4). Sterile surfaces reduce the spread of diseases.

4.3.6.4 RestroomsRestrooms are located under the same roof as the health clinic (4.3.6.3).

077

Market

Laundry

Laundry

Laundry

Reception Area





Conference Room

Employee Lounge


Private Office SpaceRest-

roomRest-room

Storage Room

Storage Room

Crop Fields

Produce Storage

Equipment Storage

Cleaning Space

Viewing Space

Rest-room

Sports Field

Viewing Space

Equipment Storage

Rest-roomBedroom

GatheringSpace

Rest-room

Bedroom

Rest-roomBedroom

Rest-room

BedroomBedroom

Rest-room

Bedroom

Rest-room

Storage

Classroom

Classroom

Classroom

Classroom

Classroom

Classroom

Classroom

Classroom

Classroom

Classroom

Classroom

Classroom

Classroom

Classroom

Classroom

Computer Lab

Computer Lab

Computer Lab

Library

Workshop

Workshop

StudySpace

StudySpace

StudySpace

StudySpace

Garden

Rest-room

Rest-room

Storage

Storage

Parking

Cafeteria/Function HallKitchen

Residental

Administration/Management

Health Clinic

Figure 4.3a Site spatial diagram

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Table 4.4 Quantitative Space SynopsisSpace

Quantity

Persons

Area/Person

Area

1 Administration/Management 1.1 Reception Area 1.2 General Office Space 1.3 Transitional Offices 1.4 Multifunction Room 1.5 Bookstore

2 Agricultural 2.1 Crop Fields 2.2 Gardens 2.3 Produce Storage 2.4 Equipment Storage

3 Athletic 3.1 Sports Field 3.2 Viewing Space 3.3 Basketball Court 3.4 Equipment Storage

2.5 Cleaning Station

Q P A/Pft2 m2

Aft2 m2

AAft2 m2

A

1

2

1

1

1

35

6

8

50

35

30

80

66.6

16

32

2.8

7.4

6.2

1.5

3

1058

483.5

533

800

1130

98.3

44.9

49.5

74.3

105

1058

967

533

800

1130

98.3

89.8

49.5

74.3

105

-

-

1

1

1

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

584k

160k

2673

1812

30

54k

14.8k

248

168

2.8

584k

160k

2673

1812

30

54k

14.8k

248

168

2.8

1

2

1

1

22

-

10

-

3136

9

452

-

291

.84

4.2

-

69k

-

4521

110

6410

-

420

10.2

-

4521

110

-

420

10.2

69k 6410

Q

P

A/P

AA Assigned Area

Table Key

1.6 Restrooms 2 4 33.6 3.125 134.5 12.5 269 25

Net Assigned 4757ft2 442m2


3.5 Market 1 - - - 782 72.7 782 72.7


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Table 4.4 Quantitative Space SynopsisSpace

Quantity

Persons

Area/Person

Area

4 Residential 4.1 Bedrooms 4.2 Porches 4.3 Courtyards 4.4 Showers 4.5 Toilets

5 Scholastic 5.1 Classrooms 5.2 Library 5.3 Computer Labs 5.4 Workshop 5.5 Study Spaces 5.6 Storage

4.6 Water Storage

6 Supporting 6.1 Cafeteria/Function Hall 6.2 Kitchen

Q P A/Pft2 m2

Aft2 m2

AAft2 m2

A

120

60

60

60

60

60

2

4

4

1

1

-

60

32.5

54

11

9

-

5.6

3

5

1.02

.84

-

120

130

216

11

9

11

11.2

12.1

20

1.02

.84

1.02

14.4k

7800

13k

660

540

660

1338

725

1208

61.3

50.2

61.3

15

1

2

2

5

20

50

20

25

5

30

26

30

72.5

16

2.8

2.4

2.8

6.7

1.5

600

1300

600

1812

80

55.7

121

55.7

168.3

7.5

9000

3624

240

836

121

111.5

336.7

22.5

1

1

300

8

20

75

1.86

7

6000

600

557.4

55.7 600 55.7

557.4

Q

P

A/P

AA Assigned Area

Table Key



30 - - - 15 1.4 450 42

1200

1300

6000

6.3 Health Clinic

Net Assigned 8100ft2 752.5m2

1 7 110 10.2 770 71.5 770 71.5

Total Net Assigned 888659ft2 82559m2

6.4 Restroom 2 5 73 6.8 365 33.9 730 67.8

>>Schematic Design

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Top: Figure 5.1.1a Site soil constraintsBottom: Figure 5.1.2a Site programmatic constraints

Rich SoilRich SoilPoor SoilRich SoilRich SoilPoor SoilPoor SoilPoor SoilPoor Soil

Athletic

ScholasticScholasticScholasticScholasticScholasticScholasticResidentialResidentialAgriculturalResidentialResidentialResidentialResidentialResidentialResidentialResidentialResidentialResidentialAgriculturalAgriculturalAgriculturalAgriculturalAgriculturalAgriculturalAgriculturalAgriculturalAgriculturalAgriculturalCrop Fields

AthleticMarket

AgriculturalAgriculturalAgriculturalCrop FieldsCrop FieldsCrop FieldsCrop FieldsCrop FieldsCrop Fields

MarketAdmin/Entry

AthleticAthleticAthleticAthleticMarketMarketAthleticAthleticMarketMarketMarketMarketAdmin/EntryAdmin/EntryAdmin/Entry

Athletic

Scholastic

Athletic

ScholasticScholastic

Athletic

Scholastic

AthleticAthleticAthleticCafeteriaScholasticScholasticResidentialResidentialResidentialResidentialAgriculturalAgricultural

ScholasticScholasticCafeteriaCafeteriaCafeteria

083

5.0 Schematic Design IntroductionUjamaa’s influence on Tanzanian society is experienced both through human

interaction and through material embodiment. The Swahili word connotes communal strength. In the words of Edward T. Hall, “Culture is man’s medium; there is not one aspect of human life that is not touched and altered by culture.”1 Architecture is the physical manifestation of social relationships and is an artifact of a way of life. Numerous facets of culture including the constructed understanding of space and time affect the built environment of a society. The design of a vocational training college located south of Arusha, Tanzania on rural land materializes the collective strength of Tanzanian culture. Ujamaa as an underlying principle shapes the patterns of architecture in Tanzania.

5.1.1 Physical Site Constraints Site characteristics signified the spaces’ framework. Nodes are established onsite that organize space while points are used similarly in polychronic time. “The tides determine what men did, how long they did it, and when they did it,”2 according to Hall’s analysis of the Eskimos. This example of a polychronic time system is similar to the spatial system used on the rural site in Tanzania. Here the soil conditions determined the various uses of space. Ground rich enough to sustain the growth of flora support the small-scale farming and athletics field. Areas of poor soil conditions house the built structures. Christopher Alexander advocated for this notion because it promotes healthy ecology. If buildings were placed on the healthiest part of the site they would cover it up and leave those parts of the land that are in the worst condition exposed.3 Places were denoted according to the natural constrains of the site.

5.1.2 Programmatic Site Constraints Programmatic constraints further organized the formation of spaces on the campus. Scholastic places are central in the compound both physically and symbolically. Visual and spatial focus on the learning spaces denotes their value and the value of the program taking place in their midst. The surrounding of the scholastic spaces with exterior courtyards allows for learning to continue out into the more informal settings as students gather prior to and after classes. The subsidiary spaces that house the supporting needs of the inhabitants and aid in the informal learning happenstances are situated around the educational facilities. These spaces form a sense of procession from public areas that reach out to the community to more private dwelling spaces. This shift flows from the main street along the north of the

1 (Hall 1976)

2 Ibid.

3 (Alexander, et al. 1977)

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Athletic

Scholastic

Residential

Agricultural

Crop Fields

Market

Admin/Entry

Cafeteria

Sisal Fence

Vehicular Circulation

Pedestrian Circulation

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site. The training center’s functions required a certain movement throughout the campus grounds to enhance the scholastic experience.

5.1.3 Water Resources on SiteSite inhabitants will have an equal access to water. The remote location in

the dry climate has made water an even more valuable resource. It can be pumped from underground and collected during the few weeks of rain, but it must be conserved and reused when possible. Water towers and a reservoir will help save water for potential droughts. Each apartment has a water tank that collects water from the abode’s roof. These tanks will be gravity fed and used for irrigation. The larger towers on site will house potable water for consumption. Through personal and communal efforts, water will be accessible to all onsite. While water allows life to flourish, education enriches this life.

Opposite Page: Figure 5.1.2b Schematic site design

Athletic

Scholastic

Residential

Agricultural

Crop Fields

Market

Admin/Entry

Cafeteria

Sisal Fence

Vehicular Circulation

Pedestrian Circulation

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5.2 Scholastic DesignThe surface of ujamaa emerged in the patterns of the scholastic areas. These

patterns can be experienced at the levels of complex layout, building plans, and component details. The complex of buildings in the scholastic area is organized through the parallel and angular relationships between structures. The courtyards formed between buildings take on a triangular shape that benefi ts both from shading via the adjacent structures and places to rest along their perimeters. Classrooms are communal learning spaces. Classrooms are grouped under fi ve roofs, with three rooms comprising each building. These enclosed spaces are formed by the pairing of a fl at wall for the blackboards and curvilinear walls surrounding the classrooms. Walls were perforated with triangular patterns (fi gure 5.2f) that are formed through angling masonry units. This form is traditionally used for openings because of its environmental, structural and symbolic qualities. The equilateral triangle with its point up represents ‘earth’ and ‘fi re’, where as the triangle point down signifi es ‘air’ and ‘water’. The two forms together equate the sign for the universe. These elements are prevalent in the continuity of existence. Their signifi cance is seen in the strength that they embody as the components come together to sustain life. An equally relevant signifi ed meaning came from the family tripartite membership formed by the dead, living, and unborn. The ideas spread through education come from the knowledge of the dead, is put into practice by the living, and is preserved for the unborn. The kinship represented through this symbol is a core notion of ujamaa. These consecutive layers found in the scholastic space of the site formalize the principles of ujamaa.

Figure 5.2a Classroom design

1_ Classroom 2_ Outdoor Study Space

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Figure 5.2b Classroom interior

Figure 5.2c Classroom day lighting

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5.2.1 Classroom Code ComplianceThe classrooms as well as the rest of the site are all designed according to

the International Building Code. The classroom buildings each have rooms that are 603 square feet. The total enclosed space of a building unit equals 1,809 square feet. Vertical egress is minimal for the single fl oor structures. A single ramp is used to provide access to the classroom fl oor. It is sloped in compliance at one to twelve. As a facility for higher education, the structure is categorized as a (B) Business Occupancy Group. The classifi cation is also residential college. The fi re resistance type is I-B. Each classroom has two exits with doors swinging to the exterior. The door widths are within the limits of 32” and 48”. Each building unit has a maximum travel distance that is less than 200’ and a maximum common path of egress that is less than 75’. The room occupants are less than 49 people per room. There are no dead-end corridors. Building height is less than 75’ and without sprinklers. The allowable area for this building type is unlimited. Spaces at the training college meet the health and safety requirements of the International Building Code.

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1_ Classrooms2_ Library3_ Computer Labs4_ Courtyard

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Figure 5.2d Scholastic design

Area for building

Platform for sitting and water protection

Ramp for ease of access

Flat surface for blackboard

angled curved surface reduces material

sloped roof for water drainageFigure 5.2e Classroom design process

Figure 5.2f Triangle motif

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5.3 Administration and

Management Design The administration and management space was located at the site entrance to act as a threshold for the training center. The elongated building creates a sense of suspense by hiding and then revealing the site as visitors approach. Its prominence at the site perimeter aids in accommodating the school while linking to the neighboring community. Oriented seventeen degrees south of east promotes the optimal solar conditions for the stretch of the building. The narrow interior spaces promote cross ventilation and ample day lighting. Wrapping the length of the building back around the opening creates courtyards that allow for interior programs to continue out into the shaded central space. The structure builds upon the intended unity between the school and its surrounding context.

5.4 Market and Athletic Design The local village was also connected to the site through the public market along the major path and newly formed road to the west of the site. This market borders two sides of the athletics fi eld. Adjoined roofs between the market stalls allows for the addition of more commerce on larger market days. Market goers will have the opportunity to view soccer matches as they buy and sell goods. Goal lines run laterally to minimize any solar advantage for either team. Flanking the south end of the pitch are the restrooms and health clinic. These adjacent buildings share a roof that forms a shaded gathering space. Clustered between the soccer fi eld and basketball courts, the restrooms and health clinic create a buffer to separate the games to reduce interruptions. Reaching out to the community through shared functions along

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1_ Drop-off Space 2_ Courtyard 3_ Admin/Mgmt/Welcome Optimal Solar Orientation

Figure 5.3a Admin/Mgmt design

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5_ Restrooms 6_ Shaded Gathering Space 7_ Viewing Space

Figure 5.4a Market and athletic design

1_ Sports Field 2_ Market 3_ Basketball Court 4_ Clinic

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the site’s edge intensifi es the use of the school and improves the conditions of the surrounding villages.

5.5 Cafeteria DesignCommunal eating is an advantageous way to strengthen group bonding.

Tanzanians typically wash their hands prior to eating in an almost ritual practice. Hand washing stations are placed in regard of this local tradition. The cafeteria was designed as a shaded space with open-air sides. This was to frame the surreal views of Mount Meru and Mount Kilimanjaro while promoting passive cooling through ventilation. Although William Cronon may see this as endorsing the hegemony of wilderness,1 the celebration of Tanzania’s unique natural landscapes help’s remind site occupants of the importance of the environment and mankind’s interdependence with it. The views may inspire students as they work towards careers in this land. Ecotourism depends on the preservation of both the unique and seemingly common places throughout the region. The cafeteria is under the same roof as the kitchen. This space will be used for preparing meals while the solar cooker adjacent to the structure will heat food outdoors through the power of the sun. By cooking food outdoors the interior space of the kitchen will not become overheated. This allows for the reliance on passive cooling techniques within the kitchen. The roof structure was sloped to guide water to a tank during the rainy season. The shared eating space creates opportunities for informal learning through community interaction.1 (Cronon 1996)

Figure 5.5a Cafeteria design

1_ Cafeteria 2_ Kitchen 3_ Solar Cooker 4_ Hand Washing Area

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5.6 Residential DesignThe parts of the residential space build upon each other in an effort to strengthen

the whole. The residential spaces are formed around joined courtyards that vary in scale. These outdoor rooms enhance the collective strength of the school community. The traditionally compact dwelling units encourage people to convene in the public courtyards for their various daily activities. This promotes impromptu encounters and informal learning from observing neighbors. Ujamaa will be felt through the communal atmosphere of the public space. Facing the public space are semi-private outdoor cooking areas. Food will be prepared over fi re with the traditional triad of stones. Outdoor cooking helps reduce heat gain in enclosed spaces. The perforated wall bordering the cooking area reduces the breeze around the fi re and shades the preparation space. The roof is open to release the smoke from cooking. Each dwelling unit is comprised of three apartments. A shared wall between the apartments helps reduce material needs and decreases underused alley spaces. Being part of a group will strengthen structures. Each apartment unit is offset from the adjacent spaces to allow for day lighting and ventilation. The apartments can be inhabited by students,

Figure 5.6a Residential unit plan

Figure 5.6b Residential unit front elevation

093

staff, and professors, who are single, married, or with children. The versatility of the apartments allows for a diversity of inhabitants in the same area without separation due to family structure or career placement. The apartments each have cooking space, two bedrooms, and an enclosed backyard with chicken coop, bathroom and storage. Garden spaces outline the residential area of the site. The domicile spaces function at various levels in accordance to ujamaa.

5.7 Materiality Local materials and construction techniques draw a connection to regional traditions. These practices formed out of a cultural response to environmental stimuli. The hot dry climate attributed to the site’s proximity to the Earth’s equator implores the use of thick walls. Enclosing spaces with broad thermal masses also allow for gradual modification over time, as personal adaptations are required.1 Material manipulation by the occupants will permit individuals to form their spaces around their identities. Personal freedom was one of the main principles of ujamaa that President Nyerere viewed as vital to social cohesion. Inhabitants can thicken the walls to build out nooks, shelves, and other various spaces to house objects or activities. The haptic characteristics of dwelling are emphasized through the earthen materials used in construction. The genius loci of the site calls forth the use of timeless building materials and techniques.

5.8 Contextual Identity and TimeStructures of time and society are congruent in Tanzania. The absence of

separation between individual and community in ujamaa is a mergence of both being and identity. A person’s identity is created through the strength of his or her community. The individual is one with the context. This amalgamation of focus and context is reflected in the local understanding and experience of time. Tanzania tacitly uses polychronic time as an organizing frame for activities. Polychronic systems are characterized by several things happening at once with an emphasis on involvement of people and completion of transactions rather than adherence to preset schedules. This understanding of time is seen as a point that is sacred and is used in place of monochronic time, which is linear and compartmentalized. Context influences polychronic cultures much more with the absence of compartmentalization.2 The communal nature of ujamaa favors polychronic time where there is multivalency to space and time with a focus on people’s involvement. In a polychronic society where compartmentalization is absent, ujamaa’s convergence of individuals as a community flows much more freely as events unfold in space and time.

1 (Alexander, et al. 1977)

2 (Hall 1976)

094

5.9 Socially Constructed Spatial NeedsHow individuals interact in society formulates

spatial needs. Ujamaa is at the essence of social formation in Tanzanian culture, which stems from pre-imperial traditions. The Maasai tribe forms their dwelling units through the materialization of kinship structures. This practice is organized along bilateral symmetry and triangular growth.1 The patriarch constructs his dwelling at the entrance of the compound and a second home for his additional wife. From this base grows the subsequent generational abodes in the fashion of a genealogical tree. The plan visually resembles the veins of a leaf. The compounds are isomorphic with the structural conditions in which they emerged. Bourdieu conceived this as a habitus characteristic:

Through the economic and social conditions which they presuppose, the different ways of relating to realities and fictions, of believing in fictions and realities they simulate, with more or less distance and detachment, are very closely linked to the different possible positions in social space and … class fractions.2

Although there are different positions in society, these elements form together to strengthen the population as a whole. The generative properties of community structures act on space arrangement.

5.10 Architectural Opportunities While design forms from social relationships and is a product of a way of life, this is only part of the situation, for if architecture merely ennobles the culture that produces it; architecture would reconfirm the hegemony of culture and help to assure its continuity.3 This in and of itself is not a problem if one inhabits utopia, but alas there are always factors that can be improved. Architecture must critically engage the ideals of a society in order to form opportunities for them to manifest. The vernacular architecture of Tanzania hails from the same pre-imperial roots from which ujamaa were accredited. These structures came from a time in which construction was guided by the body and responded to local environmental and human needs. The mud and clay architecture was born of the muscular and haptic senses more so than the visual perspective.4 Man carved out of earth a space

1 (Bourdier and Minh-Ha 1996)

2 (Bourdieu 1984)

3 (Hays 1984)

4 (Pallasmaa 2005)

Figure 5.9a Maasai dwelling

095

that could incubate his dreams and sense of self. The plasticity of the dwellings was receptive to tactility and reflected the human scale. Architecture is an extension of man in the sense that it can evolve and therefore help man change faster than biologically feasible. This allows society to thrive in climates that stray outside of the average comfort zone. It also provides an opportunity for culture to transform closer to its ideal self. “A species, once it begins to use the environment as a tool, sets in motion a whole series of new and often unforeseen environmental transactions that require further adjustments.”5 Humans have taken this step long ago and must keep readjusting to new circumstances. As society changes, buildings must also change. Not merely in the sense of new typologies, but the very buildings themselves must naturally express their age and history. Walter Benjamin champions the term “aura” and holds that “the authenticity of a thing is the essence of all that is transmissible from its beginning, ranging from its substantive duration to its testimony to the history which it has experienced.”6 Man must be able to relate to the built environment which he inhabits, and part of this relationship forms around simultaneous physical evolution through aging. This is not to say the built environment should be left to deteriorate, but instead it should morph into the warm familiar feeling of a worn-in article of clothing. Contemporary culture has shifted from a haptic and audible experience of the world to a disconnected ocular perspective according to Pallasmaa. This transference has removed man from the position of intimate participant of his environment to remote observer. Architecture must provoke the interiority of space where man is approached by the materiality of its form. Rather than the sensory deprivation caused by strictly visual structures, engaging architecture can lead to an awakening of the senses to a degree that fosters a vital creativity in the pursuit of knowledge and existential gratification. 7

All of Tanzania’s history, pre-colonial, colonial, and post-colonial are part of the nation’s spatial and temporal realities. This must critically be taken into account when methods are invoked in architectural design. Ujamaa transcends these historical adjustments as it summons the essence and ideals of Tanzanian society. Nothing physical or conceptual is left untouched by human culture.

5 (Hall 1976)

6 (Benjamin 1998)

7 (Pallasmaa 2005)

>>Design Development

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6.0 Design Development IntroductionAlterations took form across the spectrum of the design, from site layout to

material choices. The changes affected building adjacencies, construction techniques, aesthetic qualities, functionality, and theoretical strength.

6.1 Site DevelopmentThe site morphed both above and below ground. On the site surface, the

residential area clustered around the scholastic space. This allowed for a greater sense of community were the individuals who live at the end of the group can still easily access the school facilities without having to walk over one hundred yards. By reducing the isolating effects caused by a linear design, the curved undulating courtyard created better opportunities for human interaction. The movement of the administration building from the street front to the edge of the scholastic space also increased the daily use of the space by amplifying its involvement with the classrooms. The opening between the administration building units frames the scholastic courtyard much more directly (figures 6.2c and 7.1c), creating a stronger sense of procession onto the site and reinforcing the focus of the campus. The closer proximity of the various buildings forms a microclimate on the site where the buildings shade one another and strengthen their ability to passively cool the interior spaces.

A change occurred in the subterranean form of the potable water storage and rain storage, as well as septic design. Early tank design involved large collection spaces as seen in figure 6.1b. This gave way to smaller tanks spread throughout the site to allow for better flow of content. The desire to store rainwater stems from the sporadic seasonal precipitation. Table 6.1.1 shows the potential for approximately thirty inches of rainfall collection in Arusha’s major wet season. This water relieves the use of potable water both during the wet season and also the following dry season.

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Table 6.1.1 Rainwater/Month Averagemonth

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in

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Arusha rainfall:4.8 in average/month57.7 in average/year

Compared to Savannah, GA rainfall:4.1 in average/month48.61 in average/year

Table Key

Aug 1.0

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Opposite page: Figure 6.1a Site design development Top: Figure 6.1b Subsurface design

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3 Administration Management

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Reception Space with Restrooms

6.2 Administration Design Development

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View of site from Administration building

Opposite page top: Figure 6.2a Administration entriy design development Opposite page bottom: Figure 6.2b Interior administration design development

Bottom: Figure 6.2c View from administration building of scholastic space

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Cafeteria: Open to the surrounding landscape and uses a solar cooker

Figure 6.3a Cafeteria design development

6.3 Cafeteria Design Development

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Class Space

Raised platforms invite students to sit around the courtyard

6.4 Scholastic Design Development

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Rain is captured for storage under the scholastic space

Figure 6.4a Scholastic design development

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6.5 Clinic Design DevelopmentThe health clinic was reduced in scale to remove unneeded space. The parti of

the original design was based around a series of patient rooms in which visitors would wait. This inefficient western style clinic was replaced with a single doctor’s office, pharmacy, and waiting room. In addition to reducing the required space of the clinic, the market also became more efficient. It was included in the footprint of the clinic under a large roof overhang. This shift replaces a part-time used market with a multivalent space that can support the needs of the market, clinic, and adjacent athletic activities.

Clinic Waiting Room Figure 6.5a Clinic waiting room

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Waiting Room

Pharmacy

Doctor’s offi ceMarket

Restrooms with rainwater tank

Storage

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Waiting Room

Pharmacy



Storage

Figure 6.5b Clinic design development

Waiting Room

Pharmacy



Storage

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Workshops

Agrocultural Storage

Animal Shed

Agricultural Storage

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Workshops

Agrocultural Storage

Animal Shed

6.6 Workshop Design DevelopmentThe grouping of the workshop and agricultural storage spaces allowed for

the installation of a protective fence. This creates a safe place for food, animal, and equipment storage. The fence was constructed of rebar in the same pattern as the residential porch enclosures.

Figure 6.6a Workshop design development

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Residential Spaces are clustered around courtyards

Bedroom

Bedroom

Porch

Private yard for cookingShower

Toilet

Water Tank

Figure 6.7a Residential design development

6.7 Residential Design DevelopmentThe residential units developed in the transitional spaces. The front porch

originally had an adobe wall separating it from the public courtyard and a cooking space. Replacing the adobe wall with a rebar gate allowed more light to penetrate the interior spaces. The cooking was moved to the back courtyard for a more private environment.

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Figure 6.8a Structural components

Figure 6.8b Structure for classrooms and cafeteria

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Figure 6.8c Structure for the administration building

6.8 Structural Design DevelopmentThe remote location of the site required the consideration of material

transportation and onsite construction. The initial structural design proved to be too large and heavy to be easily brought to the site and erected by hand. The revised structural design relied upon the skilled local metalworkers. It is comprised of steel rebar welded at the joints. This created a web-like structure where the whole is much stronger than its parts. The open space provided by the structure allows for heat to escape overhead out of the classrooms. In place of relying on heavy columns, the adobe walls transfer the dead load of the roof down to the foundation (figure 7.2c).

>>Final Design

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7.0 Final Design IntroductionA minor material alteration brought about a major experiential change. All of

the roof membranes on the site, minus those in the agricultural and workshop area, were changed to a translucent cadet blue corrugated plastic. This design decision allowed for greater day lighting in the interior spaces while still protecting from rain and harmful UV rays. The roof shades the spaces under it but also allows for intricate shadow patterns to dance across the surfaces of the campus buildings. This continuous transition of light and shadow lets the students connect to their environment while taking part in class.

The final project design also ties back into the site context through the examination of the role of vegetation on the campus. Trees and larger plants shade both the outdoor spaces and the buildings. They also play a part in creating a buffer between various spaces on the site visually, acoustically, and physically. Gardens connect the residential units to the larger farm space furthering the study of a subtle gradation between public and private spaces. The final major role vegetation plays on the site involves nourishment. Many of the plants can be consumed and many more aid as teaching tools for those who are studying agriculture and tourism.

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7.1 Final Administration Design

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Top: Figure 7.1a Administration planBottom: Figure 7.1b Administration courtyard

1_ Bookstore2_ Restrooms with squatting toliets3_ Welcome center4_ General offi ce5_ Transitional offi ce space6_ Multifunction room

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Figure 7.1c View from administration building to scholastic space

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1_ Classroom2_ Storage3_ Library4_ Computer lab

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1_ roof_ roof membrane of translucent corrugated plastic2_ roof framing made from steel rebar3_ suspended ceiling made from adobe 4_ ring beam_ reinforced concrete5_ adobe walls6_ continuous foundation_ reinforced concrete7 _ edge strip_ concrete8_ clay and stone filling9_ compressed clay floor10_ gutter11_ blackboard

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Opposite page top: Figure 7.2a Scholastic space plan Opposite page bottom: Figure 7.2b Classroom section perspective

Bottom: Figure 7.2c Classroom Wall section

7.2 Final Scholastic Design

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3 _ W-shape beam system

4 _ adobe block structure

5 _ 16,667 gal tank _ rainwater for irrigation

6 _ water pump

8 _ perimeter seating _ adobe block

7 _ edge strip_ concrete

9 _ permanent formwork _ adobe block

10 _ reinforced concrete foundation

11 _ clay and stone filling

12 _ compressed clay floor

13 _ ground

14 _ inbound pipe _ water pumped from underground source

15 _ outbound pipe _ gravity fed to water fixtures

16 _ inbound pipe _ water pumped from underground tank

17 _ outbound pipe _ gravity fed to irrigation system

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Michael Gorham


agricultural storage/ water tower

rain is collected from the roofs and stored under-ground for irrigation

classrooms

Michael Gorham


cafeteria has views of Mt. Meru and Mt. Kilimanjaro

cook outdoors with solar cooker to reduce interior heat gain

prepare food and clean dishes inside

eat in a community setting with views of Tanzania’s countryside

the open space of the cafeteria allows for larger gatherings to expand out into the yard


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cafeteria

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Figure 7.2d Classroom perspective and elevation

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Michael Gorham


agricultural storage/ water tower

rain is collected from the roofs and stored under-ground for irrigation

classrooms

Michael Gorham


cafeteria has views of Mt. Meru and Mt. Kilimanjaro

cook outdoors with solar cooker to reduce interior heat gain

prepare food and clean dishes inside

eat in a community setting with views of Tanzania’s countryside

the open space of the cafeteria allows for larger gatherings to expand out into the yard


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cafeteria

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Figure 7.2e Computer lab perspective and exploded library view

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Bottom: Figure 7.3a Cafeteria east elevationOpposite page top: Figure 7.3b Cafeteria plan

Opposite page bottom: Figure 7.3c View from cafeteria of Mt. Meru

7.3 Final Cafeteria Design

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1_ Cooking2_ Preparing3_ Eating1

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Top: Figure 7.4a Workshop group planOpposite page: Figure 7.4b Section of watertower

1_ Workshop2_ Agricultural Storage3_ Watertower

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7.4 Final Workshop Design

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Figure 7.4c Workshop group perspective

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Top: Figure 7.5a Clinic planBottom: Figure 7.5b Clinic perspective

1_ Waiting room2_ Pharmacy3_ Doctor’s offi ce4_ Watertower5_ Restrooms6_ Market7_ Equipment storage

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7.5 Final Clinic Design

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7.6 Final Residential Design

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Top: Figure 7.6a Residential section perspectiveBottom: Figure 7.6b Residential plan

1_ Bedroom2_ Porch3_ Courtyard4_ Water tank5_ Shower6_ Toilet

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>>Final Exhibit Design

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8.0 Final Exhibit Design

Opposite: Figure 8.0a Introduction board (15”x30”)

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Left: Figure 8.0b Main board (48”x48”)

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Left: Figure 8.0c Site board (30”x30”)

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Left: Figure 8.0d Schematic classroom design board (30”x30”)

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Left: Figure 8.0e Workshop and watertower design board (30”x15”)Below: Figure 8.0f Classroom and cafeteria design board (30”x15”)

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Figure 8.0g Exhibit layout

>>Conclusion

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9.0 ConclusionThe use of the concept of ujamaa to frame design decisions has generated a

communal essence in the Teacher Training Center. This study has also allowed for a shift in the understanding of ujamaa. The theory is advantageous in forming an understanding of the potential for education and architecture in Tanzanian. The premise extends beyond the confines of the nation and aids in putting mankind’s current situation into perspective. Cultural misunderstandings and human initiated environmental degradation can be mitigated through enacting ‘I am strong because we are strong’. This may be a lofty ideal but genuine change is born from acting upon a goal fed by a strong idea.

Over the course of this investigation three major influences aided in the synthesis of information collected. One primary driver for processing the content of this study was knowing when and where to go for assistance. The committee was comprized of three knowledgable members that brought to the project a diverse set of perspectives. Each member played a vital role in strengthening both the content and articulation of the subject matter. Their efforts in counselling were supported by the multifarious skills and ideas of both the studio culture and family that created the context for the formation of this cogitation. In addition to the people both directly and indirectly involved in the project, reflection on the research through various theoretical frameworks bolstered both the quality of the product and understanding of it. The final influence that aided the process of design was entering peripheral sources of information into the scope of the work. By examining seemingly loosely related topics, connections could be made that fleshed out the project at the macro scale.

Process difficulties can be broken down into physical and cultural constraints. Physically the site was isolated and barren. There were seemingly few parameters on which to base the site organization. Access to the site was limited to a rough dirt road. This limited materials and construction techniques. Culturally the project faced the potential for misinterpretation on at the level of the designer and local inhabitants. Ujamaa connotes contrasting meanings for various people.

Further investigation could stem from this research along the avenues of advancing education though the process of design and architecture, development’s effects on architecture, generational understandings of space and architecture, and haptic architecture.

Ujamaa propelled this project towards a critical regional architecture that built upon local traditions while looking to what could be possible and needed in the near future. The study of culture, tradition, and local phenomenal significance can be taken to later projects. Context, social and environmental factors, can focus architecture in a meaningful way. Architecture should be able to manifest not just a reflection of a culture’s current conditions, but it must take into account a flow, potential, and future

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of people and their environments. The Teacher Training Center speaks of the value of Tanzania’s resources from both a physical and immaterial dimension. Intensions, values, and goals are ingrained in the design of any of man’s artifacts, but this is particularly true for the environments people create through architecture.

162

Works Cited

Waters, Tony. “Markets and Morality: American Relations with Tanzania.” African Studies Quarterly 8, no. 3 (2006): 46-53.Webster, Leila, and Peter Fidler, “ The Informal Sector and Microfinance Institutions in West Africa.” (Methuen) 1996.Wedin, Asa. “Language Ideologies and Schooled Education in Rural Tanzania; The Case of Karagwe.” (Stockholm University) 8, no. 6 (2005): 568-589.Wedin, Asa. “Literacy Practices in Rural Tanzania: The Case of Karagwe.” Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 27, no. 3 (2006): 225-240.World Bank. “Adjustment in Africa: Reform, Results and the Road Ahead.” (Oxford University Press) 1994.Yu, Guoxing, and Sally M. Thomas. “Exploring School Effects Across Southern and Eastern African School Systems and in Tanzania.” Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy and Practice 15, no. 3 (2008): 283-305.Vavrus, Frances. “Uncoupling the Articulation Between Girls’ Education and Tradition in Tanzania.” Gender and Education 14, no. 4 (2002): 367-389.Vreed, Gert-Jan de, and Rabson J. S. Mgaya. “Technology Supported Collaborative Learning for Higher Education: Comparative Case Studies in Tanzania.” Inforamtion Technology for Development 12, no. 2 (2006): 133-130.Vreede, Gert-Jan de, Rabson J. S. Mgaya, and Sajda Qureshi. “Field Experiences with Collaboration Technology: A Comparative Study in Tanzania and South Africa.” Information Technology for Development, no. 10 (2003): 201-219.Ayittey, G. B. N. Africa in Chaos. New York, New York: St. Martin Griffin, 1999.Alexander, Christopher, Sara Ishikawa, Murray Silverstein, Max Jacobson, Ingrid Fiksdahl-King, and Shlomo Angel. A Pattern Language: Towns, Buildings, Construction. New York, New York: Oxford University Press, 1977.Anangisye, William A.L. “Educating Teachers, the Ethical Dimension of Teacher Professionalism in Tanzania.” Compare (British Association for International and Comparative Education) 38, no. 1 (January 2008): 133-134.Andersson, Jessica, and Daniel Slunge. “Tanzania - Environment Policy Brief.” Goteborg University, 2005.Architecture for Humanity. ww.architectureforhumanity.org (accessed 2010 23-September).—. Design Like You Give A Damn, Architectural Responses to Humanitarian Crises. New York, New York: Metropolis Books, 2006.Architects, Heikkinen-Komeonen. Heikkinen-Komonen Projects. 1996. http://www.heikkinen-komonen.fi (accessed January 4, 2011).Arthur, Jo. “Perspectives on Educational Language Policy and its Implementation in African Classrooms: a Comparative Study of Botswana and Tanzania.” Compare 31, no. 3 (2001): 346-362.Bush, R. “Africa’s Environmental Crisis. Challenging the Orthodoxies.” Review of African Political Economy (ROAPE Publications Ltd.), no. 74 (1997): 503-513.BBC. Tanzania Profile. 2010. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/country_profiles/1072330.stm (accessed January 5, 2011).Bell, Bryan, and Katie Wakeford, . Expanding Architecture Design as Activism. New York, New York: Metropolis Books, 2008.Benjamin, Walter. The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction. Los

163

Angeles, California: UCLA School of Theater, Film and Television, 1998.Bennell, Paul, Faustin Mukyanuzi, Maurice Kasogela, Francis Mutashubirwa, and Mikkel Klim. “Artisan Training and Employment Outcomes in Tanzania.” Compare 36, no. 1 (2006): 73-84.Bhalalusesa, Eustella Peter. “Education for all in Tanzania: Rhetoric or Reality?” Adult Basic Education (University of Dar es Salaam) 15, no. 2 (2005): 67-83.Bhalalusesa, Eustella Peter. “The Dynamics of Teaching at a Distance in Tanzania: Reflections From the Field.” Open Learning (University of Dar es Salaam) 21, no. 1 (2006): 49-58.Bourdieu, Pierre. Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1984.Bourdier, Jean-Paul, and Trinh T. Minh-Ha. Drawn From African Dwellings. Indianapolis, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1996.Booth, D. “Timing and Sequencing of Agricultural Policy Reform.” Development Policy Review 9, no. 4 (1991): 353-380.Bryceson, Deborah Fahy. “African Rural Labour, Income Diversification and Livelihood Approaches: A Long-Term Development Perspective.” Review of African Political Economy, no. 80 (2000): 171-189.Bryceson, Deborah Fahy. “Agrarian Vista or Vortex: African Rural Livelihood Policies.” Review of African Political Economy 31, no. 102 (2004): 617-629.Cline-Cole, Reginald, and Phil O’Keefe. “Mainstreaming the African Envrionment in Development?” Review of African Political Economy (ROAPE Publications Ltd.), no. 109 (2006): 377-390.Cox, Rachel S. “Ecotourism.” CQ Researcher 16, no. 37 (2006): 866-888.Cronon, William. “The Trouble with Wilderness; or, Getting Back to the Wrong Nature.” In Uncommon Ground: Rethinking the Human Place in Nature, edited by William Cronon. New York, New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1996.Easterly, William, and Yaw Nyarko. “Is Brain Drain Good for Africa?” In Skilled Immigration Today: Prospects, Problems and Policies, 316-362. Oxford University Press, 2009.Esteva, Gustavo. “Development.” In The Development Dictionary , edited by Wolfgang Sachs, 6-25. London: Zed Books, 1992.Ergas, Zaki. “Why Did the Ujamaa Village Policy Fail? - Towards a Global Analysis.” The Journal of Modern African Studies (Cambridge University Press) 18, no. 3 (September 1980): 387-410.Farrington, J., D. Carney, C. Ashley, and D. Turton. “Sustainable Livelihoods in Practice: Early Applications of Concepts in Rural Areas.” ODI Natural Resource Perspectives, no. 42 (June 1999): 1-13.Fox, J. A. “The World Bank and Social Capital: Contesting the Concept in Practice.” Journal of International Development 9, no. 7 (1997): 963-971.Fox, J. A., and L. D. Brown. “The Struggle for Accountabliity: The World Bank, NGOs, and Grassroots Movements.” (MIT Press) 1998.Galabawa, C. J. “Implementing Educational Policies in Tanzania.” African Technical Department Series, World Bank Discussion Papers, 1990.Green, Maia. “Globalizing Development in Tanzania: Policy Franchising through Participatory Project Management.” Critique of Anthropology 23, no. 123 (2003).Green, Maia. “Globalizing Development in Tanzania: Policy Franchising through Participatory Project Management.” Critique of Anthropology (SAGE) 23, no. 123 (2003).

164

Ibhawoh, Bonny, and J. I. Dibua. “Deconstructing Ujamaa: The Lecacy of Julius Nyerere in the Quest for Social and Economic Development in Africa.” African Journal of Political Science (African Association of Political Science) 8, no. 1 (2003): 60-83.International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD). “5 Rio Documents.” Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, Agenda 21. Ishengoma, Johnson M., and Deborah J. Youngman. “Educational Equity in Tanzania: The Imperiled Promise of Reform.” Journal of Education (Boston University) 181, no. 1 (1999): 59-73.Humanity, Architecture for. Design Like You Give A Damn, Architectural Responses to Humanitarian Crises. Edited by Architecture for Humanity. New York, New York: Metropolis Books, 2006.Hays, K. Michael. “Critical Architecture: Between Culture and Form.” Perspecta (Yale School of Archtiecture) 21 (1984): 14-29.Hall, Edward T. Beyond Culture. Garden City, New York: Anchor Press, 1976.Harvey, David. A Brief History of Neoliberalism. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.Jucker, Rolf. “Have the Cake and Eat It: Ecojustice Versus Development? Is it Possible to Reconcile Social and Economic Equity, Ecological Sustainability, and Human Development? Some Implications for Ecojustice Education.” (University of Wales Swansea) 10-26.Johnson Jr., Odis. “Ecology in Educational Theory: Thoughts on Stratification, Social Mobility and Proximal Capital.” Urban Review, no. 40 (2008): 227-246.Jones, Samantha. “A Political Ecology of Wildlife Conservation in Africa.” Review of African Political Economy 33, no. 109 (2006): 483-495.Kumar, Satish. “Simplicity for Christmas and Always.” Resurgence, no. 203 (2000): 3.Karliner, Joshua. The Corporate Planet. Ecology and Politics in the Age of Globalization. San Francisco, California: Sierra Club Books, 1997.Kéré, Diébédo Francis. Schulbausteine fur Gando e.V. Schulbausteine fur Gando. 2001. www.fuergando.de (accessed January 2, 2011).Kjekshus, Helge. “The Tanzanian Villagization Policy: Implementational Lessons and Ecological Dimensions.” Canadian Journal of African Studies (Canadian Association of African Studies) 11, no. 2 (1977): 269-282.Lawuo, Z. E. “Education and Social Change in a Rural Community.” (Dar es Salaam University Press) 1984.Lassibille, Gerard, and Jee-Peng Tan. “Are Private Schools More Efficient Than Public Schools? Evidence from Tanzania.” Education Economics 9, no. 2 (2001): 145-172.Loxley, John, and John Saul. “Multinationals, Workers and the Parastatals in Tanzania.” Review of African Political Economy 2 (1975): 54-88.Neke, S. M. “THe Medium of Instruction in Tanzania: Reflections on Language, Educaiton and Society.” Changing English 12, no. 1 (April 2005): 73-83.Niesenbaum, Richard A., and Barbara Gorka. “Community-Based Eco-Education: Sound Ecology and Effective Education.” The Journal of Environmental Education 33, no. 1 (2001): 12-16.Macpherson, Ian. “The Rights-Based Approach to Adult Education: Implications for NGO-Government Partnerships in Southern Tanzania.” Compare 39, no. 2 (2009): 263-279.

165

McDonough, William, and Michael Braungart. Cradle to Cradle, Remaking the Way We Make Things. New York, New York: North Point Press, 2002.Middleton, J., P. O’Keefe, and S. Moyo. “The Tears of the Crocodile. From Rio to Reality in the Developing World.” London and Boulder (Pluto Press), 1993.Mohamed, H. I. “Classroom Disourse adn Discursive Practices in Higher Education in Tanzania.” Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 29, no. 2 (2008): 95-101.Payer, Cheryl. “Tanzania and the World Bank.” Third World Quarterly (Taylor & Francis, Ltd.) 5, no. 4 (October 1983): 791-813.Payer, Cheryl. “The World Bank and the Small Farmer.” Journal of Peace Research 16, no. 4 (1979): 297-8.Pallasmaa, Juhani. The Eyes of the Skin: Architecture and the Senses. Chichester, West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons Ltd., 2005.Powell, Mike. “Which Knowledge? Whose Reality? An Overview of Knowledge Used in the Development Sector.” Development in Practice 16, no. 6 (2006): 518-532.Sachs, Wolfgang, Reinhard Loske, and Manfred, et a!. Linz. Greening The North: A Post-industrial Blueprint for Ecology ami Equity. London: Zed Books, 1998.Schneider, Leander. “Considering Tanzanian-Style Rural Socialism: One More Time?” Africa - The Next Liberation Struggle. Montreal: Concordia University, 2004. 7.Schneider, Leander. “Freedom and Unfreedom in Rural Development: Julius Nyerere, Ujamaa Vijijini, and Villagization.” Canadian Journal of African Studies (Canadian Association of African Studies) 38, no. 2 (2004): 344-492.Shumbusho, G. N., and F. Banda. “‘Fueli’ = ‘hatabu’: issues in thte harmonisation and standardisation of Kiswahili scientific terminology in Tanzania primary schools.” Language, Culture and Curriculum 23, no. 2 (Jully 2010): 139-152.Sharma, A., R. Mahapatra, and C. Polycarp. “Dialog of the Deaf.” Down to Earth, September 2002: 25-27.Shivji, Issa G. Tanzania: The Silent Class Struggle. Vol. 2, in Socialism in Tanzania, edited by Lionel Cliffe and John Saul. Dar es Salaam: East Africa Publishing House, 1970.Rural Studio, Auburn University. Rural Studio. 2011. www.cadc.auburn.edu (accessed January 4, 2011).Rael, Ronald. Earth Architecture. New York, New York: Princeton Press, 2009.Reynolds, Michael. Earthship Biotecture buildings global. 2011. http://earthship.com/ (accessed January 4, 2011).Roy, Marc-Andre, and David Wheeler. “A Survey of Micro-Entrerprise in Urban West Africa: Drivers Haping the Sector.” Development in Practice 16, no. 5 (August 2006): 452-464.Rosling, Hans. World Map. www.gapminder.org (accessed 2010 29-October).Turshen, M., C. Barker, and P. O’Keefe. “Editorial.” ROAPE, no. 48 (1988): 1-4.Thaxton, Melissa. “Integrating Population, Health, and Environment in Tanzania.” Population Reference Bureau, USAID, 2007.“The Steady-State Economy; Toward a Political Economy of Biophysical Equilibrium and Moral Growth.” In Toward a Steady-State Economv, edited by Herman E. Daly, 149-174. San Francisco, California, 1973.

166

Bibliography

Waters, Tony. “Markets and Morality: American Relations with Tanzania.” African Studies Quarterly 8, no. 3 (2006): 46-53.Webster, Leila, and Peter Fidler, “ The Informal Sector and Microfinance Institutions in West Africa.” (Methuen) 1996.Wedin, Asa. “Language Ideologies and Schooled Education in Rural Tanzania; The Case of Karagwe.” (Stockholm University) 8, no. 6 (2005): 568-589.Wedin, Asa. “Literacy Practices in Rural Tanzania: The Case of Karagwe.” Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 27, no. 3 (2006): 225-240.World Bank. “Adjustment in Africa: Reform, Results and the Road Ahead.” (Oxford University Press) 1994.Yu, Guoxing, and Sally M. Thomas. “Exploring School Effects Across Southern and Eastern African School Systems and in Tanzania.” Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy and Practice 15, no. 3 (2008): 283-305.Vavrus, Frances. “Uncoupling the Articulation Between Girls’ Education and Tradition in Tanzania.” Gender and Education 14, no. 4 (2002): 367-389.Vreed, Gert-Jan de, and Rabson J. S. Mgaya. “Technology Supported Collaborative Learning for Higher Education: Comparative Case Studies in Tanzania.” Inforamtion Technology for Development 12, no. 2 (2006): 133-130.Vreede, Gert-Jan de, Rabson J. S. Mgaya, and Sajda Qureshi. “Field Experiences with Collaboration Technology: A Comparative Study in Tanzania and South Africa.” Information Technology for Development, no. 10 (2003): 201-219.Ayittey, G. B. N. Africa in Chaos. New York, New York: St. Martin Griffin, 1999.Alexander, Christopher, Sara Ishikawa, Murray Silverstein, Max Jacobson, Ingrid Fiksdahl-King, and Shlomo Angel. A Pattern Language: Towns, Buildings, Construction. New York, New York: Oxford University Press, 1977.Anangisye, William A.L. “Educating Teachers, the Ethical Dimension of Teacher Professionalism in Tanzania.” Compare (British Association for International and Comparative Education) 38, no. 1 (January 2008): 133-134.Andersson, Jessica, and Daniel Slunge. “Tanzania - Environment Policy Brief.” Goteborg University, 2005.Architecture for Humanity. ww.architectureforhumanity.org (accessed September 23, 2010).—. Design Like You Give A Damn, Architectural Responses to Humanitarian Crises. New York, New York: Metropolis Books, 2006.Architects, Heikkinen-Komeonen. Heikkinen-Komonen Projects. 1996. http://www.heikkinen-komonen.fi (accessed January 4, 2011).Arthur, Jo. “Perspectives on Educational Language Policy and its Implementation in African Classrooms: a Comparative Study of Botswana and Tanzania.” Compare 31, no. 3 (2001): 346-362.Bush, R. “Africa’s Environmental Crisis. Challenging the Orthodoxies.” Review of African Political Economy (ROAPE Publications Ltd.), no. 74 (1997): 503-513.BBC. Tanzania Profile. 2010. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/country_profiles/1072330.stm (accessed January 5, 2011).Bell, Bryan, and Katie Wakeford, . Expanding Architecture Design as Activism. New York, New York: Metropolis Books, 2008.Benjamin, Walter. The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction. Los

167

Angeles, California: UCLA School of Theater, Film and Television, 1998.Bennell, Paul, Faustin Mukyanuzi, Maurice Kasogela, Francis Mutashubirwa, and Mikkel Klim. “Artisan Training and Employment Outcomes in Tanzania.” Compare 36, no. 1 (2006): 73-84.Bhalalusesa, Eustella Peter. “Education for all in Tanzania: Rhetoric or Reality?” Adult Basic Education (University of Dar es Salaam) 15, no. 2 (2005): 67-83.Bhalalusesa, Eustella Peter. “The Dynamics of Teaching at a Distance in Tanzania: Reflections From the Field.” Open Learning (University of Dar es Salaam) 21, no. 1 (2006): 49-58.Bourdieu, Pierre. Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1984.Bourdier, Jean-Paul, and Trinh T. Minh-Ha. Drawn From African Dwellings. Indianapolis, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1996.Booth, D. “Timing and Sequencing of Agricultural Policy Reform.” Development Policy Review 9, no. 4 (1991): 353-380.Bryceson, Deborah Fahy. “African Rural Labour, Income Diversification and Livelihood Approaches: A Long-Term Development Perspective.” Review of African Political Economy, no. 80 (2000): 171-189.Bryceson, Deborah Fahy. “Agrarian Vista or Vortex: African Rural Livelihood Policies.” Review of African Political Economy 31, no. 102 (2004): 617-629.Cline-Cole, Reginald, and Phil O’Keefe. “Mainstreaming the African Envrionment in Development?” Review of African Political Economy (ROAPE Publications Ltd.), no. 109 (2006): 377-390.Cox, Rachel S. “Ecotourism.” CQ Researcher 16, no. 37 (2006): 866-888.Cronon, William. “The Trouble with Wilderness; or, Getting Back to the Wrong Nature.” In Uncommon Ground: Rethinking the Human Place in Nature, edited by William Cronon. New York, New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1996.Easterly, William, and Yaw Nyarko. “Is Brain Drain Good for Africa?” In Skilled Immigration Today: Prospects, Problems and Policies, 316-362. Oxford University Press, 2009.Esteva, Gustavo. “Development.” In The Development Dictionary , edited by Wolfgang Sachs, 6-25. London: Zed Books, 1992.Ergas, Zaki. “Why Did the Ujamaa Village Policy Fail? - Towards a Global Analysis.” The Journal of Modern African Studies (Cambridge University Press) 18, no. 3 (September 1980): 387-410.Farrington, J., D. Carney, C. Ashley, and D. Turton. “Sustainable Livelihoods in Practice: Early Applications of Concepts in Rural Areas.” ODI Natural Resource Perspectives, no. 42 (June 1999): 1-13.Fox, J. A. “The World Bank and Social Capital: Contesting the Concept in Practice.” Journal of International Development 9, no. 7 (1997): 963-971.Fox, J. A., and L. D. Brown. “The Struggle for Accountabliity: The World Bank, NGOs, and Grassroots Movements.” (MIT Press) 1998.Galabawa, C. J. “Implementing Educational Policies in Tanzania.” African Technical Department Series, World Bank Discussion Papers, 1990.Green, Maia. “Globalizing Development in Tanzania: Policy Franchising through Participatory Project Management.” Critique of Anthropology 23, no. 123 (2003).Green, Maia. “Globalizing Development in Tanzania: Policy Franchising through Participatory Project Management.” Critique of Anthropology (SAGE) 23, no. 123 (2003).

168

Ibhawoh, Bonny, and J. I. Dibua. “Deconstructing Ujamaa: The Lecacy of Julius Nyerere in the Quest for Social and Economic Development in Africa.” African Journal of Political Science (African Association of Political Science) 8, no. 1 (2003): 60-83.International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD). “5 Rio Documents.” Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, Agenda 21. Ishengoma, Johnson M., and Deborah J. Youngman. “Educational Equity in Tanzania: The Imperiled Promise of Reform.” Journal of Education (Boston University) 181, no. 1 (1999): 59-73.Humanity, Architecture for. Design Like You Give A Damn, Architectural Responses to Humanitarian Crises. Edited by Architecture for Humanity. New York, New York: Metropolis Books, 2006.Hays, K. Michael. “Critical Architecture: Between Culture and Form.” Perspecta (Yale School of Archtiecture) 21 (1984): 14-29.Hall, Edward T. Beyond Culture. Garden City, New York: Anchor Press, 1976.Harvey, David. A Brief History of Neoliberalism. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.Jucker, Rolf. “Have the Cake and Eat It: Ecojustice Versus Development? Is it Possible to Reconcile Social and Economic Equity, Ecological Sustainability, and Human Development? Some Implications for Ecojustice Education.” (University of Wales Swansea) 10-26.Johnson Jr., Odis. “Ecology in Educational Theory: Thoughts on Stratification, Social Mobility and Proximal Capital.” Urban Review, no. 40 (2008): 227-246.Jones, Samantha. “A Political Ecology of Wildlife Conservation in Africa.” Review of African Political Economy 33, no. 109 (2006): 483-495.Kumar, Satish. “Simplicity for Christmas and Always.” Resurgence, no. 203 (2000): 3.Karliner, Joshua. The Corporate Planet. Ecology and Politics in the Age of Globalization. San Francisco, California: Sierra Club Books, 1997.Kéré, Diébédo Francis. Schulbausteine fur Gando e.V. Schulbausteine fur Gando. 2001. www.fuergando.de (accessed January 2, 2011).Kjekshus, Helge. “The Tanzanian Villagization Policy: Implementational Lessons and Ecological Dimensions.” Canadian Journal of African Studies (Canadian Association of African Studies) 11, no. 2 (1977): 269-282.Lawuo, Z. E. “Education and Social Change in a Rural Community.” (Dar es Salaam University Press) 1984.Lassibille, Gerard, and Jee-Peng Tan. “Are Private Schools More Efficient Than Public Schools? Evidence from Tanzania.” Education Economics 9, no. 2 (2001): 145-172.Loxley, John, and John Saul. “Multinationals, Workers and the Parastatals in Tanzania.” Review of African Political Economy 2 (1975): 54-88.Neke, S. M. “THe Medium of Instruction in Tanzania: Reflections on Language, Educaiton and Society.” Changing English 12, no. 1 (April 2005): 73-83.Niesenbaum, Richard A., and Barbara Gorka. “Community-Based Eco-Education: Sound Ecology and Effective Education.” The Journal of Environmental Education 33, no. 1 (2001): 12-16.Macpherson, Ian. “The Rights-Based Approach to Adult Education: Implications for NGO-Government Partnerships in Southern Tanzania.” Compare 39, no. 2 (2009): 263-279.

169

McDonough, William, and Michael Braungart. Cradle to Cradle, Remaking the Way We Make Things. New York, New York: North Point Press, 2002.Middleton, J., P. O’Keefe, and S. Moyo. “The Tears of the Crocodile. From Rio to Reality in the Developing World.” London and Boulder (Pluto Press), 1993.Mohamed, H. I. “Classroom Disourse adn Discursive Practices in Higher Education in Tanzania.” Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 29, no. 2 (2008): 95-101.Payer, Cheryl. “Tanzania and the World Bank.” Third World Quarterly (Taylor & Francis, Ltd.) 5, no. 4 (October 1983): 791-813.Payer, Cheryl. “The World Bank and the Small Farmer.” Journal of Peace Research 16, no. 4 (1979): 297-8.Pallasmaa, Juhani. The Eyes of the Skin: Architecture and the Senses. Chichester, West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons Ltd., 2005.Powell, Mike. “Which Knowledge? Whose Reality? An Overview of Knowledge Used in the Development Sector.” Development in Practice 16, no. 6 (2006): 518-532.Sachs, Wolfgang, Reinhard Loske, and Manfred, et a!. Linz. Greening The North: A Post-industrial Blueprint for Ecology ami Equity. London: Zed Books, 1998.Schneider, Leander. “Considering Tanzanian-Style Rural Socialism: One More Time?” Africa - The Next Liberation Struggle. Montreal: Concordia University, 2004. 7.Schneider, Leander. “Freedom and Unfreedom in Rural Development: Julius Nyerere, Ujamaa Vijijini, and Villagization.” Canadian Journal of African Studies (Canadian Association of African Studies) 38, no. 2 (2004): 344-492.Shumbusho, G. N., and F. Banda. “‘Fueli’ = ‘hatabu’: issues in thte harmonisation and standardisation of Kiswahili scientific terminology in Tanzania primary schools.” Language, Culture and Curriculum 23, no. 2 (Jully 2010): 139-152.Sharma, A., R. Mahapatra, and C. Polycarp. “Dialog of the Deaf.” Down to Earth, September 2002: 25-27.Shivji, Issa G. Tanzania: The Silent Class Struggle. Vol. 2, in Socialism in Tanzania, edited by Lionel Cliffe and John Saul. Dar es Salaam: East Africa Publishing House, 1970.Rural Studio, Auburn University. Rural Studio. 2011. www.cadc.auburn.edu (accessed January 4, 2011).Rael, Ronald. Earth Architecture. New York, New York: Princeton Press, 2009.Reynolds, Michael. Earthship Biotecture buildings global. 2011. http://earthship.com/ (accessed January 4, 2011).Roy, Marc-Andre, and David Wheeler. “A Survey of Micro-Entrerprise in Urban West Africa: Drivers Haping the Sector.” Development in Practice 16, no. 5 (August 2006): 452-464.Rosling, Hans. World Map. www.gapminder.org (accessed 2010 29-October).Turshen, M., C. Barker, and P. O’Keefe. “Editorial.” ROAPE, no. 48 (1988): 1-4.Thaxton, Melissa. “Integrating Population, Health, and Environment in Tanzania.” Population Reference Bureau, USAID, 2007.“The Steady-State Economy; Toward a Political Economy of Biophysical Equilibrium and Moral Growth.” In Toward a Steady-State Economv, edited by Herman E. Daly, 149-174. San Francisco, California, 1973.

retheorizing ujamaa | architecture for a strong community: teacher training center

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