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Fire and RescueService Manual

Volume 2Fire Service Operations

Safe Work at Height

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THE FIRE SERVICE COLLEGE LIBRARYMORETON-IN-MARSHGLOUCESTERSHIRE

GL560RH

[email protected]

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The Fire ServiceCollege

00155071 London: TSO

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Purpose of this Guidance

Scope

Acknowledgments

Contents

Chapter 2 - Operational Practice

2.1 General Techniques2.1.1 Collective Safeguards for Arresting Falls2.1.2 Individual Protection

2.2 Access Techniques2.2.1 Working Platforms (General)2.2.2 Scaffolding and Access Towers

Chapter 1 - trategic Framework

The Legal Framework

1.1 Introduction

1.2 European Legislation

1.3 United Kingdom Legislation1.3.1 The Health and Safety at Work Etc. Act 19741.3.2 Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 19991.3.3 Work at Height Regulations 2005 (WAHR)1.3.4 Confined Spaces Regulations 19971.3.5 Personal Protective Equipment at Work Regulations 1992 and Personal Protective

Equipment Regulations 2002 (PEP)1.3.6 The Provision and Use of Work Equipment Regulations 1998 (PUWER)1.3.7 Lifting Operations and Lifting Equipment Regulations 1998 (LOLER)

1.4 Organisational Roles and Responsibilities1.4.1 Fire and Rescue Authorities1.4.2 Principal Officers/Brigade Managers1.4.3 Management of Work at Height Activities

1.5 Key Hazards and Risks1.5.1 Equipment1.5.2 Nature of the Work1.5.3 Work Site and Prevailing Environmental Conditions1.5.4 Equipment Use

1.6 Developing Safe Systems of Work1.6.1 Clothing1.6.2 Before Work at Height1.6.3 During Work at Height1.6.4 Post Work at Height

© Crown Copyright 2006

Published with the permission of the Department for Communities and Local Governmenton behalf of the Controller of Her Majesty's Stationery Office

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This publication, excluding the Royal Arms and any logos. may be reproduced free of charge inany format or medium for research, private study or for internal circulation within an organisation.This is subject to it being reproduced accurately and not used in a misleading context. The materialmust be acknowledged as Crown copyright and the title of the publication specified.

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Cover photographs: Chris Hawkins; The National Rope Users Group; Hampshire Fire and Rescue ServicePart-title page photograph: Chris Hawkins

Chapter 3 - Equipment

3.1 Selection of Equipment3.2 Ladders and Aerial Appliances

3.2.1 Portable Ladders For Fire Service Use3.2.2 Thrntable Ladders (TL)3.2.3 Hydraulic Platforms (HP)3.2.4 Aerial Ladder Platforms (ALP)

3.3 Working Platforms

3.4 Textile Based Equipment3.4.1 General3.4.2 Webbing Slings3.4.3 Lanyards3.4.4 Safety and Work Harnesses

3.5 Metal-Based Equipment3.5.1 General3.5.2 Connectors (karabiners, safety hooks, screw links)3.5.3 Pulleys3.5.4 Wire Strops3.5.5 General Metal Hardware3.5.6 Rope Control Devices

2.2.3 Mobile Elevated Work Platforms (MEWPs)2.2.4 Continuity of Means of Protection2.2.5 Portable Ladders2.2.6 Fixed Ladders2.2.7 Ropes, Harnesses and Associated Equipment

2.3 Systems of Work2.3.1 Anchors and Anchor Systems

2.4 Securing Casualties, Equipment and Other Items2.4.1 Knots2.4.2 Lifting, Lowering and Hauling2.4.3 Winches and Pulley Systems2.4.4 Mechanical Advantage and Velocity Ratio2.4.5 Securing Casualties and Performing Rescues from Height2.4.6 Casualty Management

2.5 Operational Environments2.5.1 Existing Places of Work2.5.2 Unprotected Edges2.5.3 Roofs - Flat Roofs, Sloping Roofs and Fragile Roofs2.5.4 Flat Roofs2.5.5 Sloping Roofs2.5.6 Fragile Roofs/Surfaces2.5.7 FRS Vehicles2.5.8 Service and Utility Structures2.5.9 Trees2.5.10 Collapsed Structures2.5.11 Working Near Water2.5.12 Confined Spaces

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3.5.7 Tripods/Quadpods/Frames3.5.8 Stretchers

3.6 Ropes3.6.1 General3.6.2 Categories of Rope3.6.3 Associated Rope Working Equipment

3.7 Equipment Identification

3.8 Stowage of Ropes and Associated Equipment

3.9 Equipment Inspections, Examinations and Tests3.9.1 Pre-use and after-use checks3.9.2 Detailed Inspection3.9.3 Maintenance3.9.4 Record Keeping3.9.5 Disposal of Equipment

Chapter 4 - Training

4.1 General Requirements4.1.1 Training Structure4.1.2 Instructors

4.2 Training Requirements for all Firefighters

4.3 Specialist Rope Operator Support Duties

4.4 Specialist Rope Operator Duties

4.5 Rope Work Supervisor

4.6 Rope Work Instructor

4.7 Technical Rope Work Officer

4.8 Continuation Training and CPD

4.9 Use of Live Casualties

Bibliography

Glossary

Appendix 'A' - Work at Height Flow Chart

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Safe Work at Height

Purpose of this Guidance

The Work at Height Regulations 2005 (WAHR)are made under the Health and Safety at Work etc.Act 1974 (HSW Act) and bring into effect therequirements of Council Directive 2001l45/ECthat amended the Use of Work EquipmentDirective (89/655/EC). This amendment is knownas the 'Temporary Work at Height Directive'. Theprimary objective of WAHR is to ensure thatall work at height is performed safely. These

Scope

Work at height covers all work activities wherethere is a possibility that a fall likely to result inpersonal injury could occur. Work at Heightspecifically includes access to and exit from aplace of work. Examples of work at height include:

• All training or work where there is a risk offalling.

• Using a ladder.• Working on an aerial appliance decking or

platform.• Working on the roof of a vehicle.• Rope rescue work and training.• Working in confined spaces.• Working on cliffs.• Tower crane rescues.• Fire fighting and rescues on embankments,

docks and quays.

Regulations apply to all workplaces where theHSW Act applies.

This document gives guidance on legislationrelevant to work at height and identifies goodpractice, which supports safe systems of work. Theguidance is for use by fire and rescue services forplanning operational service delivery and training.

• Offshore fire fighting and rescue.• Climbing fixed structures.• Working close to an excavation area where

someone could fall.• Working near a fragile surface.• Vehicle and property maintenance.

The following are not considered to be work atheight, but they would need to be covered by riskassessments if they posed a significant risk.

• Slips and trips on the level.• Falls on permanent stairs if there is no

structural work or maintenance beingundertaken.

• Work on the upper floors of a building wherethere is no risk from falling.

Safe Work at Height VU

VUl Fire and Rescue Service Manual

k at Height

Her Majesty's Fire Service InspectorateLeicestershire Fire and Rescue ServiceCambridgeshire Fire and Rescue ServiceCleveland Fire BrigadeHampshire Fire and Rescue ServiceBuckinghamshire Fire and Rescue ServiceEssex County Fire and Rescue ServiceSouth Wales Fire and Rescue ServiceHer Majesty's Fire Service InspectorateEssex County Fire and Rescue Service

Diane BellChris BilbyLawrie BoothJohn BurkePhil CrookRoy HaroldGary JefferySteve JonesDenys RamaMark Wilson

Chief Fire Officers' AssociationFire and Rescue Service National Rope Users' GroupHealth and Safety Executive

Acknowledgments

The contribution of the following individuals and organisations to theproduction of this manual is acknowledged:

Safe Work at Height

Chapter 1 - Strategic Framework

Chapter

THE LEGAL FRAMEWORK 1.3

.J Introduction

United Kingdom Legis ation

1.3.1 The Health and Safety at Work etc.Act 1974

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This chapter attempts to provide an overview ofthe legal framework which fire and rescue services(FRS) have to operate within. It gives an insightinto the legislative requirements, both from the UKand from the EU, in the form of EU Directives,which govern UK health and safety law.

1.2 European Legislation

The Single European Act of 1987 amended theTreaty of Rome permitting the Community tointroduce minimum standards for the health andsafety of workers. The means of standard settingis by Directives; these bind each member statebut leave to each the means of implementingDirectives into its own law.

The Framework Directive is the first and mostimportant of the post-1987 Directives and wasincorporated in to UK law through theManagement of Health and Safety at WorkRegulations 1992. Employers are required to:

• Avoid risks to safety and health.• Evaluate risks which cannot be avoided,• Combat risks at source, adapting the work to

the individual.• Adapt to technical progress.• Replace the dangerous by the non-dangerous

or the less dangerous.• Develop a coherent overall prevention policy.• Give collective protective measures priority

over individual measures.• Give appropriate instructions to workers.

General duties of employers to their employees

(1) It shall be the duty of every employer toensure, so far as is reasonably practicable, thehealth, safety and welfare at work of all hisemployees.

(2) Without prejudice to the generality of anemployer's duty under the precedingsubsection, the matters to which that dutyextends include in particular -

(a) the provision and maintenance of plantand systems of work that are, so far as isreasonably practicable, safe andwithout risks to health;

(b) arrangements for ensuring, so far asis reasonably practicable, safety andabsence of risks to health in connectionwith the use, handling, storage andtransport of articles and substances;

(c) the provision of such information,instruction, training and supervisionas is necessary to ensure, so far as isreasonably practicable, the health andsafety at work of his employees;

(d) so far as is reasonably practicable asregards any place of work under theemployer's control, the maintenance of itin a condition that is safe and without


Employees must:

General duties of employees at work

• Co-operate with their employer in health andsafety matters.

3Safe Work at Height

Note: "authority" here means delegated authority to theindividual by his employer to carry out a certain functionor duty.

For the purposes of this fire and rescue serviceguidance, a competent person is one whounderstands their responsibilities under theseRegulations and can demonstrate that they havesufficient professional or technical training,knowledge, actual experience, and authority' toenable them to:

emergency or rescue phase to proceed. The HSEenforcement operational circular advises theirinspectors that:

"Regulation 4 duties should not hinder the work ofthe emergency services while they are working inthe emergency rescue phase when life may be indanger or life saving is being attempted. Theintention is not to hinder the speed or effectivenessof emergency services acting in this emergencyphase but when this phase has passed, theRegulations will be expected to apply as normal.Emergency services will be expected to havegeneric training and experience available to dealwith risks associated with the emergency phase.They should also be able to use dynamic riskassessments to cope with changing circumstances."

Regulation 5 CompetenceThis regulation requires that all those involved inWAH should be competent, or if being trained, beproperly supervised by a competent person.

• Carry out their assigned duties at the levelof responsibility allocated to them.

• Understand any potential hazards related to thework (or equipment) under consideration.

• Detect any technical defects or omissions inthat work (or equipment), recognise anyimplications for health and safety caused bythose defects or omissions and be able tospecify remedial actions to mitigate thoseimplications.

Regulation 6 Avoidance of risks from work atheightThis regulation sets out the hierarchy of controlmeasures for performing WAR based on theemployers risk assessment under the Management

Regulation 2 InterpretationThis regulation defines a number of key issuesincluding work at height, personal fall protectionsystems, fragile surfaces and working platforms.

Regulation 14: Employees' dutiesEmployees have a duty to co-operate with theiremployer to enable the employer to comply withstatutory duties for health and safety. Employeesshould also notify any shortcomings in the healthand safety arrangements, even when no immediatedanger exists, so that employers can take remedialaction if needed.

1.3.3 Work At Height Regulations 2005(WAHR)

ensure that the demands of the job do not exceedthe employees' ability to carry out the workwithout risk to themselves or others.

Regulation 16: Risk assessment in respect ofnew or expectant mothersRisk assessments for work at height should takeaccount of women who may be new or expectantmothers and identify the preventive and protectivemeasures that are required in Regulation 3.

Regulation 3 ApplicationThis regulation sets out that the WAHR apply inGreat Britain to employers and the self employed;it exempts certain dockside, offshore and shipboard activities.

Regulation 1 Citation and commencementThe WAHR came into force on 6th April 2005.

The exemption in Regulation 4(4) for emergencyservices acting in an emergency is to ~nable thework of the emergency services during the

Regulation 4: Organisation and planningThis regulation states that WAH should be planned,supervised and carried out in a manner which is, sofar as is reasonably practicable, safe. Planning foremergencies is included. WAH should only becarried out when the weather conditions do notjeopardise the health or safety of those involved inthe work. Emergency services acting in anemergency are exempt from this restriction.

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Regulation 13: Capabilities and trainingWhen allocating work to employees, FRS's should

Where the assessment identifies significant risk,adequate control measures must be implemented,the process recorded, monitored and reviewed.

Regulation 3: Risk AssessmentThis requires all employers and self-employedpeople to assess the risks to workers and any otherswho may be affected by their work or business. Allemployers should carry out a systematic generalexamination of their work activities, to identify therisks to health and safety to any person arising outof, or in connection with their work.

Regulation 8: Procedures for serious andimminent danger and for danger areasWhen undertaking training or rescue operations atheight, suitable and sufficient emergency plansshould be factored into generic risk assessmentsand procedures. This requirement is within boththe Management Regulations and the Work atHeight Regulations.

Regulation 11: Co-operation and co-ordinationWhen staff from more than one employer are inthe workplace (including the incident ground) coordination and co-operation is required to ensurethat safety arrangements adopted are adequate.

Regulation 4: Principles of prevention to beappliedThe general hierarchy of control applies to allwork at height.

1.3.2 Management of Health and Safetyat Work Regulations 1999

• Avoid risks.• Evaluate risks which cannot be avoided.

• Combat risks at source.• Adapt work to the individual.• Adapt to technical progress.• Replace the dangerous by the non-dangerous

or the less dangerous.• Develop a coherent overall prevention policy.• Give collective protective measures priority

over individual protective measures.

• Give appropriate instructions to employees.

Fire and Rescue Service Manual

Note: Pope v Gould (H M Inspector ofHealth andSafety) (20 June 1996, unreported) illustrates thestringent way in which the courts enforce thissection. In this case, the employer argued thatbecause he had instructed the employee to operatemachinery in a particular way, and the employeehad not followed his instructions, he was not liable.However, it was held that this section is notconcerned solely with the giving of instructions;rather it imposes upon the employer positive dutiesin relation to ensuring safe systems of work andsafe machinery. It is not sufficient for instructionsof a health and safety nature merely to be given toemployees; an employer must also ensure thatthose instructions are carried out.

risks to health and the provIsIon andmaintenance of means of access to andegress from it that are safe and without

such risks;

(e) the provision and maintenance of aworking environment for his employeesthat is, so far as is reasonablypracticable, safe, without risks to health,and adequate as regards facilities andarrangements for their welfare at work.

General duties of employers and self-employedto persons other than their employees

2

Employers and the self employed are required toconduct their work activities to ensure, so far as isreasonably practicable, that people not in theiremployment are not exposed to risks to their healthor safety.

• Take reasonable care for their health andsafety and that of other people who may beaffected by their acts or omissions at work.

• Not interfere with or misuse anythingprovided for their health and safety.

of Health and Safety at Work Regulations. Thehierarchy is

AVOID WAH if you can.

If this is not possible then take suitable andsufficient steps to

PREVENT the risk of a fall, including• Selection of an existing work place that does

not require additional measures to prevent afall and where this is not possible

• Selection of the most suitable workequipment to prevent a fall occurring

MINIMISE the distance and consequences ofany fall.

When selecting work equipment, priority shouldbe given to collective fall protection measures overpersonal protection.

Regulation 7 Selection of work equipmentThis regulation sets out the general principles to beapplied when selecting work equipment for WAH.These principles include, working conditions,distance and consequences of a fall, duration andfrequency of use, emergency evacuation andadditional risks present when the equipment isbeing set up or taken down.

Regulation 8 Requirements for particularwork equipmentThis regulation requires that work equipmentselected for a particular task must comply with therequirements laid out in the appropriate schedulesto the Regulations:

• Guard rails, toe boards, barrier or similarcollective means (Schedule 2).

• Working platforms, including aerialappliances (Schedule 3. part I).

• Collective Safeguards (Schedule 4).• Personal fall protection systems (Schedule 5,

part I).• Work restraint (Schedule 5, part 5).• Work positioning (Schedule 5, parts 2 and 3).• Fall arrest systems (Schedule 5, part 4).• Ladders (Schedule 6).

Regulation 9 Fragile surfacesThis regulation sets out the requirements needed toprevent people falling through fragile surfaces. It

says that no person at work should pass across, orwork on or from, a fragile surface where it isreasonably practicable to carry out this work safelyby some other means. Fragile surfaces must beindicated by warning notices, but fire and rescueservices, acting in an emergency are exempt fromthis requirement.

Regulation 10 Falling objectsThis regulation requires steps to be taken toprevent objects falling from height where injurycould result. The risk of falling objects causinginjury should be minimised by keeping strictcontrol over the working area and that any materialsor objects stored at height should be secured.

Regulation 11 Danger areasThis regulation requires any danger area wheresomeone or something could fall and cause injuryto be clearly indicated and actions taken to preventpeople entering the danger area.

Regulation 12 Inspection of equipmentThis regulation sets out the inspection andrecording requirements for equipment provided forWAH. An inspection can vary from a simplevisual check to a detailed comprehensiveinspection, which may include some dismantlingand testing.

Regulation 13 Inspection of places of Work atHeightThis regulation states that the work surface andevery parapet, permanent rail or other such fallprotection measure of every place of work atheight, so far as is reasonably practicable, ischecked on each occasion before the place is used.

Regulation 14 Duties of persons at workThis regulation reflects the duties placed onemployees by the Management of Health andSafety at Work Regulations and emphasises theimportance, in the context of work at height, ofemployees using the equipment provided by theemployer to prevent or mitigate falls from heightand of doing so in accordance with training theyhave received and instructions concerning its use.

Regulation 15 - Exemption by the Health andSafety ExecutiveThis specifies the nature and extent to which the

HSE can exempt people, activIties, workequipment or premises from the requirements ofthe Regulations.

Regulation 16 Exemption of the armed forcesThis regulation sets out a system for exemptionof the armed forces in the interests of nationalsecurity.

Regulation 17 Amendment of PUWER 1998This regulations adds equipment to whichregulation 12 (inspections) of the WAH Regulationsapplies to regulation 6(5) of the Provision and Useof Work Equipment Regulations 1998.

Regulation 18 Repeal of section 24 of theFactories Act 1961This regulation repeals section 24 of the FactoriesAct 1961.

Regulation 19 Revocation of InstrumentsThis regulation sets out a number of consequentialrevocations to a number of regulations specified incolumn I of schedule 8 to the WAHR.

Schedule 1 - Requirements for places of workat heightThis schedule sets out the requirements for existingplaces of work at height, including means of accessand egress. Existing places of work at height arethose that do not require any additional safetymeasures to prevent a fall from occurring; therequirements of this schedule include comment on:

• Strength and rigidity of the structure.• Suitable dimensions to carry out the work

and permit the safe passage of plant andequipment.

• Provision of suitable edge protection the height of sills and parapets should bedetermined by a risk assessment under theManagement Regulations, and activities in thearea should be controlled by the findings of therisk assessment.

• Means to prevent objects from falling.• Means to prevent slipping and tripping.

Schedule 2 Requirements for guardrailsThis schedule sets out similar requirements toschedule 1 for work equipment such ~s aerialappliances and scaffold towers. The height of

guardrails and edge protection measures (e.g. fordrill towers/aerial appliances) should bedetermined by risk assessment. For constructionwork, the schedule sets the minimum height forguard-rails to be at least 950 mm.

Schedule 3 Requirements for workingplatformsThis schedule is in two parts, the first part sets outthe general requirements for:

• Working platforms, including Mobile ElevatedWork Platforms (MEWPS). Fire and rescueservice aerial appliances fitted with a cage fallwithin the definition of a MEWP.

• Scaffolding.• Ground conditions, stability of the platform

and supporting structures, working surfaces,construction and loading.

The second part of the schedule covers detailedrequirements for scaffolding.

Schedule 4 Requirements for CollectiveSafeguards for Arresting FallsThis schedule sets out the requirements forcollective safeguards to be suitably anchored, ofsufficient strength and stability to withstandloading in the event of a fall and that in the eventof a fall by any person the safeguard does not itselfcause injury to that person.

Schedule 5 Requirements for Personal FallProtection SystemsThis schedule is in five parts,

Part 1 sets out the general requirements for allpersonal fall protection systems, including fallprevention, work restraint, work positioning, fallarrest, rescue systems, and rope access andpositioning techniques. Before using such systemsa risk assessment must indicate that:

• The work can so far as is reasonablypracticable be performed safely while usingthat system and the use of other, safer workequipment is not reasonably practicable.

• The user and a sufficient number of availablepersons have received adequate trainingspecific to the operations envisaged, includingrescue procedures.

4 Fire and Rescue Service Manual Safe Work at Height 5

All personal fall protection equipment must:

• Be suitable and of sufficient strength for thepurposes for which it is being used, havingregard to the work being carried out and anyforeseeable loading.

• Where necessary, fit the user and be correctlyfitted.

• Be designed to minimise injury to the user and,where necessary, be adjusted to prevent the userfalling or slipping from it, should a fall occur.

• Be so designed, installed and used as toprevent unplanned or uncontrolled movementof the user.

Part 2 sets out the additional requirements for workpositioning systems, including the requirement:

• For a suitable backup system for preventing orarresting a fall.

• That where the system includes a line as abackup system, the user is connected to it.

• Where it is not reasonably practicable toprovide a backup system, all practicablemeasures are taken to ensure that the workpositioning system does not fail.

Part 3 sets out the additional requirements for ropeaccess and positioning techniques, including that arope access or positioning technique shall:

• Involve a system comprising at least twoseparately anchored lines, of which one ("theworking line") is used as a means of access,egress and support and the other is the safetyline.

• Ensure the user is provided with a suitableharness and is connected by it to the workingline and the safety line.

• Ensure the working line is equipped with safemeans of ascent and descent and has a selflocking system to prevent the user fallingshould he lose control of his movements andthe safety line is equipped with a mobile fallprotection system which is connected to andtravels with the user of the system.

• Only use a single rope system where a riskassessment has demonstrated that the use ofa second line would entail higher risk topersons and appropriate measures have beentaken to ensure safety.

Part 4 sets out the additional requirements for fallarrest systems including the requirement for asuitable means of absorbing energy and limitingthe forces applied to the user's body. A fall arrestsystem must not be used where:

• There is a risk of the line being cut.• There is no clear zone beneath the work area

and its safe use requires a clear zone.including allowing for any pendulum effect.

• Its performance would be compromised orrendered unsafe.

Part 5 sets out the additional requirements forwork restraint systems to be used correctly anddesigned so that they prevent the user from gettinginto a position in which a fall can occur.

Schedule 6 Requirements for LaddersThis schedule requires employers to ensure that aladder is used for work at height only if a riskassessment has demonstrated that the use ofalternative work equipment is not justified by thecircumstances, the short duration of use or existingfeatures on site which can't be altered.

The surface on which a ladder is pitched must bestable, firm, of sufficient strength and suitablecomposition to support the ladder and anyintended load. Portable ladders must be preventedfrom slipping during use by:

• Securing at or near their upper or lower ends.or

• Providing an effective anti-slip or othereffective stability device.or

• Any other arrangement of equivalenteffectiveness, which could include 'footing'the ladder and the use of support or handlingpoles in accordance with accepted fire andrescue service practices.

Ladders must protrude sufficiently above the placeof landing unless other measures have been takento ensure a firm handhold. Extension ladders mustbe resting securely on their pawls before use.When using ladders, a secure handhold and securesupport must be available to the user, who mustmaintain a safe handhold when carrying a load.

Step ladders may be exempt from the requirementfor a secure handhold when a load is carried, butonly when a risk assessment identifies low risk anda short duration of use.

Schedule 7 Particulars to be included in areport of inspectionThis schedule sets out the detail of the contents ofan inspection report on equipment provided forWAH.

Schedule 8 Revocation of InstrumentsThis schedule provides details of statutoryinstruments revoked by the WAHR.

1.3.4 Confined Spaces Regulations 1997

The Confined Spaces Regulations, 1997 apply toall premises and work situations where a work areais a fully or partially enclosed space and a definedhazard is present. These regulations requireemployers to:

• Avoid entry to confined spaces.• Where it is not possible to avoid entry,

establish and follow a safe system of work.• Ensure the safe system of work includes

suitable and sufficient emergency arrangements.

Fire and rescue service operations in confinedspaces will often involve work at height. Insupplying equipment to account for the riskspresented by work at height there is always a needto provide a suitable recovery system that ensuressafe egress is maintained even if personnel areinjured. Consideration should be given to ensuringthe compatibility of the equipment and systems ofwork to meet these requirements.

1.3.5 Personal Protective Equipment atWork Regulations 1992 and PersonalProtective Equipment Regulations 2002(PPE)

Some items of equipment that are not normallydesignated as PPE could become so whenassembled into a work system for work at height.Examples may include ropes, harnesses andassociated equipment which are assembled into asystem that prevents a fall.

PPE used for safety at height is categorised astype III (protection against mortal danger). As suchit must be certified to European Standards by anindependent testing house. This gives rise to somelimitations as to which equipment is suitable indifferent circumstances, although users should notethat certification does not generally take account ofadditional rescue loads. Where equipment isintended for rescue purposes its suitability must befurther assessed through a risk assessment of its usein relation to rescue situations

1.3.6 The Provision and Use of WorkEquipment Regulations 1998 (PUWER)

PUWER 98 applies to the provision and use of allwork equipment, including that used for work atheight. It places requirements on duty holders toprovide suitable work equipment, information,instructions and training. The primary objective isto ensure that work equipment should not result inhealth and safety risks, regardless of its age,condition or origin.

1.3.7 Lifting Operations and LiftingEquipment Regulations 1998 (LOLER)

All work activities that involve lifting a load comewithin the scope of LOLER 1998. 'Liftingequipment' is defined as work equipment forlifting or lowering loads and includes itsattachments used for anchoring, fixing orsupporting the load. A 'lifting operation' is anyoperation concerned with the lifting or lowering ofa load and the term load includes a person.

LOLER requires 'competent persons' to planlifting activities, as well as conduct inspections andthorough examinations of all equipment used forlifting at work.

The Regulations consider a competent person to beone who has such appropriate practical andtheoretical knowledge and practical experience oflifting equipment as will enable them to select,use, care and maintain lifting equipment andaccessories. They must receive adequateinformation, instruction and on the principles oflifting and lifting equipment and be able to accountfor any limitations on use.

6 Fire and Rescue Service Manual

-Sale Work at Height 7

1.4.1 Fire and Rescue Authorities

In making these decisions it will be necessary to:

1.4.2 Principal Officers/BrigadeManagers


Effective procurement managementsystem.Appropriate labelling.

Provision of suitable and sufficienIinformation.Training.

Pre-use checks and inspections.

Safe system of work.

Correct use of appropriateequipment.

Secondary safety system.

Inspection and thoroughexamination of equipment.Appropriate cleaning, drying,transport and storing of equipment.

Records of use, examinations,maintenance and testing.Planning and effective supervisionof lifting and towering operations.

Correct selection and use of anchorpoints.

Provision of energy absorbingequipment.

Stopper knot tied in end of rope.

Use of deviation.

Effective communications.

i\litigalil\~ Control Ml'asures ,

The hazards and risks associated with working atheight arise from the Equipment and its use, thenature of the work undertaken, the work site andprevailing environmental conditions. Each hazardmay give rise to one or more risks, with a range ofcontrol measures, as listed in the tables below.

• Instructions on use which have been provided.• Training in the use of the work equipment or

safety device.

1.5 Key Hazards and Risks

Death.Crushing, asphyxiation and impactrelated injuries.

Entrapment of body parts.Falls or impact from falling objects.

Cuts, bruises etc.

Rope friction burns.

Overload of equipment.

Failure or malfunction ofequipment or work systems.

Damage to equipment.

• Unsuitable equipment.

• Incorrect use of equipment.

• Damaged equipment.• Incorrect assessment of loading.

• Excessive force applied toequipment.

• Failure of knot or securingsystem.

• Failure of anchor or belaysystem.

• Entanglement with equipment.

• Person being raised or loweredstriking or entangling withobstructions.

• Uncontrolled descent.

• Descent or being lowered off theend of a rope.

• Suspension trauma.

1.4.3.2 Duties of employees

service premises or representatives from otheragencies working within an inner cordon.

Employees must report to their supervisor anyactivity or defect relating to work at height whichis likely to endanger the safety of themselves orany other person. Work equipment or safetydevices provided for work at height must be usedin accordance with:

Key Hazards and RisksTable A: Equipment

--

1.4.3.1 Co-operation with other emergencyservices/contractors/responsible persons

Fire and rescue authorities must ensure that planningfor work at height takes account of circumstanceswhere work may be undertaken in conjunction withother emergency services, agencies or contractors.

When a decision is taken to undertake specialisttechnical rope-working activities, an officer shouldbe nominated to take overall managementresponsibility for the activity. The duties of theresponsible officer will include:

1.4.3 Management of Work at HeightActivities

The officer nominated to take overall managementresponsibility for rope work activities must receivesuch training as is necessary to provide the level ofknowledge, skills and understanding required bythe role.

Planning and risk assessments should be jointlyundertaken and procedures will need to definewho has overall responsibility at the work site. Theregulations are clear in that employers haveresponsibility for work at height by theiremployees and any other person under theircontrol, to the extent of that control. This willapply, for example, to contractors working on fire

All managers with a responsibility for organizing,planning and supervising work at height must becompetent. Specific work at height responsibilitiesshould be included in health and safety policiesand job descriptions appropriate to the needs of theservice.

• Formulation, evaluation, review andmodification of service procedures.

• Monitoring records of training, equipment useand equipment testing.

• Evaluation of new equipment and proceduresand identification of their suitability for use inthe brigade.

• Representing the serVIce 1I1 rope workingmatters at local, regional and national level.

• Supervising dealings with rope workingequipment and training suppliers.

Fire and Rescue Service Manua/

1.4 Organisational Roles andResponsibilities

On behalf of Fire and Rescue Authorities, principalofficers/brigade managers must consider theoutcome of strategic risk assessments to establish theextent to which they will undertake work at height.

Any person carrying out a thorough examinationmust have such appropriate practical andtheoretical knowledge and experience of the liftingequipment to be thoroughly examined as willenable them to detect defects or weaknesses and toassess their importance in relation to the safety andcontinued use of the lifting equipment.

The outcomes of systematic risk assessments mustthen be considered in order to inform decisions onwhich work activities can be undertaken,outsourced or can't be resourced. This will helpdefine the service's requirement to provide work atheight equipment alongside appropriate trainingand the development of relevant procedures.

The Integrated Risk Management Plan (IRMP)will set out the range of risks that individual Fireand Rescue Authorities will consider whendeveloping their plan. Work at Height should beidentified as a hazard in the IRMP process and Fireand Rescue Authorities will then allocate suitableand sufficient resources to allow such work to beplanned, supervised and carried out safely.

8

• Take account of all relevant statutoryprovISions.

• Establish policies, set priorities and define safesystems of work.

• Ensure the provIsion of appropriateequipment, information, training andsupervision.

• Review policies and procedures and revise asappropriate.

• Ensure suitable and sufficient resources areavailable to provide safe systems of work.

Key Hazards and RisksTable B: Nature of the Work

Miti~ating Control Measures

Key Hazards and Risks ..Table C: Work Site and Prevailing Environmental Conditions

;\Iitigating Control J\lc~lsures

• Working at height.

• Access and egress to the workarea.

• Duration of the work activity.

• Casualty/victim handling.

• Physiological effects.

• Psychological effects.

• Working with other agencies.

• Members of the public.

Falls or impact from falling objects.

Fatigue.

Entrapment and crushing.

Vertigo, motion sickness.

Strains, sprains and other manualhandling injuries.

Medical contamination by blood orother fluids.

Fatigue, cold, hypothermia, heatstress, dehydration.

Unpredictable reaction to exposure.

Potential for confusion/conflict.

Selection of personnel withphysical fitness and mentalaptitude for the task.

Training.

Provision of suitable and sufficientinformation.

Effective supervision.

Selection and use of suitable PPE,including clothing.

Use of work restraint, fall arrest orwork positioning equipment.

Secondary safety system.

Work area management, includingprovision of hazard zones.

Use of ladders and aerialappliances.

Minimum numbers of personnelcommitted.

Appropriate first aid training.

Adequate we! fare arrangements.

Pre-planning and liaison.

• Sloping, loose or slipperysurfaces.

• Uneven ground.

• Fragile roofs.

• Darkness and inadequatelighting.

• Presence of corrosive or harmfulsubstances.

• Microwave, RF, laser or otherelectromagnetic transmissions.

• Sharp or protruding edges andabrasive surfaces.

• Movement or failure of thestructure or work area.

• Vehicle movements in the workarea.

• Unstable working platforms.

• Lightning.

• Rain.

• Cold weather conditions.

• Hot weather conditions.

• Wind.

Falls or impact from falling objects.

Slips and trips.

Struck by vehicle.

Damage of textile based equipmentleading to equipment failure.

Eye injuries, temporary blinding,burns.

Entanglement of clothing orequipment.

Obscured surfaces.

Impaired/reduced vision.

Windblown material.

[ncreased background noise.

Exposure to cold, hypothermia,wind chill.

Selection of personnel withphysical fitness and mentalaptitude for the task.

Training.

Provision of suitable and sufficientinformation.

Effective supervision.

Work area management, includingprovision of hazard zones.

Selection and use of suitable PPE,including clothing.

Sufficient, well sited and effectivelighting.

Use of work restraint equipment orfall arrest equipment.

Use of ladders or crawling boardsand information relating to fragility.

Adequate welfare arrangements.

Avoid entering path of laser /microwave transmissions.

Maintain safe distance fromelectromagnetic transmissions.

RF monitoring equipment.

Use of rope protectors, pads oredge rollers.

Cessation of operations.


Key Hazards and RisksTable D: Equipment Use

Fall or being struck by fallingobject.

Damage to equipment.

Catastrophic equipment failure.

Entanglement/ entrapment withequipment resulting in crush.amputation or other physical injury.

Crushing, asphyxiation and impactrelated injuries, death.

Rope friction burns.

1.6.2 Before Work at Height

particularly harnesses and associated equipment,should be specifically considered.

When developing work at height procedures, it isessential that the fire and rescue service liaiseswith other agencies, commercial and voluntaryorganisations within their area that may alreadyprovide a similar service, or with whom the fireand rescue service may be expected to work atincidents. This is particularly important in the caseof mountain or cave rescue associations who arelikely to have specialist expertise, which may be ofbenefit to the FRS. Where such organisationsexist, a working protocol should be developed withlocal teams.

In the case of fire and rescue services whose areaincorporates coastline or estuaries, close

A management system should be developed forwork at height with superVISion that rsproportionate to the risk and:

Safe Person• Numbers of people required to undertake the

task - is it a single person or larger numbers?• The total exposure of all the workers involved

to risk, and the degree of that risk - how manypeople are exposed to the risk and how severeis it?

• Competence of the crews and the level ofsupervision required - are they in training,under development or assessed as competent?

1.6.2.2 Liaison with Other Agencies andVoluntary Organisations

• Takes account of the experience andcapability of the people involved in the work.For example trainee firefighters would requirea greater degree of supervision than acompetent crew.

• Includes a process of briefing personnel toensure they are aware of hazards and specificcircumstances in which they might have to askfor further assistance.

• Puts in place a rescue plan to cater foremergencies which considers additional risksto rescuers and, any need for additionalresources.

• Ensures that working practices are modified toprovide systems of work that minimise risk tohealth or safety during the emergency phase ofan incident in inclement weather.

relevant to the risk profile of the area in which theymay respond. This will allow decisions to be madeon the balance between core working at heightskills and the need for more specialised systems. Incarrying out these assessments, generic and sitespecific risks must be evaluated.

Safe Place• Weather and environment - what effects will

the weather and environmental conditions haveon outdoor work at height?

• Conditions on site - are the ground conditionsstable and secure enough to support a ladder oraerial appliance?

• Stability of the working environment - is it afragile or unstable surface?

• Danger from falling objects - is there a risk ofpeople being hit by falling objects?

Specific sites - such as large buildings orindustrial complexes, known recreational orclimbing venues, theme parks, or potential suicidesites may include the presence of one or more ofthe above generic hazards.

The factors to be considered in the risk assessmentshould include:

Generic hazards may include tall buildings, masts,pylons, cranes or scaffolding, tall chimneys, cliffs,steep embankments or dams, deep shafts or wells,agricultural or other silos, chair lifts, gondolas,cable cars, trees, etc.

Safe Process• Task to be performed - is it operational,

training or routine maintenance?• Most suitable equipment for the task after a

risk assessment - should a ladder, rope rescueequipment, or aerial appliance be used?

• Duration of the task - is it a single task of shortduration or protracted working?

• Frequency with which the task needs to beperformed - is it a one off, or an everydayoccurrence?

• Risks that arise from pre and post use of theequipment - for example is there additionalrisk in pitching a ladder?

• Rescue procedures if something goes wrong what contingency arrangements need to be inplace?

i\litigating Contml Measures

Planning and effective supervisionof lifting and lowering operations.

Correct use of appropriateequipment.

Training.

Use of back-up safety device keptas high as possible.

Use of separate anchor point foreach rope.

Provision of energy absorbingequipment.

Stopper knot tied in end of rope.

Use of stretchers.

Use of deviation.

Effective communications.

Policy and Planning1.6.2.1

[njuries can be caused by falls from relatively lowheights. Injury statistics show that falls from headheight or lower account for two-thirds of majorinjury accidents caused by falls. It cannot beassumed that little or nothing need be done toprevent falls, therefore risk assessments must becompleted before performing work at height. Arisk assessment, undertaken by a competent personwill identify the health and safety risks andappropriate control measures, for incorporationinto standard operating procedures and training.

When identifying capacity and capabilityappropriate to hazards, each fire and rescueservice should undertake a risk assessment todetermine the issues relating to work at height

• Inappropriate use of equipment.

• Overload of equipment orexcessive force being applied tothe equipment.

• Failure of knot or securingsystem.

• Failure of anchor or belaysystem.

• Entanglement with equipment.

• Person being raised or loweredstriking or entangling withobstructions.

• Uncontrolled descent throughequipment failure or operatorerror.

• Descent or being lowered off theend of a rope.

• Suspension trauma.

• Inadequate communications.

Planning for work at height activities shouldinclude consideration of appropriate clothing fora.ll reasonably foreseeable circumstances. In somecases the clothing provided may be classified asPPE whilst on other occasions it may be part of aclothing system to ensure comfort to the individualin a particular working environment.

1.6 Developing are ystems of Work

1.6.1 Clothing

Although standard fire-fighting PPE is suitable formany activities undertaken whilst working atheight, more technical activities involving ropeaccess or rope rescue, may require clothing that isspecific to the activity. This may involve differentlevels of protection from environmental factors orclothing to facilitate comfort and free movement.

When assessing the suitability of clothing andPPE provided for use during work at height, itscompatibility with other elements of PPE,

l.. 1_2 F._ir_e_a_n_d_R_e_sc_L_le_s_e_rv_i_ce_M_a_nu_a_' ;;I>.... _


See Figure 1.1.

1.6.3 During Work at Height

Figure I. I A photograph showing a typical location jorrope working. high and exposed.

Command StructureSimple incident, single appliance

IIncident

Commander

II I

Rescue SupportTeam Team

Command StructureComplex incident, multiple appliances

IncidentCommander

Rope SectorCommander

I Safety Officer ~

I IRescue Team Support

Leader Team Leader

II

IRescue Top-side - Evacuation

Crew Equipment, route

anchorages,preparation

etc.

Figure 1.2 Command Structure: Simple incident.single appliance.

Figure 1.3 Command Structure: Complex incident,mldt/ple appliances.

appropriate control measures. Individualprotection may be appropriate for work at heightinvolving rescue or other urgent operationalactivities to protect human life or control adeteriorating situation in the early phase of anincident. Consideration should, however, always begiven to collective protection systems particularlywhen urgent activities have been completed.

All work at height operations must be adequatelysupervised as appropriate to the nature andcomplexity of the situation. When implementing asafe system of work, ongoing dynamic riskassessments should be proportionate to the level ofrisk involved and consider:

Issues identified in the dynamic risk assessmentshould be clearly communicated to all personnelinvolved through a safety briefing beforeoperations commence.

• Alternative ways of working.• Time imperatives for action and duration of

activities.• Competence of personnel relative to the

complexity of the intended activities.

• Availability of suitable resources.• Environmental conditions.• Access and egress.• Organisation of the work area.

• Supervision.• Communication requirements.• Safety management systems.• Emergency Procedures.• Control measures appropriate to the number of

people exposed to the risk.

When rope work systems are operated by specialisttechnical rope work teams, the incident commandstructure should include supervision by competentspecialist personnel. Depending on the complexityand duration of the incident, a suitable managementstructure may include a:

• Rope sector commander.• Work at height supervisor.• Rope safety officer.

Planning and Command

Occupational health screening facilities can assistin this area. In view of the above, it isunlikely that fire and rescue services \vill considerthat specialist operations of this nature should becompulsory.

• The need for trainees to be carefullymonitored.

• The need for individuals who experiencepsychological difficulties to be identifiedduring training and to be given theopportunity to withdraw or be withdrawn fromspecialist operations.

1.6.3.1

The nature and urgency of the task to beundertaken must be considered when determining

1.6.2.4 Selection and Training of Personnel

Sector specific guidance for work at height IS

produced for a number of different industries.

Businesses that undertake work at height have aspecific duty to prepare plans to rescue their ownworkers in the event of an emergency. Where abusiness wishes to include the fire and rescueservice as part of their emergency arrangementsthey should formally agree this expectation beforeincluding it in their emergency procedures. Fireand rescue services may wish to consider whethersuch arrangements should be classified aschargeable special services.

1.6.2.3 Industry Liaison

cooperation with the Maritime and CoastguardAgency (MCA) is essential during pre-planningfor coastal and littoral incidents. CFOA and theMCA have agreed an outline Memorandum ofUnderstanding for rescue on cliffs or from littoralareas.

No person shall engage in any work at heightactivity unless they are competent to do so, or areunder supervision during training. This includesplanning, organising, supervision, selection anduse of equipment as well as carrying out theactivity itself. This principle applies to both staffdirectly engaged in work at height and relevantmanagers.

There is a general requirement for all employeeswho may need to work at height to be able to worksafely when doing so. More specialist work atheight, which involves activities in high andexposed situations, places particular demands onindividuals, such that some people are not able tocope with the psychological or physiologicalstressors involved. Personnel selected as membersof specialist teams must have an appropriateattitude and aptitude for such work. Selection andtraining processes should take account of:

• Medical, physical and psychological fitness towork in high and exposed locations.

• The need for specialist operators to work indifficult environments out of sight of theirsupervIsors.


1.6.3.2 Hazard Zones


• Appropriate training, equipment, proceduresand supervision are in place.

• Staff demonstrate competence for work atheight.

• Staff understand their legal responsibilitiesfor work at height.

• Adequate risk controls exist and they reflectthe nature and complexity of work at height

activities.• Fire and rescue services improve performance

and respond to change.• Systems include operational audit of work

at height activities.

1.6.4.3 Auditing

Audit processes should enable fire and rescueservices to reinforce, maintain and improve theirability to reduce risks associated with work atheight. The audit process should seek to ensure

that:

Debriefing

Post Work at Height

1.6.4.2 Monitoring and Reviewing

Work at height systems should be regularlymonitored and reviewed to ensure they continue toreflect good practice, service standards and localrequirements. Both active and reactive review

systems should be used.

All work at height activities should be followed byan appropriate level of debriefing, with otheragencies involved as appropriate. Any significantoutcomes should be documented and then used toreview systems and equipment, making changes as

necessary.

1.6.4.1

1.6.4

imperative that clear communications existbetween agencies to establish clarity of what needsto be done, how it needs to be done and all

associated risks.

The location and potential exposure of places ofwork at height means evidence may be lost throughenvironmental influences. Consideration should begiven to taking active measures that protect a sceneof investigation, although such measures must beproportionate to the risk encountered and remainwithin the boundaries of safe working practices.

HAZARD ZONE

OPERATOR

Figure 1.4 Diagrams showing typical Hazard zones/or:Hauling or lowering equipment.Cliff or crag rescue.

endangered life. This is particularly so whenactivities involve work at height, as the fire andrescue service generally provides the primaryresources to implement safe systems of work. Italso frequently assists other agencies that may needto work at height and in such circumstancesmanages overall scene safety. Control reverts solelyto the police when an incident involves suspectedterrorist activities. In either circumstance it is

Fire and Rescue Service Manual16

1.6.3.3 Inter-Service Liaison and Control ofOperations

• Individuals are working at height and there is arisk of a fall likely to cause injury.

• Individuals are at risk of being struck byfalling objects.

• Rope is being used to haul, lift or lower loads,or for working at height.

To minimISe the risk of injury to personnel andmembers of the public, hazard zones must beestablished, cordoned off and operated in line withinner cordon principles. This must include theworking location and areas of risk above and belowwhen:

Hazard zones should be established in accordancewith the following principles:

See Figure lA.

• The hazard zone must be large enough toenable the risk to be controlled. The size maybe influenced by available space, nature ofrisk, high winds or other adverse conditions.On stable ground and in good weatherconditions, a minimum distance of threemetres from an unprotected edge may beconsidered appropriate.

• The boundary of the zone must be effectivelyindicated, providing a physical barrier andilluminated during hours of darkness.Consideration should be given to the need forthe boundary of the zone to be staffed oridentified by hazard warning signs.

• The number of personnel within the hazardzone should be kept to the minimum.

• All individuals who enter a hazard zone mustbe fully briefed and correctly protected withappropriate PPE.

• Rope anchor and belay points should, wherepossible, be placed outside the hazard zone.

• Casualty holding areas and equipment dumpsshould be placed outside the hazard zone.

The FRS will always maintain a high level ofoperational responsibility and control at anyincident where there is a requirement to save

Chapter 2 - Operational Practices

Safe Work at Height

2.1 General Techniques

Work should not be carried out at height if there isa reasonably practicable means to carry out thework safely, otherwise than at height. Where workis carried out at height, measures should be takento prevent a fall. Where it is not practicable toprevent the risk of a fall, the distance andconsequence of a fall must be minimised. Work atheight involves a series of speci fic considerations,overlapping techniques and procedures including:

• Collective safeguards comprising:

• Nets.• Air bags.• Bean bags.• Mats and other soft landing systems.

• Individual protection by:• Work restraint.• Fall arrest.• Work positioning.

• Access techniques with:

• MEWPs.• Working platforms.• Ladders.• Ropes, harnesses and associated equipment.

• Systems of work to control:• Falling objects and Hazard zones.• Anchors and anchor systems.• Securing equipment and other items.• Lifting, lowering and hauling.• Securing casualties and performing rescues

from height.

2.1.1 Collective Safeguards for ArrestingFalls

Collective safeguards comprise nets, air bags,beans bags, mats and other soft landing systems.These systems are not generally appropriate forfire and rescue service operations, although their

Chapter

2

use may be appropriate in training or routine workenvironments. They are increasingly being adoptedas a safety measure by industry, so it is likely thatfire and rescue service personnel may find suchmeasures already in place when attending anincident. Nonnal service safety provision by theuse of PPE can be considered the most appropriateway to manage risk, although in certain limitedcircumstances pre-installed collective safeguardsfor arresting falls my be considered for inclusionin the safety measures taken. Fire and rescueservice personnel are unlikely to possess thecompetences required to assess the suitability andeffectiveness of these systems, so specialist on-siteadvice must be taken before relying on them at anincident. Collective safeguards that have alreadybeen subjected to an impact should not beconsidered to provide suitable protection forfire and rescue service personnel. In suchcircumstances personal protection systemsshould be provided for rescuers.

Collective safeguards for fall arrest may beconsidered when it is not appropriate to prevent afall occurring by either collective or personalprotection systems. They must be strong enough tosafely arrest a fall, be securely attached to suitableanchors, remain stable during any subsequentrescue and must not, in themselves, cause injury.

Safety netting is generally the preferred collectivesafeguard for fall arrest used in industry as it doesnot rely on individual user discipline to guaranteeacceptable safety standards. See Figure 2.1.

The following points are considered industry goodpractice when using safety nets:

• Nets should be installed by a competentrigger and be as close as possible beneath thework area to minimise the distance of any fall

Sale Work at Height 19

2.1.2 Individual Protection

figure 2.4 Firefighter working near the edge o/aflatmof

A pump operator working adjacent to a dockside

could be secured to a suitable point at the rear of the

appliance preventing them from reaching the dock

edge.

Work Restraint - Example 2

Work Restraint - Example I

A fire fighter working in any location with unguarded

edges from which there is a risk of a fall that could

cause injury can be easily protected by the provision

of a waist belt or harness, attached to a suitable

anchor point by a rope that is shorter than the

distance between the anchor and the edge.

Work Restraint

This list indicates the hierarchy normally usedduring operational activities, but in othercircumstances work positioning may generally beconsidered before fall arrest.

he most appropriate method of individualprotection must be determined through a riskassessment of each work environment and thecircumstances of the activity to be undertaken.

Figure 2.2 Air bags 011 construction site.(Ph%: Health and Saki)' Executivr?)

• Work restraint.• Fall arrest.• Work positioning.

Individual protection can be achieved 10 one ofthree ways:

2.1.2.1

When making decisions about the use ofindividual protection systems and the need for andlevels of PPE, it is relevant to note that accidentsinvolving falls occur more frequently during thelatter stages of incidents than during the initialperiod of emergency activity. This is considered tobe because individuals have an increasedawareness of danger during the early and urgentstages of activity, but that such awareness reducesas the incident progresses.

The objective of work restraint (or travelrestriction) is to restrict an individual's movementso that access to any location where there is a riskof a fall from a height is not possible. Workrestraint equipment is not designed to sustain high

and withstand a person falling onto them(2 metres is considered the maximum safefall). There must be at least 3 metresclearance below the net and properinstallation should be confirmed by theissue of a handover certificate.

• For a net to be considered safe to use, it mustbe attached to a structure with appropriatecapacity, have no gaps and any joins betweennets must have an overlap of at least 2 metres.

• A visual inspection should be undertakenbefore safety nets are used.

• The following activities are considered unsafe:• Walking in, or jumping into the net.• Storing equipment or materials in the net.• Tampering with or adjusting the net an

attachment.

• Ensure a rescue plan including any rescueequipment is in place before commencingwork.

• The area underneath safety netting should beincluded in the hazard zone.

Air bags, bean bags and mats provide suitablecollective safeguards for arresting falls when theycan be placed close to the working level in order tominimise the consequences of a fall from height.They should be appropriately anchored, stable andif they distort on impact should afford sufficientclearance to prevent injury. A risk assessmentshould consider the suitability of this equipment ifthe fall to the air bags, bean bag or mat is greaterthan 2 metres. See Figure 2.2.

Figure 2./ Safety nets on constructio/1 site.(PholO. Heallh and Sa/en' Execulivi?)


Height of Fall

AFTER

Leng~ofRopeinthe

System

In this situation the fall factor is calculated as

2 metres (fall) divided by 1 metre (rope or lanyard),

giving a fall factor of 2.

Fall Factor =

BEFORE

Fall Factors - Example 1

An individual working on a vertical ladder wearing

a full body harness is attached to the ladder by a

one-metre lanyard. If the individual falls from a

position where the attachment point of the lanyard to

the ladder is 1 metre below the attachment point to

the harness, the total resulting fall will be 2 metres.

The fall factor is calculated by comparing the length

of the fall with the amount of rope.

Figure 2.9 (far right)Diagram a/finishposition showingdistances.

Figure 2.8 (near right)

Diagram 0/startposition showingdistances.

Figure 2.6 Photo 0.(af(tll arrest system providing safetywhen accessing a shafi via a fixed vertical ladder.

Figure 2.7 Fall Arrest - Technique lIsing PPE to safezl'arrest afcdl.

before commencing work. The relevant standardfor a complete fall arrest system is E 363 and itshould be assembled from component parts thatcomply with their own individual standards (e.g. aenergy absorbing cl ment to [3 EN 355).

shock loads and is unsuitable for work positioningor fall arrest situations.

Figure 2.5 Work Restraint - Technique using PPE tuprevent personnel moving into an area o.r(al/ putential.

Equipment Selection for work restraintThe minimum system required to achieve thenecessary restriction on travel will be:

• A suitable waist belt or harness. 2M• A rope or lanyard.• A reliable anchor point.

The rope or lanyard should be adjusted for length,so that once connected it is impossible for theindividual to reach the edge, thus removing the riskofa fall. Adjustment may be managed either by theindividual being protected or by a second personoperating a rope control device attached to theanchor.

2.1.2.2 Fall Arrest

Fall arrest systems are designed for use insituations where the risk of a fall likely to causeinjury exists.

If circumstances demand that individuals operate ina position where a fall resulting in injury couldoccur, then suitable fall arrest equipment must beused. Although the primary hazard is that offallinga distance likely to cause an injury, the potentialand likely consequences of a falling person strikingadjacent objects or surfaces should also be assessed

Fall FactorsWhen choosing equipment for fall arrest it isimportant to understand the elT Cl of faJ] factors.Work systems should be developed to minimisethe fall factor and systems that give a fall factorwhich exceeds one should not be used unlessunavoidable. High fall factors. with potential highimpact forces can be associated with an increasedrisk of injury and damage to equipment. Theexamples given below illustrate the principle offall factors in III working environment.

22 Fire and Rescue Service iVlanual Safe Work at Height 23

25

10M

AFTER

Safe Work at Height

position the resulting fall will be 1 metre. The fall

factor is again calculated by comparing the length of

the fall with the amount of rope in the system.

In this situation the fall factor is calculated as 1 metre

(fall) divided by 10 metres (rope), giving a fall factor

of one tenth.

gM

BEFORE

An individual being belayed from above whilst

ascending a vertical ladder. The individual is 9 metres

below the belay point but the belay rope is slack and

there are 10 metres of rope between the belay point

and the individual. If the individual falls from this


Figure 2.12 (nearright) Diagram 0/start position withindividual on laddershowing distances andslack rope.

I Figure 2.13 (larright) Diagram 0/finish position withindividual suspendedshowing distances andtight rope.

1M

AFTER

In this situation, therefore, the fall factor is calculated

as 1 metre (fall) divided by 1 metre (rope or lanyard),giving a fall factor of 1.

BEFORE

1MOFROPE



If the same individual falls from a position where the

attachment point of the lanyard to the ladder is at the

same height as the attachment point of the lanyard

to the harness, the resulting fall will be 1 metre.

The fall factor is again calculated by comparing the

length of the fall with the amount of rope in thesystem.

Figure 2.10 (nearright) Diagram ofstartposition showingdistances.

Figure 211 (far right)Diagram ofjinishposition showingdistances.

24

Figure 2./4 Photo ufafirejighter being befayed down asfope where a system is required to prevent them/ram/afting bilt is not required 10 support their weight.

27Safe Work al Height

Scaffolding and access towers may provide thesupporting structure for a work platform which ismore stable and provides a safer work environmentthan can be achieved by working from a ladder ora harness in suspension. The boundary betweenscaffolding and access towers is not clearlydefined and some systems that may appear to bescaffolding are technically considered to be accesstowers. Some general guidance is, however,provided for fire and rescue services that wish toprovide systems for their own use.

Key considerations relating to the use of workingplatforms include:

2.2.2 Scaffolding and Access Towers

2.2.1 Working Platforms (General)

MITIGATE• Always carry out a pre-use check.• Only use towers that have been properly

erected by a competent person (level, vertical,all components present and tied if necessary).

• Only move or use towers if you have receivedthe relevant training or are being supervised bya competent person.

• Follow the manufacturer's instructions for use.• Always check that all wheels are locked and

the tower is the correct height to allow accessto the work.

• Check and ensure outriggers/stabilisers orties are in place as per the manufacturer's

instruction.• Only move by applying effort as near the base

as possible.

PREVENT• Movement with persons or materials on the

platform.

• Climbing up the outside.• Use of ladders, step ladders, boxes, etc. on top

to extend the height.

• Use if any components are damaged.

• Use on soft ground.

AVOID• Overloading.• Use in adverse/windy conditions other than for

immediate operational need.

2.2 Access techniques

In situations where it is envisaged that a harnessmay be worn for extended periods, it shouldincorporate design and construction features thatwill ensure the comfort of the wearer insuspension. This may include the provision of a

work seal.

Figure 2.15 Example ofa work posilioning system in lIseahove a silo.

When work positioning systems are used inconjunction with breathing apparatus, a full bodyharness with a high attachment point must beprovided to maintain the operator in an upright

position.

• A sit harness or full body harness complyingwith BS EN358.

• An effective anchor.• A connecting rope and rope control device. or• A suitable lanyard system.

Selection of equipment for work positioningA work positioning system must include:

2.1.2.3 Work Positioning

When considering the need to provide workpositioning systems, the following principles mustbe applied:

When attending any incident where individuals mustbe supported in tension or suspension to carry outwork or affect a rescue, suitable work positioningequipment must be provided. Unlike work restraintor fall arrest, people operating in these situations aretotally dependent on the rope system to suppOli theirweight and to prevent them falling.

A fall arrest system may also be Llsed to provideprotection where an individual needs to work on asloping surface. Such a system might incorporate asingle top belayed rope and harness system such asthat shown below. This system only provides fallprotection for an individual moving into positionto carry out a given task; it does not provide ameans to support the individual's weight. SeeFigure 2.14.

• Work positioning systems should alwaysinclude a primary system, from which theindividual is suspended and a separate safetyor backup system that will come intooperation automatically should the primary failfor any reason.

• A safe system of work will be one where thefailure of a single component or a single erroron the part of the operator will not result in anuncontrolled fall. The term 100%redundancy is sometimes used to illustrate thisconcept. In order to provide 100%redundancy, no single item of equipment(other than an approved harness) should berelied on anywhere within the system.

• Separate anchor points should be used, unlessonly one anchor is available, AND it isunquestionably reliable. Separate attachmentsto that single anchor should still be used for theprimary and back-up systems.

• Work positioning harnesses complying withBS EN358 must not be used for fall arrestsituations unless they also comply withBS EN361 and suitable energy absorbingelements are included in the work system.

Fire and Rescue Service tv/anllaf

A lower fall factor results in a lower force with alower shock loading transferred to both the anchorand the individual at the point of fall arrest. In anyfall arrest situation dynamic ropes or energyabsorbing systems should be used to reduce theeffect of high fall factors by stretching as weight isapplied during a fall, thereby reducing thetransferred forces. When working with dynamicrope or energy absorbing lanyards, it is essential toensure that an adequate clearance height isavailable below the scene of operations due to theextension of the system as the fall is arrested.

Equipment Selection for fall arrestEquipment used for fall arrest is designed to halt afall and reduce the impact forces generated indoing so. In order to reduce the energy of a fall,excess energy must be absorbed and dissipatedwithin the fall arrest system, therefore a suitablefall arrest system will include:

• A fall arrest harness complying with BSEN36 I.

• A energy absorbing element.• A connecting rope or lanyard.• An effective anchor.

26

Figure 2.16 Example ofa working platform.

If there is a requirement to move an access tower,care should be taken to ensure:


2.2.5.1 General Safety During Use

When a decision is made that ladders areappropriate for access or to undertake activities atheight, working practices should ensure:

• Are there alternative means of access andegress that avoid the need to use ladders?

• Do the working and environmentalconditions increase the risk of using a ladder?

• Do the weather conditions increase the risk ofusing a ladder?

• What is the expected duration of use? Is theladder going to be used as a work platform orsolely as a means of access and egress?

• Does the nature and duration of work meanthat staff will need relieving?

• Is the ladder selected appropriate for the task?• Can equipment needed at height be safely

carried leaving both hands free for climbingthe ladder or does it need to be hauled aloft?

• Is the construction of a sloping roof on which aroof ladder is placed or the construction againstwhich the head of an extension ladder restsstrong enough to support the intended load?

• Non-service portable ladders are not used, as itwill be difficult to confirm they are fit forpurpose.

• That the surface which a ladder stands on isstable, firm, of sufficient strength and ofsuitable composition to support the laddersafely.

• The ladder is positioned so that its roundsremain horizontal and it will support theintended load.

• The heel of the ladder is secured to prevent itmoving in any direction, by footing the ladderor tying it in place.

• Where appropriate the head of the ladder issecured, e.g. tying the head in to the building.

• Portable ladders are correctly footed by twopeople to ensure stability when used forrescue or any activity that may exert adirectional force (E.G. operating a branch fromthe head of the ladder).

• Roof and extension ladders can be securedtogether to prevent movement between themwhen transferring from one to the other.

should be performed in accordance with themanufacturer's instructions and advice from acompetent person.

• Removal is only for the time and extentnecessary for the job, then the barrier isreplaced. and

• The work is not done unless there is someother safeguard, e.g. a safety net or workrestraint system.

It may be necessary in certain circumstances toremove guardrails, fencing and other means ofprotection for short periods. The regulations makeit clear that this is permissible under the followingconditions:

2.2.5 Portable Ladders

Measures to protect workers while the task iscarried out could include safe systems of work (orpermit to work systems where appropriate)including the provision of a fall arrest system,limiting access to specified people and ensuringthose performing the task are provided withadequate information, training and supervision.

If regular access or egress is required, such as withaerial appliance cages it may be more appropriateto provide gates or bars. In all cases the gap in theprotection should be minimised and replacedimmediately the operation has finished.

2.2.4 Continuity of Means of Protection

Portable ladders, including extension, step and roofladders, are frequently required for fire and rescueservice operational activities. Specific guidance onpractical techniques for their use is included in TheFire and Rescue Service Manual, Volume 4 FireService Training, Foundation Training andDevelopment. When determining the suitability ofladders for any task, the considerations listed inRegulation 7 must be taken into account and thefollowing aspects specifically considered:

• Is the activity urgent? Is there an imperative tosave human life or control a deterioratingsituation? Would waiting for an alternativemeans of access compromise the outcome?

2.2.3 Mobile Elevated Work Platforms(MEWPs)

FRS policies relating to contractors working ontheir premises should specify safe workingrequirements for scaffolding and access towers.

Aerial appliances used in a wide range ofindustries are collectively known as MEWPS andcan be effectively used to provide a safe means ofworking at height. FRS aerial appliances fall intothis category of equipment and when operated bycompetent persons provide a safe workenvironment. The precautions for safe work froman aerial appliance include:

A safe system of work should be in place thatincludes:

In circumstances where scaffolding or accesstowers are already erected at an incident location,guidance should be sought from the competentperson on site and a risk assessment must beundertaken as to its suitability for any planned useby fire and rescue service personnel.

• Guard rails round the edge of the cage to stopthe user falling.

• Toe-boards round the edge of the platform.• Use of stability devices, e.g. jacks.• Use of work restraint, work positioning or fall

arrest systems with approved anchor points.

• Planning the job to be aware of all hazards,including those from overhead obstructionsand passing traffic.

• Use of competent operator(s).• Use of appropriate harnesses and associated

systems.

• Instruction to the crews about safety issues.• Instructions in emergency procedures, such as

evacuation in the event of power failure.

Aerial appliances are also lifting equipment forlifting people as defined by LOLER. Fire andrescue services should therefore ensure that anaerial appliance has a thorough examination by acompetent person once every 6 months or inaccordance with an examination scheme drawn upby a competent person. Routine maintenance


• Ensure competence.

• Allow recognition of when and wherescaffolding can be erected.

• Ensure erection, use, maintenance, anddismantling is carried out safely.

Scaffolding or access tower erection requiresspecific training to:

Access towers must be secure, with stabilisers inplace and any wheels locked, before use. Any plansto use jets from a working platform erected onscaffolding or an access tower must take accountof the destabilising effect created by jet reaction.Aerial appliances, which are specifically designedfor this activity, may provide a more appropriatesolution.

• No person or items are on the platform.• Any overhead obstructions or power lines are

avoided.

• There are no dips or holes in the floor surface.

28


ROPE/CONTROL

DEVICE

In circumstances where access is available to anarea above the scene of operations and a suitableanchor site can be established, normal workrestraint, work positioning or fall arrest techniquesshould be used. The systems of work generallyused when work positioning is selected includethose shown in the examples below (see Figures

2.17,2.18 and 2.19).

• The urgency of need for access to a location at

height.• A limited number of people being exposed to

risk.• The short duration of a work activity.

These systems provide effective safe systems ofwork, but should only be selected when the riskassessment of a work activity identifies thatcollective methods of protection are unsuitable

due to:

2.2.7 Ropes, Harnesses and AssociatedEquipment

ANCHOR

Figure 2.17 Operator being lowered on aworking rope with backup provided bv (/second rope belayed{rom the top.

Work Positioning Systems - Example 1

Top controlled lower on two ropes,

one being the working rope and one the

safety rope.

• Are alternative safe systems of workavailable, or should they be introduced

following initial actions?• Can the area be controlled with a hazard zone

below the work platform?• Does the ladder need to be secured to the

structure or can stability be maintained by

footing?• Is maintaining a leg-lock suitable for the work

to be undertaken or does other provision need

to be made to prevent a fall?• Is the ladder approved for use as a fall arrest

anchor and its lateral stability ensured in case

of a fall to the side?• Can an independent anchor be provided for the

fall arrest system?• Can the work be carried out without

stretching to a position that could make the

ladder or person on it unstable?• Does the ladder need repositioning to ensure

stabil ity during the task?• What are the manual handling considerations?

Specific points to consider when assessingwhether it is appropriate to use a ladder as a work

platform include:

When work is undertaken from a ladder, ratherthan using it solely as a means of access or egress,it is categorised as a work platform. Laddersshould only be used as work platforms where a riskassessment shows that the use of other workequipment is not justified because of either:

when in use and where rigid ladders can not bepracticably positioned or are not suitable.

When using these ladders the following pointsshould be considered:

Within the FRS, use of this type of equipment isgenerally restricted to specialist teams who havereceived the appropriate training.

2.2.6.2 Ladders as work platforms

• A suitable anchorage is required for the ladder.• An additional fall arrest system is usually

required to protect an individual from theeffects of a fall from the ladder.

• Very few types of flexible ladder are ableto withstand a shock loading - as such aseparate anchor is required for any fall arrestsystem.

• Where possible. controlling movement of thebottom of the ladder will ensure climbing theladder is made easier.

• These ladders may be difficult to climb whenlaid against a surface, unless fitted withspacers to hold them off the surface so thathands and feet can be easily placed on therounds.

• Care should be taken during positioning toensure the ladder does not become snaggedor twisted.

When a ladder is used as a work platform,appropriate measures should be in place to preventor mitigate the effects of a fall. A leg lock shouldonly be considered appropriate for short durationtasks within easy reach of the ladder, otherwise fallarrest equipment must be used.

• The risk assessment establishes the activity islow risk and the task is of a short duration. or

• There are unalterable features of the work sitethat preclude the use of more appropriateequipment.


Fixed ladders are frequently found in environmentswhere it is not practical to use fire and rescueservice ladders for access. Examples may includeladders found in ships holds, communicationmasts, sewers, wind generators or fire servicetraining towers.

• Where possible the ladder should generallybe extended sufficiently above the point oflanding to provide a hand hold when mountingand dismounting. Three clear rounds willgenerally be sufficient.

• The improvised use of ladders as stepladders,for bridging, as an anchor system for lifting orlowering, or for other similar activities mustonly be undertaken in accordance with themanufacturer's instructions.

2.2.6 Fixed Ladders

2.2.6.1 Suspended ladders

Fixed ladders with short vertical runs or hoopedconstruction may be used by suitably trainedpersonnel without additional fall preventionprecautions being taken, provided only one personis on the ladder at a time. In all othercircumstances suitable precautions must be takento prevent or arrest a fall from the ladder. Specificpoints to consider include:

• Is the ladder in a location where it is regularlyused and inspected?

• If the ladder is not regularly used andinspected does it have obvious signs ofcorrosion or instability?

• Does the ladder lead into a confined space?• Are safe landing areas or rest platforms

provided at regular intervals?

• Is there sufficient space at the bottom of theladder for personnel to stand clear?

• On longer runs of vertical ladders, canpersonnel maintain a sufficient gap toaccommodate any fall arrest deviceemployed?

Suspended ladders, generally of a flexibleconstruction, are manufactured of varyingmaterials including wire, carbon fibre and/or nylonfabric. They are generally used as a temporarymeans of access and egress being positioned only

W: 30

~~---------

33Safe Wcn'k at Height

Use of Lanyards

Figure 2.20 Diagram showing the use of lanyards.

This is a relatively simple system, which involvesthe use of two lanyards attached to the operator'sharness via a suitable energy absorbing device(s)to arrest a fall. It is often used when ascendingvertical ladders or climbing open steelwork. Theoperator attaches the first lanyard as high aspossible and then starts to ascend, repositioningeach lanyard to a new anchor point as the ascent ismade. The operator must ensure that at every pointduring the climb, at least one of the lanyards issecured to an anchor that will provide protectionshould a fall occur. (See Figure 2.20.)

2.2.7.1

The system deemed most suitable will depend onthe situation involved, the experience of theindividuals involved and the availability of suitably

experienced support personnel.

In order to carry out this process safely, there aretwo recognised safe climbing methods, using:

• Lanyards or 'cow's tails'.

• Lead climbing techniques.

In either case the individual should trail a secondrope, which can be anchored above the worklocation and provide a more secure system ofascent for subsequent operators.

Once casualty access and safety has been achieved,unless urgent casualty evacuation is required dueto medical reasons, consideration should be givento waiting for the arrival of further equipmentand/or personnel to allow the addition of a second

system.

In circumstances where no access is available toa safe location above the work site it will benecessary to employ a 'bottom up' approach. Thiswill generally involve the first operator having toascend to a point above the scene of operationswhere suitable anchors may be established.

Using a single rope system should only beconsidered in extreme situations where inactionwould result in serious injury or death to therescuer or casualty. A suitable and sufficient riskassessment should take place prior to and duringall single rope work. Special attention should begiven to the suitability of anchors, with all anchorsused during single rope work being unquestionably

reliable.

These systems all describe techniques that allowan individual to work using two ropes. In veryexceptional circumstances where delay couldthreaten human life or allow a situation todeteriorate quickly there may be a need for anindividual to operate with one rope. This may beachieved by either a top controlled lower oroperator controlled descent on one working rope.

_ll _

ROPE~CONTROL

DEVICE

ROPE~CONTROL

DEVICE

RoPfaProtection

ROPE/CONTROL

~~rZ DEVICE

ANCHOR

Fire and Rescue Service !vfan/lal

Operator-controlled descent on a working

rope with a top-belayed safety rope.

Figure 2./8 Operator descending on ((.fixed toprope with backup provided by a second ropebelayed/ram the top.



Operator-controlled descent on a working

rope with operator-controlled safety device

on a separate safety rope.

Figure 2./9 Operator descending on u(ixed toprope with backup safety device attached to asecvndfixed rope.

32

2.2.7.2 tse of Lead Climbing Tcchniques

Lead climbing is a technique in which the operatoris protected by a rope or ropes, running throughintermediate 'running belays' and controlled by aperson operating a rope control device at the baseof the climb. It is a specialist technique, normallyonly appropriate for specifically trained andcompetent rope work technicians.

As the operator ascends, the climbing rope will beattached to a series of intermediate belay pointsattached to the structure. These 'running belays'may take the form of previously attached anchorpoints or may be added by the operator as the firstascent takes place (e.g. by placing slings andkarabiners around uitable parts of the structure).Each running belay should be able to support theweight of the operator in the event of a fall.

Should a fall occur. movement of the rope wouldbe limit d by the rope control device at the base ofthe climb, thus arresting the operator's fall. (SeeFigure 2.21.)

When using lead climbing techniques:

• Dynamic rope or a suitable energy absorbingsystem must be used to reduce the shock loadsthat may be generated in the event ofa fall. and

• The degree of extension that will occurduring fall arrest must be considered.

2.2.7.3 Recovcry or- Self -Rescue

Wherever possible the operator should descend tothe bottom of the risk area. disconnect from thesystem and walk to a place of safety. If this is notpossible a suitable recovery system must beavailable. This may include a winching system orsome other means by which the operator canascend the ropes on which they were lowered.

To be completely independent, the operator wouldneed to be additionally equipped with suitable ropecontrol devices to ascend the ropes, thereby havingindependent control of ascent and descent.

Situations in which this technique is of use wouldinclude exiting from a confined space such as a FIgure 2.21 Diagram showing the use of lead

cfimhing techniques.

silo or when accompanying a casualty being raisedon a separate system.

The use of this technique requires that the operatoris competent in changing from a descent mode toan ascent mode and vice versa.

These techniques are considered advanced ropeworking skills and as such would only beundertaken by competent rope work technicians.(See Figure 2.22.)

Figure 2.22 A simple3: I recoven'svstem illoperation.

2.2.7.4 Highlines and Cabkwa. s

Situations occur where ob tacles and projectionsprevent a direct vertical rescue and operators willneed to change the angle of descent to preventoperators or casualties from striking theseobstructions. Techniques to achieve this includethe use of highlines and cableways.

34 Fire and Rescue Service iVlanual Sale Work at Height 35

CASUALTY "-'\,

Figure 2.23b(above)

Figure 224 (right)Aerial cableway(and detail).

tensioned to provide the required angle of travel.The movement of the rescuer and/or casualty alongthe supporting ropes is controlled by the use ofrope control devices at both ends of the controlropes.

TAG LINE TENSIONEO~BY RESCUER

The use of these systems can create extreme loadsat the anchor points requiring the use of multipleanchors and/or back up systems. (See Figure 2.24.)

Due to the increased complexity of these systems,many fire and rescue services will see theoperation of cableways being restricted tocompetent rope work technicians.

CASUALTY IN/CASUALTY

HARNESS

HighlinesThe simplest example of a highline system is theuse of a tensioned tag or guy line that allows thedescending casualty and/or operator to be loweredat an angle away from a building. In this system,the working rope takes the load and the tag or guyline is used to deviate the angle of descent. Thisis termed a 'tensioned deviation' system. (SeeFigure 2.23).

CablewaysIn more complex systems, ropes support therescuer and/or casualty whilst control ropes areused to move them along a planned route. Thesupporting ropes will be secured at each end and

Figure 2.23a and 2.23b Diagrams ofa lowering by line system being tensioned by an operator:

36 Fire and Rescue Service Manual Sale Work at Height 37

2.3.1.3 Anchor Systems

In establishing a safe anchor system, considerationshould be given to:

Figure 2.27 Photograph a/temporary artificial anchors.

before first use and re-tested in accordance withthe manufacturer's instructions or written schemeof work. They must also be checked on a regularbasis both prior to and during use to ensurecontinued safety. (See Figure 2.26.)

Temporary artificial anchors such as vehicles,ground stakes, steelwork or climbing aids, areobjects utilised for anchorage only for the periodof use. In many cases they will have other primaryfunctions but their size, weight or location allowsthem to be used as anchors. These provide by farthe majority of anchors for operational fire serviceuse. (See Figure 2.27.)

Anchor systems may comprise a single anchor,commonly known as a 'single point anchorsystem' or may incorporate a number of linkedanchors, a 'multi-point anchor system'.

• Attachment to anchors.• Backing up anchors.• Anchor redundancy.• Equalisation of anchors.• Equalising knots and slings.

Figure 2.26 Photo a/permanent artificial anchor.

Figure 2.25Photograph o/mckbeing used as ananchol:

particular, the following points should beconsidered:

• Rocks and boulders should be assessed prior tobeing placed under load.

• Trees must be examined carefully to ensurethat they are alive, in a sound and healthycondition and deep rooted. Special care shouldbe taken with trees that are growing in shallowsoil, such as is found near the edges of cliffsand quarries as they may have inferior rootsystems.

• To be considered as a reliable anchor, a treeshould have a minimum trunk diameter of15cm and anchors should be secured aroundthe base to reduce leverage.

(b) Artificial AnchorsArtificial anchors are those specifically positionedby the fire service or others to provide anattachment to which ropes may be secured.Artificial anchors can be further divided into:

• Permanent artificial anchors.

• Temporary artificial anchors.

Permanent artificial anchors such as eyebolts arethose that are left in place when not in use. Theseanchors are generally considered reliable, as theyhave been specifically positioned and constructedfor anchorage purposes. They must be proof tested

2.3 Sy terns of Work

2.3.1 Anchors and Anchor Systems

In all cases the anchor system provides thefoundation for rope work operations and is acritical part of any rope system. The anchor systemmust be unquestionably reliable.

2.3.1.2 Anchors

2.3.1.1 General

An anchor can be defined as a safe point or objectto which a load may be securely attached. Ananchor system includes the anchor and theequipment used to connect it to the load or the ropesupporting the load.

Individual anchors can be divided into two broadcategories:

• Natural anchors.

• Artificial anchors.

(a) Natural Anchorsatural anchors can be described as those

furnished by the terrain such as trees and rocks.Care must be taken when selecting natural anchorsto ensure that they are substantial and that they arecapable of supporting the intended load. In


Figure 2.29 Diagram showing one possible configurationofbackup system providing anchor redundancy.

PRIMARYANCHOR

ROPECONTROL

DEVICE

WEBBINGSLING

SECONDARYANCHOR

BIG FAT KNOT /

FIG.8KNOT

(f) Extension ofa system following failureWhere a multiple anchor system is being used,thought has to be given to the effects of one ormore of the anchors giving way under load. If sucha failure occurs and the equalisation of the anchorshas not been correctly applied, there could be anextension of the system towards the load andconsequently a shock loading of the remaininganchors. Extension of the system is particularlyserious if the belay point is at or near a vertical

some point during the operation, the load will movelaterally between the two. To allow this to take placewhilst maintaining an even distribution of the loadbetween the two anchors, the load is attached to asingle sling by using an equalising knot. Care mustbe taken when making the knot to ensure that it willremain secure in the event of failure of anyone ofthe anchors. (See Figure 2.31.)

Figure 2.30 Diagram showing a system/or anchorequalisation.

PRIMARYANCHOR

SECONDARYANCHOR

(e) Equalising knots and slingsAn equalising knot is used to distribute a loadbetween two anchors when it is anticipated that at

It must be understood that the direction of pull ofa load is critically linked to equalisation of anchorsand there may be occasions when the load maymove to a different angle from its original position.The person having control of ropework operationsmust try to anticipate any movement of the loadand take this into account when setting up theanchor system. This will reduce the risk of anyoneelement of the anchor system being exposed toexcessive forces.

distributed between the anchor points. This ensuresmaximum strength from the available system andalso reduces the chance of any individual anchorfailing under load. Where any anchor or anchorsare not completely reliable, equalisation of thesystem is essential. Equalisation may be achievedby a number of methods including the use of theBig Fat Knot (BFK). (See Figure 2.30.)

(c) Anchor redundanLJIWhilst the above backup system will be sufficientin the case of a single-point anchor, which isunquestionably reliable it will generally benecessary to ensure that failure of a single anchorcannot result in complete failure of the systemsupporting a load. In order to achieve this, at leasttwo anchor points should be used, configured so asto back up each other. This principle is known asanchor redundancy. (See Figure 2.29.)

It should be noted that secondary anchor pointsmust be at least as strong as the primary anchorpoint. It is not acceptable to utilise multiple pooranchors in an attempt to create a strong anchorsystem.

(d) Load sharing between anchorsWhere anchors are at different positions withrespect to the line of loading, equalisation of theanchor system allows the load to be divided and

Figure 2.28 Photograph 0/a rigging plate in use.

Looping the sling through itself should be avoided,as this will severely reduce the strength of thesling. Where a single sling is not long enough to goaround the anchor it may be extended by anothersling or replaced by a rope loop. Slings must bejoined using a suitable connector and notconnected directly together as this may weakenthem due to friction between the slings.

When setting up a 'multi-point' anchor system, theuse of a rigging plate should be considered as thisprovides a well laid out and easily checked system.(See Figure 2.28.)

(b) Backing up anchorsWhere the anchor selected is a smooth boulder ortapered metal structure, the direction of pull maycause the sling(s) to slip off the anchor. In this casean additional sling, termed a backup sling, must beprovided.

(a) Attachment to anchorsConsideration can be given to attaching ropedirectly to certain types of anchors, for example,around the trunks of trees, but this may have adetrimental effect on the long-term durabi Iity ofthe rope. In general, where a connector such as akarabiner or screw link cannot be attached directlyto the anchor, a sling or strop should be appliedaround the anchor. The rope system may then beconnected to the sling or strop by suitableconnectors, taking care to minimise any sideloading or leverage on the anchor.

• Extension of a system following failure.• Divergence of angles in multiple anchor

systems.

Where an individual single point anchor is ofsubstantial construction and assessed as beingunquestionably reliable, it may be used on its ownto support a load, that may be attached to theanchor by means of a single sling and connector.Although the anchor is unquestionably reliable, thesling is not and must, therefore, be 'backed up' bya second 'duplicate' sling. This will ensure that inthe event offailure of the initial sling, there will bea suitable backup to prevent the load falling.

40 Fire and Rescue Service ivfanual Safe Work at Height 41


Figure 2.35 (bottom) Diagram 0/2 anchors withweight 0/ 100 kg at an angle 0/120 degrees. (showindividual weight at each anchor as 100Kg)

Figure 2.34 (middle) Diagram of2 anchors withweight of 100 kg at an angle 0/90 degrees. (showindividual weight at each anchor as 71 Kg)

Figure 2.33 (top) Diagram of2 anchors with weightof100 kg at an angle ofzero degrees. (~how

individual weight at each anchor as 50Kg)

In the first example (Figure 2.33), an angle isformed between the two legs extending from the

anchors at the point where the rope is directed

towards the load.

ANCHORS - Angles of Divergence

At first glance, it might appear that when a 100kg

load is attached to the main system it would beshared evenly between the two anchors, i.e., with

each anchor having a loading of 50kg. This is only

the case where the angle between the two legs is

zero degrees. The actual force on each anchordepends on the angle between the two slings or

legs. The wider the angle, the greater the force

exerted on each anchor and its associated rigging.

If the angle is then further widened to 120 degrees

(see Figure 2.35) the full weight of the load is

exerted onto each of the anchors and its

associated rigging. Widening of the angle further

still would create stresses on each anchor greater

than the load itself.

In Figure 2.34, we see that if the angle between

the legs is widened to 90 degrees, the forces on

each anchor increase significantly to around 71 kg.

When choosing anchors and setting up anchorsystems, firefighters must be careful to match thelocation, size, strength and number of anchorsrequired with the forces that the intended taskmight place on the system. Whenever possible,individual anchors should be selected so that theirmaximum strength lies in direct opposition to the

loading that will be applied.

2.3.1.4 Selection of Anchors

When dividing loads between anchors anglesmust, therefore, be kept as low as possible and inany case must not exceed 90 degrees. Reducing theangles and thus reducing the load on each anchormay be achieved by extending the length of thelegs from the anchors. Where this is not possible,more anchors should be added to help share the

load.

LOAD

CLIFF EDGE

BELAYERPULLEDTOWARDCLIFF EDGE

BEFORE

LOAD

AFTER

CLIFF EDGE

Figure 2.32 Diagrams showing the relocation ofthebelayer afterfailure ofan anchOf: .

BROKENANCHOR

AFTER

BEFORE

Fire and Rescue Service Manual42

SECONDARYANCHOR

drop as it could draw the belayer over the edge.(See Figure 2.32.)

Figure 2.31 Diagram showing the use and failure ofasimple equalising system. .

(g) Divergence ofangles in multiple anchorsystemsIn anchor systems utilising more than one anchorthe angle that is formed between the anchors andthe load will affect the force exerted on eachanchor. Some examples and explanations areshown below:

In most cases the identification and selection ofsuitable anchors will be a matter of judgementbased on training and experience. In cases ofdoubt, firefighters should err on the side of safety.It is always better to incorporate too many anchorsinto a system than too few.

(a) Structural steelwork and masonryIn the absence of purpose built artificial anchors,stntctural steelwork provides one of the strongestanchors available. Preferred steelwork includessubstantial support beams or columns, althoughwelded steel handrai Is, supports for heavymachinery and large diameter pipes may also beconsidered. Care should be taken to ensure that:

• The edges of steelwork are effectivelyprotected.

• Handrails are solidly fixed in place.• Anchors are secured around the base or point

of attachment to reduce leverage.• Pipework is adequately secured and of

suitable strength and is neither excessively hotnor cold.

• Insulated pipework should never be used, asthe insulation masks the true size andcondition of the pipe and could also compressunder load, possibly creating a sharp edge thatcould cut into rope or slings.

• Lightweight or corroded metal and cast iron isavoided.

Where structural steelwork is not available,stntctural masonry such as reinforced concretebeams or columns may be effectively used. Careshould be taken to ensure they are of adequate sizeand that edges are protected to prevent abrasion.

(h) Ground anchorsGround anchors may be constructed using roundmetal bar stakes, 'V ' or '1' section 'angle iron'stakes, or a variety of purpose designed groundplates that can be used either alone or incombination. Stakes should be inserted to theiroptimum depth and angled away from theanticipated load at approximately 15 to 20 degreesback from the vertical. Tests have shown that whenusing 'angle iron' as ground stakes, maximumbenefit will be achieved by placing the stakes sothat the closed edge of the 'V' or the flat edge ofthe '1' points towards the load. This will transfer

the load to the maximum area of ground contact.(See Figure 2.36.)

When using stakes as ground anchors, especiallywhen working in soft ground where the potentialof an individual stake failing is high, it may benecessary to combine a number of stakes to form asingle anchor unit. This may be achieved bylinking the stakes with slings so that they functionas a single unit, commonly known as a 'picket'.Where this is done, the connection between thefirst and subsequent stakes needs to be as tight aspossible in the initial construction of the anchorsystem. If this is not done, there is a possibility thatwhen the load is applied it will loosen the firststake and render it useless, resulting in a generalweakening of the system with the potential tocause progressive collapse of the entire anchor.(See Figure 2.37a.)

Care must be taken to ensure that the load is notallowed to deviate from the direct line of the leadstake, as this will greatly reduce the effectiveness

Figure 2.36 Plan ofground anchor 'T' and' V' stakes.

of the anchor. Where this is likely, the stakesshould be arranged in a 'V' configuration to lessenthe effect. An alternative method of constructing acombined anchor is by using a metal anchor plate.(See Figure 2.37b.)

(c) Vehicles as anchorsWhere no other suitable anchor is readily available,a motor vehicle can be considered for use as ananchor. When using a motor vehicle the followingpoints should be considered:

• The vehicle should be placed on firm levelground.

• The handbrake must be fully applied and thewheels chocked at both front and rear.

• The vehicle should be placed in gear, theignition keys removed and the vehicle locked.

• If the vehicle cannot be locked, a responsibleperson must remain in the vicinity to preventunauthorised interference or movement of thevehicle.

Figure 2.37aPhotograph showingangle and orientationofground stakes.

Figure 2,37bPhotograph shm.ving Vconfiguration ofground anchor system,

Figure 2.38Photograph 0/ vehiclebeing used as atemporary artificialanchor.

• Particular care must be taken should it benecessary to operate on icy, muddy,waterlogged or sloping ground, as there is amuch greater tendency for the vehicle to bemoved by the load.

• Structural parts of the vehicle, such as axlesand structural cross members should be usedas anchors.

• Towing eyes should generally be avoidedunless they are of closed construction and arewelded or substantially bolted to the chassis.

• Vehicle bumpers, 'bull bars', ladder bars orgrab rails should never be used as anchorpoints.

• Textile items such as rope or webbing slingsmust not be allowed to come into contact withhot parts of the vehicle such as brake dntms,engine or exhaust systems.

• Sharp edges, battery acid, grease and oil mustbe avoided. Should contamination occur,textile items including ropes may need to bewithdrawn from use and destroyed.


47

Standing part

the rope and to make the knot as safe as possible,every knot should be correctly made and tightened.

Figure 2.40 Diagram oJparts ofa rope.

• The purpose of the knot within the ropeworksystem.

• Whether the knot will remain secure in theintended appl ication.

• Whether it will adequately support anyintended or anticipated load.

Many knots provide ideal solutions to specifictasks, although their specialist nature may lead toinfrequent use. This is often compounded by acomplicated tying method leading to difficulty incorrectly applying the knot. Consideration should,therefore, be given to keeping the knots in use inbrigades as simple and effective as possible. Toensure that the most appropriate knot or knots areselected for a particular application, firefightersmust consider the following:

To maintain the integrity and security of a knot, a'stopper' knot should be tied in the running end ofthe rope. Commonly used stopper knots are theOverhand Knot, the Figure 8 Stopper Knot or theSingle Fisherman's Knot. In safety-criticalapplications, the running end should be tied offaround the standing part using a suitable knot suchas a Double Fisherman's Knot. The tail remainingon the running end of the rope after tying a suitablestopper knot and/or tying off the running endshould be at least 100 mm to allow for slippageand ensure that the knot remains secure.

All knots will weaken rope. The amount by whichthis occurs depends principally on how tight theradii of the turns within the knot are. The smallerthe radius, the weaker the rope will become at theknot. The amount by which the strength of the ropeis reduced may be lessened by using large knotssuch as a Double Loop Figure 8, or by increasingthe amount of rope within the knot such as in a"Big Fat Knot" (BFK), tied in a doubled orquadrupled rope. This not only improves thestrength of the rope but will also make the knoteasier to untie. To reduce the effect of weakening

A knot may be formed with a number of loops,hitches or turns involving one or both ends of arope or of two different ropes and each knot maybe tied in a number of ways using differentsequences. There are a number of different knotsavailable, some of which have specific functions,whilst others can be used in a number of situationsand for more general applications.

• It should carry out the function for which it isintended, safely and without slipping.

• It should be easy to tie.• The knot and its intended use should not

damage the rope.• It should be easy to untie.

The general requirements of a knot are:

2.4.1.2 Principles of Knot Tying

• Whipping - binding of the end of a rope withtwine to prevent it unlaying or unravelling.

• Seizing - the binding together of two or moreropes or parts of one rope to stop themmoving in relation to each other.

• Running part - the moving part of a rope thatis loose and is used to hoist and lower.

• Standing Part - the part of a rope that isnearest the eye, bend or hitch, as opposed tothe end.

• Hitch - a simple fastening of a rope to someobject by passing the rope round the object andcrossing one part over another.

• Running end - the free end of a rope.

Figure 2.39Photograph oJclimbingequipment in use astemporary artificialanchor:

General2.4.1.1

[n operational situations personnel may need to userope or cord, together with knots and hitches tojoin or secure items of equipment or other objects.Some tasks are routine and appropriate methodscan be pre-planned and practiced. Other tasks arenot routine, requiring more on site planning andcloser supervision to ensure that they are achievedin a safe and efficient manner.

2.4.1 Knots

2.4 Securing Casualties, Equipmentand Other Items

Whilst some operational objectives using rope canbe achieved by having fixed loops or connectorspermanently attached to the end of a rope, on mostoccasions the operational use of rope or cordagewill require the selection and tying of variousknots. Appropriate harnesses must always be usedto secure firefighters or casualties to a rope. Directattachment of a rope to a person does notconstitute a safe system of work.

A knot may be defined as the interlacement ofcordage in specific patterns for the purpose ofstopping ends, joining ends, forming loops andsecuring equipment. There are a number ofstandard terms used to describe parts of a knot orrope as follows:

• Bend - to fasten a rope to another rope or to anobject.

• Bight - the looped or loose part of a ropebetween two ends.

2.3.1.5 Operational Considerations

To ensure the anchor system is secure, thefollowing points must be considered.

(d) Climbing equipment anchorsTemporary anchorages may also be provided byusing equipment originally designed for theprotection of climbers. These can be positioned insuch a way as to act as anchors. Training must begiven and personnel assessed to ensure that theyare competent in the use of this equipment.Improperly selected or poorly placed equipmentcould potentially fail with serious consequences.

• Individual anchors must be assessed by acompetent person as to their suitability for theintended load prior to operations commencingand monitored during use.

• Main anchors should be backed up unlessconsidered 'unquestionably reliable' and theload applied to them limited to an acceptablelevel.

• Anchors should be protected againstmechanical and abrasive damage.

• The angles created by multiple anchors mustbe monitored and kept as narrow aspracticable.

• Before committing load to a verticalenvironment, all slack should be removed fromthe ropes.

• Erratic movement on lines or systems must beavoided as this can induce high stress loadingon anchors.

• The area around anchors must be kept tidy toallow easy monitoring of the system for anypossible movement.

SaJe Work at Height

~......4._6__.F.I.r_ea.nC.(.R.es.c.u.e.s.erv_ic.e.M.a.n.u.a.I 1ttz~ rd.._

(a) 'Standard' Knots

The following table contains a list of knots, bendsand hitches that are in general use. In the interestof clarity the 'running end' is not drawn to scalelength in the diagrams below. It should in practicebe at least 100 millimetres long in every case toprevent the knot untying.

Firefighters must be competent in tying knots inthe range of conditions likely to be met inoperational situations. They must also be able toadapt knots and lashings to a particular situationand training should prepare personnel for dealingeffectively with non-standard tasks.

2.4.1.3 Types of Knot

Bowline

Primary Function ~A non-slipping knot alsoknown as the single .bowline. Should only be ,,\\ S

used to secure a personwhere a purpose madeharness or rescue strop isnot available.

Running Bowline

Primary FunctionA bowline tied aroundthe standing part toform of a runningnoose.

Figure 2.41 (continued) Standard Knots

Overhand Knot

Primary FunctionSometimes known asa thumb knot. Usedas a stopper knot.

Rolling Hitch

Primary FunctionUsed to secure a line to any round object so that the knotwill not slip along the object when a sideways pull isapplied. Often used for securing or hauling hose linesaloft.

(b) Specialist Knots

Figure of Eight Stopper Knot

Primary FunctionStopper knot tied in asingle rope.

There are a number of specialist knots whichperform specific functions within rope systems ina variety of environments. They often act on therope itself to provide frictional resistance e.g. theItalian Hitch or to limit direction of rope travel e.g.the Prusik. They are generally only suitable for usewith modern kernmantel ropes or nylon webbing.

The knots described are not an exhaustive list andother knots may be suitable for specific tasks.

BFK (Big Fat Knot)

Primary FunctionFor creating a set of loopsfrom rope or ropes, usuallyas part of a multi-anchorsystem.

Double Fisherman's Knot

Primary FunctionFor joining two ropes together using two opposingbarrel stop knots.

~'

". ..:.:

Primary FunctionFor tying off a runningend.

Barrel Knot

Alpine Butterfly Knot

Primary FunctionTo create a loop inthe centre of a ropethat can be loaded inany direction.

Round Turn & Two Half Hitches

Primary FunctionUsed to secure a line to anyround object.

Fisherman's Bend

Primary FunctionThis is an alternative tothe Round Turn & TwoHalf Hitches that allowsthe rope to slide up anddown or along the beamor spar to which it hasbeen tied.

Double Sheet Bend

Primary FunctionA secure method of joiningtwo lines particularly thoseof unequal thickness.

Half Hitch

Primary FunctionThe basis of a number ofknots. Used extensivelyin conjunction with otherknots for securingsuction, etc.

Clove Hitch

Primary FunctionUsed to secure a line toany round object.

Figure 2.4/ Standard Knots. Figure 2.42 Specialist Knots.


• As hauling systems rely on some degree ofmechanical advantage, there is a risk ofexceeding the working load limit at the pointswhere the system attaches to the load and tothe anchor.

• The risk of the load becoming snagged mustnot be overlooked. Any tendency to overcomeadditional resistance by increasing the powerinput has the potential to injure casualties andrescuers, or overload the system causing it tofail.

• Lifting system should be set up so that oncelifting stops an auto-locking device orappropriate knot automatically holds the loadat the height to which it has been raised. Onceheld, there must be a facility to release the loadso that it can be lowered again under control.

• Where a lifting or hauling system is used tomove a live load, an independent back upsystem must be deployed to hold the loadshould the primary system fail.

on a rope. Heavier loads may require the use of aproprietary winch or pulley system to providemechanical advantage. When undertaking liftingand hauling operations the following should beconsidered:

2.4.2.4 A controlled lowering system

'Lowering' describes any operation that relies onrope to control the distance and rate of descent ofa load. Lowering systems use the force of gravityto generate movement, the rate of which iscontrolled by physically applying friction to therope through a rope-control device, friction brakeor by hand to ensure that the load does not descendin an uncontrolled fashion.

The weight of the load is a critical factor whendeciding which system or equipment to use. If theload is lightweight, it may be feasible to eitherlower hand over hand whilst wearing gloves orcontrol the speed of descent by a turn round abollard or the use of an Italian Hitch.

As the weight of the load increases however, itbecomes more difficult to maintain control byphysical strength alone and a rope control deviceshould be used.

Secure anchors2.4.2.1

When attaching loads for lifting or loweringpurposes they must be secured so that they cannotslip or fall, by:

2.4.2.3 A controlled lifting / hauling system

All lifting and lowering operations, from simplehauling aloft of equipment to advanced casualtyrescue, fall within the scope of The LiftingOperations and Lifting Equipment Regulations(LOLER). The requirement to comply withManual Handling Regulations will also haveimplications for the design of lifting and loweringsystems and their operation. Lifting, lowering andhauling systems all require the following principalcomponents.

2.4.2 Lifting, Lowering and Hauling

2.4.2.2 A secure method of attachingthe load

Any load should be securely attached to adedicated anchor system, unless:

Lifting or hauling operations will either rely on:

• It is light weight; and• A risk assessment confirms it can be safely

controlled without a dedicated anchor; and• There are no safety critical considerations

• Enclosing the load in a harness, lifting bag ornet, or where this is not possible.

• Securing the load by means of purposedesigned strops or slings. otherwise.;

• Tying the load directly on to the rope by use ofappropriate knots.

In both cases the force applied must be sufficientto overcome the force being exerted by acombination of gravity, friction over edges andwithin the system itself. Lifting lightweight itemsof equipment may be achieved by simply pulling

• Direct force, such as fire fighters hauling alength of hose aloft. or

• Indirect force, applied through a winch orpulley system.

Italian Hitch

Primary FunctionUsed in conjunction with akarabiner to create frictionalresistance to lower a loadunder control.

Rethreaded Figure 8 Knot

Primary FunctionFor tying on directly to aharness or round a fixedobject.

Double Loop Figure 8

Primary FunctionFor forming two loops usinga bight of rope.

Must not be used withoutadditional equipment tocreate a fail safe systemwhen dealing with live orheavy loads.

Tensionless Hitch (or No-Knot)

Primary FunctionTo provide an anchorwithout significantlyreducing the strengthof the rope.

Klemheist Knot

Primary FunctionTied with a loop ofnylon tape around arope to create alocking knot.

Note: A Klemheistknot does not complywith LOLER unlessgiven a SWL bysupplier.

Prusik Knot

Primary FunctionTied with a loop of smalldiameter accessory cordaround a rope to createa locking knot.

Note: A prusik knot doesnot comply with LOLERunless given a SWL bysupplier.

Mariner's Knot

Primary FunctionLocking off a pulleysystem. Can bereleased underload.

Single Loop Figure 8

Primary FunctionFor forming a single loop.

Figure 2.42 (continued) Specialist Knots.

50 Fire and Rescue Service ManualSafe Work at Height 51

53

-KARABINER

ANCHOR

Deviated RopeProtection

Safe Work at Height

fashion is suitable for the high forces that canbe imposed upon it including an adequatemargin for safety above those forces.Protect the rope using proprietary equipmentsuch as pads, mats or rollers. Where this is notavailable improvised protection may beprovided using equipment such as salvagesheets, chimney sheets or equipment bags.

~=============="'ii~-PULLEY

~s~~~~·-Rope Control...__- Device

Figure 2.44 EdgeProtection

Suitable methods of protection are to:

• Redirect the rope through a pulley at a highpoint above the edge or hazard. This willprevent the rope from dragging over the edgeand will make it easier to load. The pulley can •be suspended from a suitable anchor or a metalframe or tripod may be needed toprovide the necessary anchor point. It isimportant to ensure that equipment used in this

Figure 2.45 Photographs oj'various types a/rope edge protection.

Whenever ropes or fabric slings are laid acrossloose ground, abrasive surfaces or an edge, everyeffort must be made to ensure adequateprecautions are taken to protect the equipmentfrom damage. Points to consider include:

2.4.2.5 Rope & Equipment Protection

• A safe route of egress at the base of the lowershould be identified and maintained.

• When exposed to a sharp or abrasive edge, atensioned rope or sling is more vulnerable tofailure than when not under tension.

• Rope protection is especially important with'non-moving' ropes and slings where the samepart is in constant contact with the edge.

• Moving ropes, whilst less vulnerable todamage from edges, are more prone todislodge rocks and other debris, which mayfall onto personnel or equipment.

• The method of protection selected should nothinder the use of the rope or sling.


Figure 2.43 Photograph ofan artificial high directional (AHD) in use at an edge.

The following points should be considered beforecommencing lowering operations:

52

• Anchor systems must be of sufficient strengthto support the load.

• Ropes must be of sufficient length to reach atleast the full distance that the load is to belowered, unless personnel are competent topass knots through the system.

• Suitable edge protection is in place.• A suitable knot (such as a figure 8 stopper

knot) is tied near the end of the rope so that itwi II not pass through the lowering device.

• Lowering devices should be suitable for theload that may be applied.

• Lowering devices should be suitable for thetype of load to be lowered (auto-lockingdevices should be used for live loads).

• There should be a suitable backup system In

place where appropriate.

• A hauling system should be available to raisethe load should the need arise, e.g. the loadbecoming snagged during the lower.

55

DIRECTIONOF PULL

Figure 2.48 Diagram ofa directional pulley.

50 Kg

Figure 2.49 Diagram ofa simple pulley system with aMA 0(2.

In Figure 2.49 , there are two parts at the movingblock, therefore, the mechanical advantage is two(MA = 2). In this situation the force exerted on thehauling part to lift the load of 100 Kg is only 50 Kg.

Safe Work at Height

HAULING PART

STANDING PART

Lifting and hauling systems can be configured in avariety of ways but all rely on the concepts ofmechanical advantage and velocity ratio tomultiply a force exerted on a rope. Thus it ispossible for firefighters, either as individuals or inteams, to lift or haul loads that exceed bodyweight.

MOVING BLOCK

RUNNING PART

STANDING BLOCK

2.4.4 Mechanical Advantage and VelocityRatio

Figure 2.47 Diagram o(a pullev system, showing blocksand the rope connecting them.

(a) Mechanical AdvantageThe amount by which the force exerted on thehauling part is multiplied by the pulley system isknown as the mechanical advantage (MA) and in asimple system, excluding frictional loss, is thesame as the number of parts of the rope at themoving block.

2.4.3.2 Pulley Systems

The pulley blocks in a 'tackle' or pulley systemare known as the 'standing block' and the 'movingblock'. The standing block is attached to the anchorand the moving block is attached to the load. Therope that is rove through the pulleys is known asthe' fa]]' and has a 'standing part', a 'hauling part'and a 'running part'. (See Figure 2.47.)

A pulley system or 'tackle' is a combination ofpulleys through which a rope is threaded in such away that a force applied to one end is increased.This increase in force is dependent upon thenumber of pulleys in the system and the manner inwhich the rope is rove through them. Pulleyscontaining more than one sheave are known aspulley blocks. The block being the shell or body inwhich the sheaves are housed.

A third type of pulley block is the 'directionalblock' or 'directional pulley'. The function of thedirectional pulley is simply to alter the direction ofthe hauling part of the rope. It does not confer anyincrease in force to the pulley system itself.Directional pulleys must always be attached to ananchor, never to the load. Any number ofdirectional pulleys may be used in a system toobtain the necessary direction of haul. As with allpulleys, however, there will be some loss ofefficiency due to friction within each pulley andthe number of directional pulleys should,therefore, be kept to a minimum. (See Figure 2.48.)


Winching systems can be either manually operatedor powered by some form of electric, hydraulic orfuel-driven power unit. Powered winches offer theadvantage of speed in use, a simple system of workand minimum numbers of personnel to operate.They may be difficult to control with sufficientaccuracy to safely lift a live load and the potentialhazard of a person being caught on an obstaclemust be considered. The system must be capable ofbeing stopped quickly if necessary.

2.4.3.2 Winching Systems

Lifting or hauling lightweight items of equipmentmay be safely achieved by using rope, withappropriate knots and manual handling techniques.Heavier loads, such as rescuing people or movingheavy objects, will generally require the use ofwinches or pulley systems.

2.4.3 Winches and Pulley Systems

2.4.3.1 General

(See Figure 2.46.)

Manually operated winches are better suited forthe lifting and hauling of people but can be slow inoperation. They can be divided into the followinggroups, dependent upon their method of operation:

• Capstan winches.

• Rope clamp winches.

Figure 2.46 Photographs o(Capstan and Rope Grab Winches.

54

Figure 2.52 Diagram of3: J Piggy-back pulley systemand rope grab.

objects over increased distances. This type ofsystem is essentially a simple pulley system (often3: J or 4: I) that instead of being attached directly tothe load, is attached to a rope connected to the load,usually by a rope grab. This allows the load to bemoved through the full length of a single rope byperiodically re-setting the pulley system byoperation of the rope grab. (See Figure 2.52.)

113 LOAD113 LOAD

ROPECONTROLDEVICE

113 LOAD

'Piggy-back' Pulley SystemsTo overcome the limitations of simple systems, a'piggy-back' system can be used to lift or haul

Figure 2.51 Diagram o{simple pulley system 3: I.

(b) Complex Pulley SystemsThe nature of complex pulley systems and the highforces they can generate are such that systemspecific training must be given. Complex systemsmust be supervised in use and operated bycompetent personnel. There are two main forms ofcomplex pulley system:

ROVE TOADVANTAGE

MOVINGBLOCK

ROVE TODISADVANTAGE

Figure 2.50 Diagrams ofa 2: J pulley system - rove toadvantage and rove to disadvantage.

distance. Other pre-rigged systems include a fixedblock that also acts as a capstan winch whenundertaking lowering operations.

Because each part of the fall extends the fulldistance between the standing and fixed blocks,simple systems use a lot of rope, e.g. a 3: I systemlifting a load from 10 metres requires in excess of30 metres of rope. (See Figure 2.51.)

2.4.4.] Simple and Complex Pulley Systems

In any pulley system, considerable friction iscreated, both in the bearings within each pulleyblock and by the rope passing over the pulleys.This friction accounts for the difference betweenthe mechanical advantage and the velocity ratio ofthe pulley system. In a simple system where thevelocity ratio is 3 (3: I), friction may reduce themechanical advantage to about 2.3 (MA = 2.3).

(c) Rove to AdvantagelDisadvantageThe number of parts at the moving block andtherefore the velocity ratio is always greater whenthe hauling part comes away from the movingblock. A pulley system using this configuration issaid to be 'rove to advantage'. In circumstances,usually caused by topography or the need to alterthe direction of pull, where the hauling part comesaway from the standing block, is said to be 'rove todisadvantage'. (See Figure 2.50.)

Pulley systems are extremely adaptable and can beconfigured in a variety of ways to achieve differentfunctions. Pulley systems can be classified assimple or complex.

(a) Simple Pulley Systems

(b) Velocity RatioMechanical advantage is only gained at theexpense of speed of working. It can be seen that,for any two metres of movement on the haulingpart, the load will only be lifted through a distanceof one metre. The ratio between the distancemoved by the hauling part and the distance movedby the load is known as the 'velocity ratio',referred to as X: I. In a simple system X is alwaysthe same as the number of parts of the rope at themoving block.

Simple pulley systems are straightforward toconstruct and operate and are generally suitable foruse by all firefighters. These systems consist ofone moving block and one standing block. Eachblock may have one, two or even three pulleys.They are designed to be quick to set up and easy touse but are usually limited to a mechanicaladvantage of 2, 3 or 4. Some manufacturedsystems are pre-rigged using small diameter cordand can create velocity ratios of 6: lover a short


• Physical environment.• Casualty's injuries.• Medical requirements.• Time constraints.• Available resources.

Other than the most urgent of rescues, any systemused should allow for basic first aid procedures tobe applied throughout the rescue and facilitate anymedical interventions or care required by thecasualty. It is often more effective to limit medicalcare to basic life saving measures and evacuatequickly in order to begin advanced medicaltreatment on more secure terrain where thecasualty is more accessible to qualified medicalpersonnel and equipment.

2.4.5.1 Securing Casualties

If the casualty's condition or situation requiresimmediate rescue the use of work at heightequipment may not be appropriate. The decision toundertake a rescue from height without work atheight equipment can only be taken after a robustdynamic risk assessment. This type of rescue couldinclude assisted ladder walk-downs and casualtycarrydown.

When deciding appropriate equipment andsystems to use for the rescue of casualties, thedetermining factors will be:

2.4.5 Securing Casualties andPerforming Rescues from Height

When it is not feasible to raise a combined loadconsideration should be given to raising thecasualty and rescuer individually.

Immediately upon accessing the casualty, anassessment of the situation must be made todetermine whether immediate evacuation IS

In order to offer medical, physical and emotionalsupport it may be necessary for the casualty to beaccompanied by a rescuer throughout theevacuation. In rope-based systems, this approachwill increase the loading on the anchors and theequipment and therefore specific considerationmust be taken of the forces applied to thecomponents within the system.

• The load placed on the anchor of any pulleycan be up to twice the load being lifted,therefore anchors for pulley systems must beunquestionably reliable.

• For maximum efficiency in lifting operations,pulley systems should be anchored directlyabove the working area or a directional pulleyshould be provided directly above the workarea.

• Personnel operating pulley systems in thehazard zone must be provided with theappropriate PPE and linked to a suitableanchor.

• The force exerted over an edge when usinga hauling system is greater than the forceproduced when lowering a load. This increasedforce can damage ropes and increase abrasionso all edges must be well protected oralternatively, ropes should be deviated awayfrom abrasion points.

• The force applied to a pulley system must becontrolled, as it is easy to exceed the safeworking limits of equipment when systemsthat provide mechanical advantage areemployed.

• A suitable rope control device should be usedin the pulley system to prevent uncontrolleddescent of the load should it be necessary torelease the hauling part.

• Where the load being hauled or lifted is aperson, a separate safety rope system that willprevent the uncontrolled descent of the personin the event of a failure in the pulley systemshould be employed.

• Effective communications within the teamoperating the pulley system are vital to ensuresafe operation. Signals to pull, stop, releaseand lower must be clear and pre-determined.Where possible the load should be under closeobservation throughout the lifting or haulingoperation. Hand signals are detailed inAppendix 7 of Fire and Rescue ServiceManual Volume 4, 'Fire Service Training,Foundation Training and Development'.

• Firefighters pulling on the hauling part of apulley system must stop as soon as anyincrease in resistance is felt as this mayindicate the load has jammed. Continued strainon the hauling part can quickly lead todangerous forces being created or, if the load isa person, to serious injury.

3-1

ROPESYSTEM 2

Figure 2.53 Diagramt.m~.m- afCompound pulley

.system.

2.4.4.3 Operational Considerations

• A manual handling assessment.• The number of competent personnel available.• The work area that is available, as space may

be very limited.

• The effective weight of the load.• The distance to be travelled by the load.• The urgency of the situation and the time

available to undertake the work.

When constructing and using pulleys and pulleysystems the following points should be considered:

• A dynamic risk assessment encompassingmanual handling issues.

ROPECONTROL

DEVICE

ANCHOR

Compound Pulley SystemsThese systems are constructed by using one pulleysystem to act directly on a second system, thusmultiplying the force that can be exerted on theload. The moving block of the second system isusually attached to the hauling part of the firstsystem by a rope grab. For example, a 3: I systemconnected to a 2: I system will generate a velocityratio of6 (6:1). (See Figure 2.53.)

2.4.4.2 Selection of Appropriate Systems

When selecting the appropriate system for aparticular operational situation, the degree ofmechanical advantage required can be determinedfrom:

58 Fire and Rescue Service ll1anual Safe Work at Height 59

61

MinimumRisk

PotentialIncreased

Risk

Sale Work at Height

In unconscious, immobile and injured casualtiessuspension trauma has been known to be fatal in aslittle as 2 to 3 minutes. Factors that may affectcasualties in suspension and lead to orthostaticshock include:

prolonged period of suspension can result inserious trauma in less than 30 minutes whether ornot a harness is worn.

• Exhaustion.• Hypothermia.• Hypoglycaemia.• Head trauma.• Dehydration.

• Shock.• The degree of inclination of the body.• Time delay in casualty access.

If possible, movement of the casualty's limbswhilst suspended may mitigate the effects oforthostatic shock; however, rapid evacuation fromthe suspended position to immediate medicaltreatment is the preferred option. The possibility ofsuspension trauma must always be considered withany suspended casualty. However, the casualty'sother injuries must not be ignored.

Urgent RescueRequired

Specific provision forRescue from height

Safe routeor existing means of egress

LimitedTime

No TimeConstraints

2.4.6 Casualty Management

2.4.6.1 Suspension Trauma (OrthostaticIntolerance)

• If immediate rescue is necessary to preventserious injury or death, the most appropriatesolution may be to use fire and rescue serviceladders for assisted walk-downs or carrydowns. (See Figure 2.55.)

When using rope systems, the route by which thecasualty is to be rescued and the method ofmovement should be establ ished before startingwork. If a casualty is stranded at height the mostsuitable route may be to lower them, providingegress is available from the base of the hazardzone. Raising and traversing with casualties ismore complex and places greater requirements onresources and higher loadings on equipment.

Figure 2.55 Therelationship bet>veenrisk. time available andthe selection o{rescuemethod.

With the increasing use of harnesses and ropesystems for recreation and in the workplace, amedical condition associated with prolongedsuspension has been identified. Known asorthostatic intolerance or suspension trauma, thecondition occurs where an immobile person issuspended in a harness or from a rope system. A

Figure 2.54 Diagrama/lire fighters carryingout casualty evacuationusing 1>1'0 rope systemand rope controldevices aI/ached to animprovised anchOl:

For simplicity. back upsystem not shown.

• If time and circumstances permit an aerialappliance may be appropriate. Specificconsiderations include:• Availability.• Access.• Overhead hazards.• Underground hazards.• Increased rescue loads.• Time constraints.• Operating envelope.

• In situations where neither of these options areviable or reasonable then the use of rope basedsystems may be appropriate. Rope systems forcasualty rescue should incorporate thefollowing:

• A casualty harness, rescue strop orstretcher.

• Two independent rope systems.• A secure anchor point for each rope

system.Two rope control devices; one to control therate of descent, one to provide a backup inthe event of failure.


required and what equipment and systems of workcan be implemented.

The casualty should not be directly attached to arope unless there is an immediate risk of thecasualty falling and a proprietary rescue sling orharness is unavailable.

2.4.5.2 Rescue

If immediate evacuation is not necessary thencasualties should be secured against the risk offalling, until suitable systems of work can beimplemented.

There is a hierarchy that should be applied whendeciding the method of rescuing casualties fromheight. This will be determined by thecircumstances of each incident and riskassessments must give due consideration to thefollowing options:

• Remove casualties to a place of safety via asafe route or existing means of egress, such asan internal stairway, which doesn't require anyadditional safety equipment.

60

2.4.6.2 Stretcher Rescues

2.5.1 Existing Places of Work


A minimum barrier height of 950mm is defined inSchedule 2 of the Regulations. This requirementonly applies to work at height during constructionwork covered by the Construction (Health, Safetyand Welfare) Regulations 1996. It may, however,be used as a good practice guide in otherenvironments although the actual height requiredmust be determined through a risk assessment asrelevant to each particular circumstance.

Where edge protection is not present, andconstruction of such protection is not feasiblewithin available timescales, such as during theearly stages of emergency work, then risk can beavoided by preventing access to the hazard zone.Based on the maximum distance that an individualcould conceivably slip or trip, on level ground, thisshould extend a minimum of 3 metres from any:

• Unguarded edge.• Sloping surfaces or embankment leading to an

unguarded edge.

The height of edge protection and otherappropriate control measures to prevent falls fromthese environments should be derived through anappropriate risk assessment. This must considerthe range of people who may be at risk (includingchildren), with the height of barriers and any gapsin them being such that accidental falls areprevented. It can be seen, therefore, that there is nodefined universal height for barriers that providecollective protection from falls.

• Roofs.• Cliffs and Embankments.• Shafts, wells, sewers, etc.• Railway rolling stock, large goods vehicles,

buses, aircraft, etc.• Shipping.• Silos, storage tanks, industrial plant, etc.

The normal hierarchy for work at height applies inall these environments, irrespective of whetherthey are stable, in normal condition, or have beendamaged by some sort of incident.

Figure 2.56 Example 01edge protection retrofitted to ailat roolto prevent faUsfrom height.

• A non-fragile roof with a permanent parapet orguard rail.

• A silo or storage tank etc, with fixedguardrai Is.

• Mezzanine floor with fixed edge protection.

• The structure may become unstable due to firespreacl, etc.

• If windows are removed or broken and as aresult unprotected openings are created.

An existing (safe) place of work can change, due tochanging conditions, for example:

Additionally, safe places of work at height should:

Some examples of an existing place of work thatcan be considered 'safe' are:

Any change in circumstances that give rise to therisk of a potential fall means that a location can nolonger be considered an 'existing' place of work.Dynamic risk assessment must be undertaken andthe situation monitored at regular intervals, withappropriate actions taken to prevent a fall ormitigate the consequences.

Unprotected edges, where there is a risk of a fall,may be found in a range of work environments,including:

A drill tower may be considered a 'safe place ofwork' if the risk assessment considers that all ofthe above apply e.g. the internal ladder access gapwill need to be adequately protected and the top ofrailings or parapets on roofs and window openingsare of adequate height to prevent a fall.

• Be stable and of sufficient strength andstability.

• Be of sufficient dimension to allow safe workand passage of persons and materials.

• Have suitable and sufficient means ofpreventing a fall.

• Not present slip, trip & fall hazards.• Have no surface gap through which a person

could fall.

2.5.2 Unprotected Edges


Casualties whose condition or injuries do not allowfor the use of casualty harnesses during rescuemay need to be packaged and removed using astretcher. Generally, unconscious casualties andthose with major or spinal injuries should alwaysbe transported by stretcher in a horizontal position,with movement in a vertical position only beingtemporarily used to negotiate obstacles. Whenusing stretchers the following points must beaddressed:

2.5 Operational Environments

• The stretcher and associated equipment mustbe fit for the intended use.

• The stretcher and associated equipment mustbe used within a safe system of work at alltimes (e.g. during the transfer at height of thestretcher to an aerial appliance).

• Extra loading on the system due to the use ofoperators as stretcher attendants.

• Physical protection for the casualty to preventInjury.

• Warm clothing or covering for the casualty toprevent hypothermia.

An 'existing place of work' at height is bestthought of as a place of work with permanent fallprevention measures such as guard rails or aparapet and no need for any additional equipmentto remove the risk of a fall. Parts of buildings orpermanent structures (including the means ofaccess and egress) generally fall into this categoryand should be used for work at height in preferenceto any place provided by temporary workequipment.

The use of attendants accompanying stretchers inrope rescue should be considered an advancedtechnique and fire and rescue services will wish torestrict such stretcher use to specialist teams.There are many systems of work suitable for usewith stretchers and further advice can be soughtfrom the National Rope Users Group or specialisttraining providers.

62

2.5.4 Flat Roofs

2.5.5 Sloping Roofs

be considered fragile and appropriate precautionstaken.

Falls from flat roofs not only occur from the edges,but also through openings or gaps in the roof andthrough fragile roof material.

A fragile surface is one that will not support theweight of a person and the load they are carrying.Falls through fragile roofs or surfaces have beenidentified by the HSE as causing an average of tenfatal accidents per year. Typical examples offragile roof materials are:

2.5.6 Fragile Roofs/Surfaces

The stability of a surface must be determinedbefore work begins. It can be difficult todistinguish between roof light sheets and metalsheets particularly in certain light conditions andthis has been a major factor in past fatal accidents.All roofing sheets should be treated as fragile andshould not be directly walked on unless it can bedetermined absolutely that they are of adequatestrength to support the load. Work must bearranged to ensure that personnel do not walk onor work near fragile surfaces. An identified threemetre exclusion zone would be appropriate for safeworking. General principles are:

DON'T:• Stand on, walk on or step across any

roof-lights.• Run on or jump onto roof surfaces.• Drop equipment onto roof surfaces.• Treat bolt lines as a safe route.

Subject to a suitable risk assessment, it may be safeto work without a roof ladder when the pitch of asloping roof is shallow, the surface provides a goodfoothold and secure edge protection or otherappropriate fall protection is provided.

ALWAYS:• Treat Asbestos cement roof or roofs treated

with bitumen or any other surface coating asfragile.

• Plastic/Perspex roof light sheets.• Fibre cement sheets.• Corroded metal sheets.

• Glass.• Wood wool slabs.• Fire damaged materials.• Materials weakened by structural collapse.

(See Figure 2.57.)

Roof ladder anchorage should bear on the oppositeroof and not depend on the roof ridge capping asthis can break away. Roofladders rely on load beingapplied at right angles to the surface on which theyrest, to ensure that the securing hook at the head ofthe ladder, and the bearers under the ladder, transferload to the roof structure evenly across their entiresurface. Any twisting or turning movement mayjeopardise this security. Consequently, roof laddersshould only be considered as secure anchorage forwork restraint or fall arrest systems after dynamicrisk assessment. Where they are to be used as awork location for anything more than short durationoperations, an independent fall protection system,using an alternative anchorage, is preferable. Thiscan be achieved by deploying fall protectionsystems anchored at ground level on the oppositeside of the building, with securing lines passing upover the roof, to firefighters working on the otherside of the premises.

construction and environmental variables, such asmoisture, ice, snow and lichens all influence thedegree of risk. Key considerations when workingwith sloping roofs are:

• Safe means of access to roof level.• A properly constructed and securely pitched

roof ladder.

Edge protection should be put in place for work onsloping roofs unless the work is of short duration.Emergency fire and rescue service work willgenerally fall into the short duration category, forwhich the erection of edge protection may beimpractical. Safe systems of work must, however,provide:

• The roof surface should not be directly steppedon unless suitable protection from a fall is inplace.

• The slope can obscure the view of the groundgiving a false sense of height and security.

• It may be difficult to arrange secure anchorsfor personal protection systems.

Falls from sloping roofs are a common cause ofserious accidents and most frequently occur whenworking at the eaves or gable ends, by slipping onthe exterior surface or by breaking through into theinterior void.

Hierarchy of Control2.5.3.1

AvoidIt is important that personnel planning for, orresponding to incidents involving roof work, makea conscious effort to identify alternative methodsof work such as working from the ground, an aerialappliance or staging. As an example, attacking achimney fire from the grate is usually the simplestand quickest method. It avoids the need to carryequipment aloft and work at height therebyeliminating the risk of falls and of anything fallingonto someone below.

MitigateWhere the risk of a fall from a roof can't beavoided, suitable collective protection or personalprotection systems must be used.

PreventWhere working on a roof cannot be avoided,prevent the risk of a fall by using availableprotection such as guardrails and travel restraintsystems. Where prevention is impracticable,reduce the risk by using roof ladders, roofplatforms, crawl boards and similar equipment.

Before walking or working on a flat roof, it isimportant to identify its strength and stability. Flatroofs can often be used for working on e.g.installation or maintenance of ventilationequipment etc, but some are fragile and may nothave the ability to support the weight of a personand are not designed for walking or working on.

For safety assessments it is not practical todetermine the specific angle which distinguishessloping roofs from flat roofs. Falls are most likelyif the slope is steep, if the surface is slippery andin windy conditions. Different materials of

2.5.3 Roofs - Flat Roofs, Sloping Roofsand Fragile Roofs

Getting on and off a roof is a major risk in itself. Asecure means of access/egress is essential. Laddersare commonly used, although access may be gainedby use of an aerial platform or via internalstairways. Aerial platforms provide a safe workplaceand should always be considered as an alternative toworking on the roof itself or off a ladder.

The risks of working on roofs are substantialhowever long or short the work and high standardsof safety are necessary at all times. The principalrisks are falls through fragile roofing materials andfalls from unprotected roof edges. The normalhierarchy applies, with the first control measurebeing to avoid working on roofs. Where avoidanceis not possible, a risk assessment should be carriedout and a safe system of work adopted, for exampleeliminating or reducing the distance of any fall by:

As an incident progresses supervision by a safetyofficer and the erection of simple barriers, such astape or rope will identify the safe work area andaccess routes to it. Small openings may beprotected by securing props horizontally across theopenmg.

• Working from an 'existing place of work'.• Utilising an aerial appliance.

Many other methods of accessing roofs may beavailable to fire and rescue service personnel at anincident, including scaffolding, MEWPS,suspended access equipment, masts and platforms.Before any such method of access is used a fullrisk assessment must be carried out with advicetaken from appropriate competent persons, as thehistory of erection, use and maintenance may notbe available to fire and rescue service staff.

The Regulations do not prohibit working on a rooffrom a ladder, but ladders must be usedappropriately after a risk assessment has beencarried out.It should be noted that not all roof constructionsystems can support the weight of a person undernormal conditions and generally stable strong roofstructures can be significantly weakened by fire orcollapse. In cases of doubt, a roof structure should


Figure 2.59 Access steps and working platform for vehicle Inaintenance,

• Ensure safe access and egress from the roof.• Short duration work where possible.• Beware of fragile and slippery surfaces.• Use the most appropriate equipment for the

work.

• Control the risks from falling objects whenworking on a roof.

2.5.7 FRS Vehicles

Working on the decks or roofs of fire and rescueservice vehicles should be avoided. Where this isnot possibl suitable systems of work must beestablished to prevent falls or mitigate their effects.A range of general principles should be consideredand applied as appropriate to local circumstances,including:

Key points for roof work:

but they may not be capable of supporting aconcentrated load similar to a person walking overit. The whole of a roof structure ne ds to beconsidered, including the overall construction,internal structure, loading, surface, skylights orother openings and weakening due to fire orstructural damage.

• Avoid roof work where possible.• Use work equipment or other measures to

prevent falls.

• Where roof work cannot be avoided and therisk of a fall cannot be eliminated, use workequipment or other measures to minimise thedistance and consequences of a fall should oneoccur.

Figure 2,57 Complexroof area withexamples ofroof lights.fragile sUljc/ces andbarriers providingcollective protection.

Figure 2,58 0!fJicalfragile material warning sign.

Fragile material should be clearly marked with asign as indicated on Figure 2.58.

CONSIDER:• Old roofs treated with bitumen paint/mastic

will have many hidden dangers.• Cracked sheets that will certainly be fragile• The pre:.;cnce of profiled roof-lights that blend

into their surroundings.• Failing washers and fixings making the roof

fragile.

The Regulations provide an exemption for theemergency ser ices from the requirement to usewarning signs for fragile surfaces, when acting inan emergency. In an operational environment, if itis not reasonably practicable to provide signage toalert personnel to the presence of fragile surfaces,other measures should be taken such as briefingcrews, posting a safety officer or taping an areaoff. The absence of a warning sign must not betaken to mean the surface is safe and advice shouldbe sought from the premises owner, occupier orother knowledgeable source as to the integrity ofthe roof.

Some roof coverings can give a false sense ofsecurity by supporting an evenly distributed load


2.5.8 Service and Utility Structures

The hazards of working on service and utilitystructures alter significantly according to the typeand location of the structure. Specificconsiderations include:

69Safe Work af Height

• Mitigate: Fall arrest and suitable rescue/recovery systems should be available whennecessary to reduce the effects of any falland/or recover any casualties.

• Avoid: Is it possible to achieve the task in adifferent way that does not represent assignificant a hazard? As an example USARcrews may be able to utilise an aerialappliance or crane for access to a work siterather than climbing over a rubble pile to gainaccess.

2.5.11 Working Near Water

When working in or on collapsed structures andthere is a risk of a fall from height, the normalhierarchy of control should be used:

At large structural collapse incidents, fire andrescue services and other supporting agencies willoften be drawn from a large area and work in closeproximity to each other. Compatibility ofequipment and procedures must be consideredwhen planning work on a collaborative basis.

• Prevent: Where there is potential for a fall,work restraint systems may provide a suitablecontrol system, capable of preventing any fall.

When working at height above or near water,protection from falls must be provided in the sameway as in all other work at height environments.Many of the skills and much of the equipmentrequired for technical work at height and waterrescue are similar, so in reality the twocapabilities are complementary and may becombined.

Compatibility of equipment and procedures mustbe confirmed when designing dual purpose workat height and water rescue systems. For example,work at height systems are normally designed sothat they can not be disconnected under load, but acritical requirement of water rescue systems is thatany rescuer entering water must be secured by asystem that can be released one-handed by thewearer, whilst under load.

Incidents involving rescue from trees may occur inlocations with difficult access needing off roadvehicles to transport personnel and equipment.Specific points to consider include:

anything falling from high levels may landsome distance away from the structure.

• Effective communication can be difficult dueto wind noise.

• Voice operated communications equipmentmay be needed to allow hands-free operation.

• Structure operating companies may have an inhouse rescue capability, with specificknowledge relating to the risk, although theirresponse times can be extended. Pre-planningshould include liaison with these teamswherever possible.

2.5.9 Trees

2.5.10 Collapsed Structures

• Specialist tree climbing or lead climbinginvolving technical rope work skills may berequired.

• Anchor selection can be difficult and anybranches used as anchors must be thoroughlyinspected prior to use.

• Chain saws and other tools that were beingused by a casualty may pose additionalhazards.

• Advice and assistance that may be availablefrom skilled arboriculture staff on site.

• Casualty rescue may require branches andfoliage to be cut to establish a safe rescueroute.

When working in or on collapsed structuresadditional hazards may be encountered due toconfined spaces, unprotected edges, unstableground and surfaces that can cause damage toequipment. It is important to ensure that any workat height equipment is sufficiently robust tooperate in these environments and is closelymonitored and protected during use to avoiddamage that may increase the risk of equipmentfailure. Consideration must also be given to therequirement for safe work at height practices to beapplied as a consequence of the Confined SpaceRegulations, which may be applicable to someaspects of work in collapsed structures.

these conditions may suffer an early onset offatigue and exposure.

• Accessing many structures of this type mayneed lead-climbing techniques to be applied.These require specialist skills, including acomprehensive understanding of fall factors,the use of dynamic ropes and placement ofrunning belay points.

• Working on these types of structure mayinvolve operating at extreme height. Theeffects of this can include fatigue from theeffort of sustained climbing, vertigo caused bythe high and exposed location in whichactivities may have to take place and motionsickness due to the flex and movement of somestructures.

• The open nature of structures, such as highmasts and tower cranes may lead to someindividuals suffering an adverse psychologicalreaction. This generally relates to the extremeexposure experienced and may not manifestitself in other high environments, such asworking on cliffs. Before working on suchopen structures operationally, personnel shouldhave experienced the level of exposure duringtraining.

• High voltage electricity may be present,particularly on pylons, wind generators andturbines. Such equipment should whereverpossible be isolated and earthed before workstarts.

• Various types of radio frequency, microwave,infrared, laser or high power light transmissionmay frequently be present. Such equipmentshould wherever possible be isolated beforework starts in accordance with agreedpreplanning.

• Personnel should avoid passing in front of orworking in close proximity to transmitters.

• Radio transmission masts, particularlymobile phone masts, may be disguised forenvironmental reasons and therefore noteasily identifiable. Examples include trees,church towers, flagpoles and water towers.

• Machinery with hazardous moving parts maybe present, including lifts, winches, hoists andtransmission dishes that may move withoutwarning due to remote operation.

• The hazard zone below very high structuresmay need to be significantly extended as


Structures of this type include masts, pylons,cranes, towers, chimneys, radio/TV aerials,steeples, wind generators, turbines and variousother open structures. These structures will oftenbe very high as well as being built in isolated andexposed locations, with safe access requiringtechnical rope working skills.

• Ensuring that procedures are in place for safeworking on the decks and designated accessareas or roofs of fire and rescue serviceappliances. Procedures must include riskassessment and appropriate control measures,specific training requirements, fault reportingand the safe system of work.

• Information and instmction must be providedin relation to both operational and maintenanceactivities.

• Specifications for new appliances shouldfollow the principle of design that avoids theneed for access to parts of the vehicle wherethere is a risk of a fall, otherwise collective fallprevention measures should be provided. Forexample, operator control positions could be atground level by utilising remote controlsystems. Existing appliances should bereviewed in relation to the same criteria.

• Where collective protection measures are notpracticable individual protection may berequired, but attention must be glven totraining and supervision.

• Operator positions on a vehicle must bedesigned to prevent accidental falls.

• Deck surfaces should be slip resistant anda maintained as such. Trip hazards must beremoved, or where this is impracticalidentified with high visibility markings.

• Deck edge markings and safety signs shouldbe high visibility.

68

• Exposed and isolated locations where theeffects of the weather and in particular thewind can be extreme and temperatures reducewith increased height. Personnel exposed to

Chapter 3 - Equipment

2.5.11.1 Hierarchy of Control

Application of normal risk management systemsto work at height near water provides a templatefor developing control measures:

• Avoid: It is impol1ant that personnel planningfor, or responding to incidents, first consideralternative methods of work. For example, acasualty trapped by the tide at the base of acliff may be safely rescued by inshore lifeboatrather than by rope up the cliff face.

• Prevent: The three metre hazard zone shouldbe observed as a minimum safe distance whenthere is a risk of a fall into water.

Where there is the potential for a fall into waterwhen working at height, work restraint or workpositioning may provide a suitable controlmeasure. For example a pump operator workingon a dockside can be provided with a safe systemof work by using work restraint equipmentthat prevents reaching the unguarded edge.

• Mitigate: Where the risk of a fall can not beprevented, appropriate fall arrest systems mustbe provided to mitigate the effect of a fall andwherever possible prevent accidental entry intowater. If circumstances are such that accidentalentry into water cannot be ruled out life jacketsmust be provided and a safety boat utilised asappropriate. Further guidance is provided inFire Service Manual "Safe Working Near, Onor In Water".

2.5.11.2 Ships

Normal shipboard activities carried out solely bythe ships' crew, under the direction of the master,are outside the scope of the Regulations. Thisexemption does not apply to fire and rescueservice personnel, who will need to comply withthe Regulations when operating on a ship.

2.5.12 Confined Spaces

Working in confined spaces may involve usingvertical access or egress routes where personnelcan be at risk from a fall. In many circumstancesthe techniques used to provide safe work at heightcan be applied, although some specific issues mustbe considered, including:

• Harnesses and associated equipment must becompatible for use in conjunction withbreathing apparatus.

• There is a potential for damage fromchemical contaminants and sharp edges totextile based equipment, including ropes andwire rope may be more appropriate.

• Points of access or egress may also be at heightand have little or no working platform aroundthem. Aerial appliance cage/platforms ortripod systems above point of entry may beneeded to provide high anchor points.

• An emergency or secondary retrieval systemmust be available throughout any confinedspace entry.

Safe Work at Height

3.1 Selection of Equipment

Selection of work equipment and PPE should bebased on the requirements of individual FRSsfollowing risk assessment of work environments inline with the requirements of their IRMP.

The range of equipment that should be consideredfor work at height includes:

• Ladders.• Aerial appliances.• Working platforms.• Scaffolding.• Ropes, harnesses and associated equipment.

Equipment should be purchased or specified by acompetent person who should consider conformitywith current standards as part of the selectionprocess. Personal protective equipment meetingthe requirements of the European Standards bodyand showing the '(E' mark should be selectedwhere possible, although 'non-CE' equipmentmay be selected where it can be shown as suitablefor the intended purpose. 'Certificates of Conformity' should be requested where appropriate.Demonstrations in the correct wearing of PPEmust be undertaken as appropriate and at suitableintervals.

Instructions and guidance for use provided by thesuppliers of equipment for work at height mustalways be considered when developing safesystems of work. Suppliers' instructions should befollowed whenever they differ from the generalguidance given in this document.

Chapter

3

3.2 Ladders and Aeria Appliances

3.2.1 Portable Ladders for Fire ServiceUse

New ladders being procured for introduction intothe service should meet the requirements of TheProvision and Use of Work Equipment Regulations1998 and BS EN 1147:2001, portable ladders forfire service use. This standard specifiesrequirements, test methods and performancecriteria for portable ladders for fire service use andassociated purposes.

These ladders vary in length and are usuallymanufactured from aluminium using a riveted andtrussed construction. Double or triple extensionsare common and the numbers of firefightersneeded to pitch them will vary up to a crew of four.

3.2.1.1 Terminology

Firefighters should first ensure they are familiarwith the proper terms for the various parts of aladder as indicated in Figure 3.1. They should notein particular that the fire and rescue service alwaysrefers to the rungs of a ladder as the rounds.Firefighters should also familiarise themselveswith the following terms used in operations withthese ladders:

Extendto raise the extending portion, increasing thelength of a ladder

Extend to lowerto raise the extending pOlition of a ladder toclear the pawls for lowering

..

70 Fire and Rescue Service Manual Safe Work al Height 71

Heel in, outto move the heel of a ladder towards or awayfrom a building

Head in, outto place the head of the ladder against or moveit away from the building

Lowerto retract the extending portion of a ladder

Pitchto erect a ladder against a building

Slipto remove a ladder from an appliance

Head

I8th

String7th

6th

5th

4th

3rd

2nd

1st round

Heel

Figure 3.1 The principal parts ofa laddet:

3.2.2 Turntable Ladders (TL)

In essence, a turntable ladder is a self-supportingand power-operated extension ladder mountedon a turntable. The ladder assembly is mountedat the rear of a heavy, self-propelled, chassisapproximately above the back axle. The ladderitself usually consists of a main ladder, securedby a strong pivot bearing to the swinging frame,and three or four extensions which extendtelescopically.

3.2.2.1 Terminology

Firefighters can carry out a number of differentmanoeuvres with a TL and use it for a variety ofpurposes. To avoid any confusion the Fire andRescue Service has adopted a standardterminology for use when referring to the variousoperations.

Depressto lower the head of the ladder by reducing theangle of elevation

Elevateto raise the head of the ladder by increasing theangle of elevation

Extendto increase the length of the ladder

Houseto reduce the length of the ladder

Plumb(to right or left)

to keep the centr line of the ladder in avertical plane by eliminating any tilt to oneside when the ladder is extended on a slope.This increases stability and obviates side stress

Projectionthe horizontal distance measured from avertical line dropped from the head of theladder to the rim of the turntable

Shoot upto extend the ladder with a firefighter alreadyat its head

Train(to right or left)

to move the head of a ladder by rotating theturntable. (NB manufacturers tend to use theexpression 'slewing')

Firefighters should first familiarise themselveswith these basic terms and with the various partsof a TL named in Figure 3.2.

3.2.3 Hydraulic Platforms (HP)

Hydraulic platforms consist essentially of two orthree booms hinged together. The two lower boomspivot in a vertical plane on each other and on thefulcrum frame, on which the bottom boom is

Top extension

1

Second extension

Figure 3.2 The principal parts ofa turntable ladder.

hinged. The third boom takes the form of a pivotedor telescopic extension arm at the upper end of the

second.

3.2.3.1 Terminology

As with turntable ladders, firefighters haveadopted a standard tem1inology for use when

operating HPs.

Boomsthe two or three jointed sections which carry

the cage.

Cage(or platform)

the personnel compartment at the end of thesecond or, if fitted, third boom.

Depressto reduce the height of the cage.

Elevateto increase the height of the cage.

Heightthe distance of the cage bottom from the

ground.

Fulcrum frame

Turntable

Knucklethe pivoting joint between booms.

Over-ridea control as the base operator's position.

Plumbinguse of the jacks to compensate for any camberup to five degrees and bring the vehicle level.

Projectionthe distance from the outside of the jack foot tothe outside edge of the cage when thebottom boom is fully elevated and the secondboom horizontal, at right angles across the

chassis.

Safe working load (S. J¥.L.)the specific payload which an HP cannormally carry anywhere within its workingrange. It can be affected by the vehicle beingincorrectly plumbed, strong winds, or theimposition of extra loads on the booms, e.g. byuse of the monitor.


3.2.4.1 Terminology

3.2.4 Aerial Ladder Platforms (ALP)

Extendto increase the length of the ladder/booms

75Saje Work at Height

The following points should be considered inrelation to the use of equipment based on webbingtape:

• Webbing capable of creating a sling with aminimum rated static strength of 22 kilonewtons (kN) should be used.

• Stitching should be in a contrasting shade orcolour to that of the webbing to facilitate itsinspection. Stitching should only be carriedout by a competent person, normally acommercial supplier.

• Webbing equipment should preferably besupplied with pre-stitched identification labelsto assist individual identification forinspection and recording purposes. Where thisis not possible, the manufacturer should becontacted for advice before webbing articlesare marked or labels attached.

• A repair to webbing tape is normally notpossible, the item being disposed of ifdamaged.

3.4.3 Lanyards

pre-formed and pre-stitched into slings with acertificated safe working load.

Lanyards are short lengths of dynamic rope, ortextile webbing, usually terminating in a connectorat either end. Their primary use is to secure aperson to an anchor to prevent a fall, acting as alink between the anchor and the harness. Toachieve this they must be able to withstand anyshock loads that may be imposed on them.Webbing lanyards incorporate an energy absorberthat slows the fall thus reducing the shock load onthe anchor and should meet the requirements ofBSEN355. Dynamic rope lanyards achieve the sameoutcome through the physical properties of therope, which should be a minimum of 10.5 mm indiameter and meet the requirements of BS EN892.The length of the lanyard should be as short aspracticable and the overall length includingconnectors normally limited to the length of theoperator's reach.

Lanyards may also be used for other purposes suchas work restraint, maintaining a link between arescue operator and a stretcher or casualty.Specialised lanyards are available for use when

3.4 Textile Based Equipment

Textiles currently in use are generally based onpolyamide, polyester webbing, and cordura sheetor nylon derivatives. Webbing tape is generallyconstructed from nylon thread woven into a web,the longitudinal threads called the warp and thelateral threads called the weft. Webbing tape islight, has great tensile strength and as such formsthe core of many types of textile based ropeequipment including slings, lanyards andharnesses.

The following points should be considered inrelation to the use of equipment based on webbingtape:• Stitching may be in a contrasting shade or

colour to that of the webbing to facilitate itsinspection.

• Webbing equipment should preferably besupplied with pre-stitched identification labelsto assist individual identification forinspection and recording purposes. Where thisis not possible, the manufacturer should becontacted for advice before webbing articlesare marked or labels attached.

3.4.1 General

The surface of any working platform must not haveany gap through which a person could fall orthrough which any item could fall and causeinjury. It should also be positioned so that there isno risk of slipping, tripping or any person beingcaught between the working platform and anyadjacent structure.

Webbing slings take the form of loops in variouslengths made from flat or tubular webbing tape

Webbing si ings are often preferred over rope whenloads are passed over edges as the load isdistributed over the whole width of the tape, whichreduces the load on individual fibres. Protectedwebbing slings, therefore, are used extensively forwrapping around objects creating anchors to whicha rope system may be secured. Webbing tape doesnot absorb shock loads as effectively as dynamicrope.

3.4.2 Webbing Slings

Plumbinguse of the jacks to compensate for any camberup to five degrees and bring the vehicle level.

Projectionthe distance from the outside of the jack foot tothe outside edge of the cage when theladder/boom is fully elevated and the secondboom horizontal, at right angles across thechassis.

3.3 Working Platforms

A working platform is any platform used as a placeof work, a means of access to, or egress from aplace of work at height and includes an aerialappliance fitted with a cage. It also includes anyplace of work on a scaffold, cradle, mobileplatform, trestle, gangway. gantry or stairway. Allworking platforms should be properly supportedand provided with guard-rails and barriers set atthe appropriate height. Working platforms mustbe:

Safe IVorking load (S. 'f¥.L.)the specific payload which an ALP cannormally carry anywhere within its workingrange. It can be affected by the vehicle beingincorrectly plumbed, strong winds, or theimposition of extra loads on the booms, e.g. byuse of the monitor.

Turntablethe revolving platform, exactly on the centreIine of the chassis, which carries the fulcrumframe and one end of the bottom ladder/boom.

The supporting structure for any working platformmust be prevented from moving during work atheight and be stable while being erected, used anddismantled.

• Of sufficient dimensions to allow safe passageand safe use of equipment and materials.

• Free of hazards that could cause trips, or allowpeople's feet to pass through the flooring.

• Constructed to prevent feet and objects passingover the edge i.e. toe boards or edge protectionare in place.

• Kept clean and tidy e.g. do not allow mud tobuild up on platforms.

• Secure.


Houseto reduce the length of the ladder/booms

These appliances combine the principal features ofthe Turntable Ladder and Hydraulic Platforms intoone appliance. They usually consist of 2hydraulically operated telescopic booms and alarge rescue cage. Attached to the booms is a largeextending ladder, which can be used for access,egress and rescue purposes.

Train(to right or left)

to move the cage/head of a ladder/booms byrotating the turntable. (NB manufacturers tendto use the expression 'slewing')

Ladder/Boomsthe telescopic ladder and booms which carrythe cage.

Trainto move the cage in a circular route bymoving the turntable.

Turntablethe revolving platform, exactly on the centreline of the chassis, which carries the fulcrumframe and one end of the bottom boom.

Cage(or platform)

the personnel compartment at the end of theladder/booms.

Depressto reduce the height of the cage.

Elevateto increase the height of the cage.

Heightthe distance of the cage bottom from theground.

Over-ridea control as the base operator's position.

74

climbing open structures such as vertical ladders,masts, tower cranes or scaffolding.

3.4.4 Safety and Work Harnesses

The primary functions of a harness are to supportthe wearer's body whilst suspended from a rope orto spread the load in the event of a fall. In view ofthe variation in sizes of potential users, harnessesmust be capable of sufficient adjustment to provideand maintain an acceptable lever of comfort.Harnesses should comply with relevant standardsappropriate to the intended use.

3.4.4.1 Work-positioning Harness

In situations where fire-fighters must worksuspended from a rope or where the rope issupporting most of their bodyweight, a suitableharness must be considered. Harnesses designedfor work positioning must support the wearer in acomfortable working position whilst allowingunhindered operation of other devices in thesystem. This is particularly important where theharness is to be used in conjunction with breathingapparatus in which case the provision of a suitableelevated attachment point is essential to maintainthe operator in an upright position. The relevantstandards are EN813 for sit harnesses and EN358for work positioning.

Sit harnesses and full body harnesses suitable forwork positioning also provide an alternative to thesafety belt for work restraint e.g. travel restriction.

3.4.4.2 Fall Arrest Harness

In all operational situations where there is a risk ofa fall that may result in injury, it is recommendedthat those at risk wear a suitable fall arrest harnesscomplying with BS EN361. Fall arrest harnessesare usually fitted with chest or dorsal attachmentpoints and either may be used dependent uponcircumstances. In many cases, following a suitablerisk assessment, fire and rescue services may findthat a fall arrest harness is also suitable for workpositioning use.

Whilst most sit harnesses can be converted to fallarrest standard by the addition of an appropriate

chest harness, it should be noted that such acombination should be tested as a complete unit toBS EN361.

3.4.4.3 Casualty Harness

There are many types of harness available forcasualty rescue. They range from simple slings orrescue strops to full body harnesses. Whenselecting a rescue harness, care should be taken toensure that it is quick and simple to deploy, thatit will provide an adequate level of support,reassurance for the casualty and that it iscompatible with other equipment and PersonalProtective Equipment (PPE) that may already be10 use.

3.4.4.4 Safety Belts

A waist belt complying with the requirements ofSS EN358 is sufficient for work restraint, e.g.preventing a fire-fighter from accessing a positionwhere a fall might occur. These belts areinappropriate where personnel are suspended on arope or where a fall might occur. Suitable beltsbased on webbing tape are broad or have paddingfor support and a locking buckle that cannot beaccidentally released. A connector attaches thewearer to a suitable anchor, lanyard or the rope.

3.5 eta I-based Equipment

3.5.1 General

Increasing industrial and leisure use has led tomany advances in the use of steel, high-gradealloy, plastic and carbon-fibre components in ropework systems. These components have many usesin the fire and rescue service, from the simplestsystem to the most complicated, including:

• Connectors, linking other components andropes together.

• Rope Control Devices that act on the ropeitself usually by means of friction.

• Pulleys, for reducing friction or applyingmechanical advantage.

• Wire Strops, as part of anchor systems.• Tripods, Quadpods and Frames, to alter the

direction of rope travel.

Note: Do not drop metal-based items ofequipment. The shock of equipment striking asolid surface with force can cause damage,undetectable by normal methods of examination,which may significantly weaken it.

Some alloy steel components can be affected byacidic or alkaline atmospheres, which may weakenthe metal sufficiently that it becomes brittle andcould fail if subject to a shock loading. This istermed 'hydrogen embrittlement'. Items suspectedof being so affected, should be withdrawn fromservice for inspection by a competent person.

3.5.2 Connectors (karabiners, safetyhooks, screw links)

These metal load-bearing components are used innearly all rope systems. The purpose of aconnector is to link together the various parts ofthe rope system. Each connector has a gate intowhich equipment can be inserted, the gate is thenclosed to prevent accidental disconnection.Connectors with a gate that cannot inadvertentlyopen, e.g. screwgate or sel f-Iocking, are the onlytypes that can provide the required level of securityfor fire and rescue service use. Connectors that areto be used with any fixed anchor such as a hangar,eyebolt or shackle should be of such a design andsize that they are able to rotate freely in the anchorwithout hindrance and without loosening theanchor. Connectors used for static rigging andpersonal attachments should conform to SS EN362 or a similar standard. A minimum strength of25 kN (in the direction of maximum loading) isrecommended for karabiners, safety hooks, andscrew Iinks.

3.5.2.1 Karabiners

May be constructed from steel or metal alloys, areusually oval or '0' shaped and are designed to beloaded along the longitudinal axis only, i.e. alongthe spine. If the load is applied to the transverseaxis or is offset from the spine, the weaker, 'gated'side of the connector may fail under a load lessthan specified for the component. Care should,therefore, be taken to ensure that karabiners do notbecome 'cross loaded' whilst in use and have asuitable factor of safety by using connectors of a

higher quoted strength than the minimum of 15 kNspecified in SS EN 362.

3.5.2.2 Safety hooks

Provide for quick connections between twocomponents and are used where a link has to beconnected and disconnected regularly i.e. a lanyardconnecting a harness to a structure. The gate onthese hooks should be automatic of spring-loadedthus preventing accidental disconnection.

3.5.2.3 Screw links (also known as MaillonRapides or Quick Links)

Are made from alloy or steel, usually delta, oval or'0' shaped. The 'gate' is provided by a screwmechanism that makes them slower is use thankarabiners. They have the advantage, however, ofthe closed gate being as strong as the other sides.Therefore, they offer more security when crossloaded as long as the gate is securely shut. Insituations where a load may be applied in morethan one direction or axis a suitable maillon orscrew link should be used in preference to akarabiner.

3.5.3 Pulleys

These are devices with a grooved wheel (sheave)used to reduce friction. This reduction in friction isachieved by a combination of the rotationalmovement of the sheave and the increased radiusaround which the rope runs. The optimum size ofthe sheave is four times the diameter of the rope.Their construction is such that a connector can beattached, usually through side plates. In mostmodern designs the side plates swing to allow thepulley to be attached at any point along the rope(commonly known as 'swing cheek pulleys').Pulleys come in a variety of designs and sizesincluding some that are large enough to a(Jowknotted ropes to pass through them. The relevantstandard is ENI2278.

Pulleys containing more than one sheave areknown as pulley blocks. The block being the shellor body in which the sheaves are housed.


3.5.4 'Vire Strops

Wire strops can be made from lengths of wire ropewith formed eyes at each end for the attachment ofa connector. They are particularly useful when thechosen anchor is made of abrasive material orhas sharp edges (e.g. brick piers or steelwork) thatmay cut or abrade rope or webbing tape slings.

3.5.5 General Metal Hardware

This may include ground anchors, rigging plates orany other piece of equipment designed to be usedin conjunction with rope or anchor systems.Equipment should conform to relevant standards.If no standard is available then the fire and rescueservice is responsible for ensuring that anyequipment is used in accordance withmanufacturer's instructions and that a competentperson performs a risk assessment as to thesuitability of the equipment.

3.5.6 Rope Control Devices

For the purposes of classification, rope controldevices may be split into four types:

• Devices intended primarily for belaying.• Devices intended primarily for lowering or

descending.• Devices intended primarily for hauling or

ascending.

• Devices intended primarily for backing up thefailure of another device or system.

Due to the versatility of many of the devicesdescribed below, some can be used for purposesother that their primary role. One device may, forexample, be able to act as either an ascender or asa rope brake in a back up system, whilst anothermay be suitable as a belay/lowering device or as anabseil device.

When these types of equipment are put to any useother than their 'primary' use, users should ensurethe manufacturer has guaranteed the device willoperate in the manner they wish to use it.

3.5.6.1 Devices intended primarilyfor belaying

There is a broad range of devices available that aredesigned for use when controlling a rope bybelaying. The vast majority of these devices aredesigned primarily for sports use and rely for theireffective operation on friction being applied to therope by direct positive manual action by thebelayer. Whilst such devices provide a simplemethod of controlling a rope, they cannot inthemselves be relied upon to 'fail safe'. It is,therefore, recommended that where belay devicesare being used to control the lifting or lowering ofpersons or to provide safety backup, only thosedevices that are designed to auto-lock (i.e. failsafe) should be considered suitable for general useby Fire & Rescue Services.

3.5.6.2 Devices intended primarily forlowering or descending

These devices, commonly known as 'descenders',are used to attach an operator to the main workingrope allowing the operator to control their owndescent. They may also be attached to the anchorpoint and used remotely to lower an operator orload.

Descenders should:• Give the user suitable control over the speed of

descent.• Be such that if the user loses control, they will

stop or allow only a slow, controlled descent inthe hands-off position.

• Be designed to 'fail safe' in operation.

Descenders should not:• Cause significant abrasion or damage to the

sheath when suddenly clamped onto theworking line.

• Cause undue shock loads to the working ropewhen braking.

• Be capable of accidentally detaching from theworking line.

• Be capable of being detached under anycircumstances while carrying a person'sweight.

When choosing a descender, brigades should bearin mind its suitability for use in the environmentalconditions (e.g. wet, muddy, icy, abrasive, orcorrosive) that are likely to prevail

Where long descents are likely, descenders shouldhave good heat-dissipating properties to preventburning of the operator's hands or heat damage tothe working rope. They should also minimisetwisting of the rope. Whenever any device is beingused to support a load and a hands free situation isrequired, the device must be physically locked offto prevent uncontrolled adjustment.

Descenders should normally comply with BS EN341.

3.5.6.3 Devices intended primarily forhauling or ascending

These devices, commonly known as 'ascenders' or'rope grabs' may be used when the operator wishesto grip the rope for the purpose of hauling orascending.

Ascenders generally fall into one of two groups,i.e. those that work by means of a toothed cam thatgrips onto the sheath or 'mantle' of the rope andthose that utilise a toothless profiled cam thatoperates by compression of the rope. It should benoted that all cam devices have the potential todamage rope if shock loaded or operated withexcessive loads. Ascenders should be of a typethat cannot be accidentally detached from the ropeand should be chosen so that the risk of damage tothe rope is minimised when in use. Whenchoosing a suitable ascender, Fire & RescueServices should consider its suitability for use inthe environmental conditions that are likely toprevai I.

3.5.6.2 Devices intended primarily forbacking up the failure of another deviceor system

These devices may be used when personnelworking on a rope need a secondary deviceconnected to an additional rope to provide a safetysystem should there be a failure in the primary

system.

They operate such that they will move along thesecond rope as the operator ascends/descends theprimary rope but will grab the rope should there bea sudden movement instigated by the individualfalling due to the primary system failing.

To reduce the shock loading that occurs whenthese devices activate to arrest a fall, they shouldbe monitored to ensure that any slack between thedevice and the individual is kept to a minimum

These devices should normally comply with E.N.353-2.

It should be noted that devices intended forhauling/ascending and devices intended forbacking up work in similar ways. It is importantthat any device used for these purposes should beassessed prior to use as to its suitability and usedin line with its manufachlrer's guidelines.

3.5.7 Tripods/Quadpods/Frames

These are portable frames that provide highattachment points to assist with access to a hazardzone for rescue purposes, or to allow loads to belifted or lowered from ground level. There aremany variations available, including tripods (3legs), quad pods (4 legs), 'A' frames (2 legs) andspecialist luffing frames. Tripods and quadpodsgenerally have adjustable legs to allow them to bepositioned on uneven ground. When selectingsuitable devices, consideration should be given tothe environment in which the equipment will beused. Systems such as tripods for example, areprimarily designed to be used for a vertical loweror lift over an access point such as a sewer accessor silo hatch. Others are designed specifically toprovide a projection for access over an edge suchas at a cliff. This is frequently referred to as anartificial high directional.

It should be borne in mind that this type ofequipment can be subjected to high physicalstresses in certain operational situations such aswhen lifting or lowering loads. Extreme care must,therefore, be taken when using these devices toensure that they are effectively anchored to preventmovement or slippage. This is especially importantwhen operating on unstable or uneven surfaces oron sloping ground.

.

78 Fire and Rescue Service lv/anua!

•Safe Work at Height 79

3.5.8 Stretchers

There are two types of stretcher in common use:

• Rigid.

• Flexible.

3.4.8.1 Rigid stretchers

These are either moulded from plastic material orconstructed from metal (normally aluminium alloyor stainless steel), though a combination ofmaterials may be used. Due to their rigidity, thistype of stretcher is not well suited for work inconfined spaces and is normally deployed forrescues in open air. Rigid stretchers can either beone piece (e.g. a preformed basket stretcher) orsectional (requiring assembly prior to use).

3.5.8.2 Flexible stretchers

Usually comprise a plastic frame or sheet with afabric cover and textile webbing attachments andhave a limited degr e of inherent rigidity. This typeof stretcher is designed to wrap around thecasualty and gains additional rigidity once thecasualty has been secured within it. The inherentflexibility of these stretchers makes them ideal foruse in confined spaces. Flexible stretchers areusually supplied in a custom made bag or valiseand require minimal stowage space.

Most stretchers can be supplied with additionalequipment for casualty packaging, including headsupport blocks, casualty harnesses and integralhead protection.

Stretchers can be attached to a rope system by theuse of slings and connectors. or specially designedstrops. These can normally be used in a range ofconfigurations allowing the stretcher to be hauledor lowered at any angle between vertical andhorizontal.

When selecting a stretcher, consideration shouldbe given to the environment in which it will beused and the uses to which it will be put.Particular care must be taken (when appropriate)to ensure compatibility with helicopters or forwater rescues.

3.6 Ropes

3.6.1 General

There are many operational actIvItIes where theuse of rope is necessary to achieve tasks orobjectives. Rope may be used as part of a safesystem of work in a variety of situations, forexample to:

• Secure items such as branches or salvagesheets.

• Stabilise vehicles or ladders.• Move loads, e.g. equipment. people or

animals by hauling, lifting or lowering.

• Use safety ropes when working nearunguarded edges.

• Work at height or in confined spaces.• Carry out specialist rescues.

The general description given to all forms of fibrerope is cordage, which may be referred to as eithera rope or a line depending on its particularapplication. FRS terminology refers to ropes cut tospecific lengths for particular purposes as lines,although the term rope is more generally used forspecialist rescue activities.

British Standard BS 3367: 1999 refers to 'ropes andlines for fire service use other than for rope rescuepurposes'. The Standard sets out the specificationfor rope that is used in the manufacture a range offire and rescue service lines, which are to be madefrom polyester, and general purpose lines that maybe made from polyester or polypropylene. TheStandard does not apply to:

• Ropes used in conjunction with specialist roperescue equipment.

• Guidelines and personal lines for use withbreathing apparatus.

Ropes complying with BS 3367: 1999, should havea ferrule or sleeve permanently marked with:

• The manufacturer's name, trademark oridentification mark.

• The material, the nominal size of the rope anddate of manufacture or batch number of thecoil from which the rope was made.

• The number of the relevant British Standard.

3.6.1.1 Rope Construction

The properties and capabilities of rope aredependent upon both the material and the type ofconstruction. Analysis of these factors will allowassessment of the most appropriate rope for eachsituation. In selecting the most suitable type ofrope for a task it is impor1ant to consider the

following:

• Physical characteristics, including tensilestrength, weight, flexibility and texture.

• Ability of the rope to absorb the energy ofshock loads.

• Ability of the rope to withstand repeated shockloadings.

• Degree of elongation under load.• Degree of absorption of water and other

liquids.• Resistance to physical and chemical damage.

Natural FibresFire and rescue service ropes were traditionallymade from natural fibres such as Italian hemp,manila, sisal, coil' and cotton. Whilst some of theseropes may still be in use they have generally beensuperseded by those made from synthetic materials.

Natural Fibre

Desirable Characteristics

• None

Undesirable Characteristics

• Low shock absorptionLoss of strength when wet (up to 50%)

• High absorption of waterPoor resistance to chemicals

• Loses strength over time• Lower breaking strength than synthetic

rope

NylonRopes made from polyamide (nylon) areconsidered most suitable for the vast majority offire and rescue service applications and shouldnormally be considered for rope access, rescue or

personal safety use.

Nylon


• Good shock absorption• Fairly high melting point• Good resistance to abrasion• Resistant to alkalis and other chemicals

• Low surface friction

Undesirable CharacteristicsCan be seriously damaged by certain

corrosives e.g. acidsLoss of strength when wet (up to 15%)

PolyesterRopes made from polyester (terylene) offer asuitable alternative to those made from nylon,however, as polyester is less able to absorb shockloadings it is generally not used in situations wheresubstantial falls may occur. It may, however, beappropriate in specific circumstances for example,where chemical pollution is present.

Polyester


• High tensile strength even when wet

• Fairly high melting point• Good resistance to abrasion• Resistant to damage from acids and

organic compounds

Undesirable CharacteristicsCan be seriously damaged by certain

corrosives, e.g. alkalisPoor shock absorption (compared to nylon)

PolyolefinRopes manufactured from polyolefins such as highmodulus polyethylene and high tenacitypolypropylene are often used in water rescuebecause of their buoyancy. Polyolefins are not verystrong and cannot absorb shock well, so mostwater rescue ropes combine these fibres withnylon to provide strength.

80 Fire and Rescue Service Manual Safe Work al Heighl 81

Kernl1lQlltel RopeKernmantel rope comprises a central core ofcontinuous filaments known as the kern, which isthe predominant load-bearing element. This issurrounded by a woven outer sheath known as themantle, which shares a portion of the load, buthas the primary role of protecting the core fromabrasion and the ingress of dirt and grit. (SeeFigure 3.5.)

Kernmantel ropes may be supplied pre-treated todecrease the absorption of water and otherchemicals. They can be supplied in a variety ofcolours and markings that may assist in ropeidentification and with tracking of the ropethrough rope control devices whi lst in use. In orderto suit a variety of applications, kernmantel ropesare manufactured as either low stretch or dynamic.

Low Stretcll RopesWhere ropes are being used for descent orlowering and a shock load is not anticipated, theworking rope and the safety rope should be lowstretch and should meet the requirements of theEuropean standard for low-stretch kernmantelropes, BS E 1891: 1998.

Manufacturer's Identification Ribbon

~ -" ..

Plaited RopeThis construction method involves plaiting thestrands either in a single or double layer around acentral core, which has the benefit of producing asmoother and more flexible construction. The twomain types of construction are:

• 8-plait rope having a core of any constmctionencased in a sheath made from eightinterlacing plaits, four in a clockwise directionand four in an anticlockwise direction.

• 16-plait rope having a parallel core encasedin an 8-plait initial sheath, comprising eightinterlacing plaits, four in a clockwisedirection and four in an anticlockwisedirection and comprising a secondary braidedsheath made from 16 interlacing plaits, eight ina clockwise direction and eight in ananticlockwise direction. (See Figure 3.4.)

Figure 3.4 Diagram v/plaited rope.

Figure 3.5 Diagram0/ Kernmal1tel ropeconstruction_

Hawser Laid RopeRope manufactured by tWlstll1g individual yarnsinto strands, a number of which are then twistedtogether in the opposite direction to form thefinished rope. This has the effect of ensuring thatthe individual yarns do not become untwisted andthat the load is evenly distributed throughout therope.

• Kernmantel.

Wire Rope

3.6.1.2 Types of Construction

Undesirable CharacteristicsNo shock absorption

Easily damaged by repeated bending,particularly over small radius objectsTendency to needle

There are three types of construction for ropesused in the fire service:

• Plaited.


• High tensile strength• High resistance to abrasion

• No stretch

• Hawser Laid.

The process of twisting the individual strands tomake a hawser laid rope is known as 'laying up'.Ropes may be 'laid up' either right-hand (knownas 'Z lay'), or left-hand (known as'S lay')respectively. (See Figure 3.3.)

Figure 3.3 Diagram showing hawser laid rope intraditional "S' and "Z' lays.


Poor resistance to abrasionPoor shock absorption

Easily damaged by repeated bending,particularly over small radius objectsPoor resistance to sunlight (Ultravioletdegradation)

Aramid Fibre


• High tensile strength even when wetVery high melting point


Low tensile strength (compared to nylon)Poor shock absorption

Poor resistance to abrasion

Poor resistance to sunlight (ultravioletdegradation)

Low melting points, heat damaged

Aramid FibreThis is generally known as 'Kevlar' and has greattensile strength, although it is not consideredsuitable for general rope construction.


• Highly resistant to water (they float)

• Good resistance to mildew• Resistant to damage from acids

Polyolefin

Wire RopeCertain working environments including marine,structural collapses and some confined spaceincidents may produce a higher potential fordamage to textile rope. In these situations the useof wire rope may be preferred. In many respectsthe systems used with wire rope will be similar tothose used for texti le ropes, although controlequipment is specific to wire rope. Wire ropesfrequently require some form of mechanicalsystem to control the movement of the rope. A wirerope system that may be subject to a shock loadshould include suitable energy absorbingequipment.


There are two categories of rope covered by thisstandard, i.e. types: A and B. Only ropes meetingthe requirements of BS EN 1891: type A, shouldbe used for rope access, work positioning and workrestraint, including rescue or for any purposeinvolving the lifting or lowering of people.

Dynamic RopesThese ropes are designed and manufactured tostretch when placed under load, dependent on thelength of rope between the anchor point and theapplied load this may be up to 40% of the originallength.

Where ropes are used to arrest a potential fall i.e.lead climbing, and the possibility of a substantialshock loading exists, dynamic rope complyingwith BS EN 892: 1997 should be used.

3.6.2 Categories of Rope

3.6.2.1 General Purpose Ropes

British Standard 3367:1999 specifies that generalpurpose ropes for fire and rescue service useshould be made from 16mm nominal diameterhawser laid polyester or polypropylene. Subject toa risk assessment that shows it is 'suitable forpurpose', other rope may be appropriate forgeneral-purpose usage. Examples of generalpurpose ropes are:

• Long lines, ropes usually of 30m in length,used for securing or hauling equipment aloftand creating barriers around hazard zones.

• Short lines, ropes, ISm in length, used inapplications where a long line would provecumbersome such as securing suction hose toan appliance.

General purpose rope must not be used forpersonal safety or the lifting or lowering ofpersons. It is acknowledged, however, thatcircumstances of urgent operational need mayarise where there is:

• An immediate threat to human life or safety.and

• The correct equipment is not readily available.and

• Inaction would result in death or serious injury.

In these circumstances, subject to a dynamic riskassessment, general-purpose ropes may be useduntil specific rescue equipment becomes availableat the incident.

Smaller diameter rope, between 3mm and 8mmdiameter, often in the form of a pocket line, may beused for attaching or securing equipment but mustnot be used in safety critical applications.

Cordage of kernmantel construction, between3mm and 8mm diameter, is commonly known asaccessory cord (Prusik line). Whilst this may beused as part of a specialist or rescue application, anappropriate risk assessment must be applied toensure that it is fit for purpose.

Accessory cord tied into a loop (prusik loop) musthave a manufacturer's certificate of conformityand safe working load if it is to be used incircumstances covered by LOLER.

3.6.2.1 Ropes for Rescue or Personal FallProtection Systems

Textile ropes suitable for rescue or personal fallprotection systems will generally be of kernmantelconstruction. A nominal diameter of 10.5 to 13millimetres with a minimum tensile strength of2500 Kg is recommended.

3.6.2.2 Floating Ropes for Use in WaterRescues

This type of rope is speci fically designed for use inconnection with water-based activities. Unlikenatural fibre ropes that have a degree of buoyancy,the man made alternatives will float even aftersubmersion in water for long periods of time. Sizesrange from Smm for lightweight throw lines to16mm for general-purpose ropes.

Construction may be plaited or kernmantel design,with a polyester sheath to provide abrasion andheat resistance and a polypropylene core tomaintain buoyancy. These ropes will not shrinkwhen wet.

Figure 3.6 Photographshowing a variety oftypes ofrope andcordage includingkernmantel rope;British Standard J6mmhawser laid polyesterGP line and anexample offioatingrope.

3.6.3 Associated Rope WorkingEquipment

The equipment that is connected to or that actsupon the rope is of equal importance to the ropeitself in creating a safe system of work. Ropeequipment can be classified by the material it isconstructed from:

• Textile based equipment, e.g. webbing,harnesses and lanyards.

• Metal based equipment, e.g. karabiners, ropecontrol devices and pulleys.

• Equipment constructed from metal, plasticsand textiles, e.g. stretchers.

3.7 Equipment Identification

Equipment used for work at height must beuniquely identifiable for inspections, tests andtracking purposes. Requirements for identificationof equipment should be specified when it isprocured. Where a fire and rescue service wishesto add further identification to equipment themethod and location of marking must be inaccordance with instructions from themanufacturer or supplier.

• Marking pens may chemically damage textileitems and must not be used unless approved bythe supplier of the equipment.


• Stamping or etching may physically damage orweaken metal items if carried out on loadbearing components.

FRS should have a system in place, which willensure that equipment not designed for lifting orlowering persons cannot be used for such apurpose. Whilst ropes and rope equipment that aresuitable for the lifting and lowering of persons canbe used for other purposes, fire and rescue servicesmay wish to restrict these applications in order tominimise damage caused by excessive or shockloads, or the risk of contamination by oil orchemicals.

3.8 Stowage of Ropes and AssociatedEquipment

Correct stowage of rope and associated equipmentis the second stage in an effective maintenanceregime. All rope equipment should be kept clean,dry and free from contamination in a cool placeout of direct sunlight. Care should be taken toensure that ropes and equipment that will be usedfor rescue or for any purpose involving the liftingor lowering of persons, are stowed well clear of oil,grease or chemicals and are not allowed to comeinto direct contact with hot surfaces.

Equipment may be best stowed grouped andbagged ready for use to ensure that no essentialitem is left behind. Bags may be colour coded forease of identification and may be marked with adescription of the contents.

Stowing equipment in this way serves severalpurposes:

• The equipment is ready for immediate use.• The equipment is protected from deterioration

caused by exposure to ultra-violet light.• The equipment is protected from mechanical

damage.

• The equipment is protected from chemicaldamage.

• The equipment is easily identified.

The equipment may be readily transported to thescene of operations and is immediately availablefor use.

3.9 Equipment Inspections,Examinations and Tests

The inspection of working at height equipment isdetailed in Regulation J 2 and specifies generalinspection requirements. All equipment for work atheight must be subject to a structured inspection ortest regime.

All equipment should be thoroughly examinedafter use and where necessary washed and driedbefore re-stowage. Cleaning and stowage shouldbe in accordance with the manufacturer'sinstructions.

The appropriate method of inspecting equipmentfor work at height is by visual and tactileexamination. Load testing of equipment must onlybe undertaken in Iine with specific instructionsprovided by the supplier.

3.9.1 Pre-use and after-use checks

All equipment that may be used for work at heightmust be checked to ensure that its condition isappropriate for its intended use:

• After each occasion of use, e.g. operationalincident or training session.

• Before every training session where thepotential failure of any component could havelife safety implications.

• At suitable intervals between detailedinspections.

• Generally personnel who have receivedtraining in the use of equipment can beconsidered competent to undertakeinspections and pre-use checks.

3.9.2 Detailed Inspection

All equipment must be thoroughly examined by acompetent person:

• Before bei ng brought into use for the firsttime.

• In accordance with any pre-determinedexamination scheme.

• Ifit has been involved in an accident, near missor dangerous occurrence.

When prescribing a thorough examination as partof an inspection routine, the competent personmust:

• Take account of manufacturer's and supplier'sguidance.

• Consider the frequency and environment ofuse of the equipment.

Competent persons should have practical andtheoretical knowledge and experience of theequipment that is to be examined. This will enablethem to detect defects or weaknesses and assesstheir likely effect on the continued safe use of theequipment. Competent persons must also havesufficient independence of authority to allowdecisions to be made on the continued suitabilityof equipment. This does not mean the competentpersons must come from independentorganisations, rather that "in house" examiners aregiven genuine authority and independence toensure that examinations are completed correctlyand that any subsequent recommendations areimplemented.

Interim inspections may be needed betweendetailed inspections when risk assessments haveidentified that there could be a significantdeterioration, affecting the safety of the equipmentbefore the next detailed inspection is due. The needfor and frequency of interim inspections willdepend on the level and environment of use,including exposure to potential contaminants.

3.9.3 Maintenance

It is essential that all equipment used for work atheight operations is maintained in efficientworking order and good repair. Maintenanceregimes should be:

• Planned preventative - where adjustments aremade and parts replaced at pre-set intervals.

• Condition based - where the condition ofsafety critical parts are regularly monitoredand repaired or replaced as required.

• Carried out or supervised by a competentperson.

Guidance from manufacturers and suppliers mustbe incorporated into prescribed maintenance andinspection regimes.

3.9.4 Record Keeping

The following information should be kept andmade available for inspection for as long as theequipment is available for use:

• Certificate of conformity.• All reports of detailed inspections.• All reports of defects.• Records of routine inspections.

Each report of a detailed inspection should includethe following information (WaHR Regulation 12):

• The name and address of the employer forwhom the detailed inspection was made.

• The address of the premises where thedetailed inspection was made.

• Information sufficient to identify theequipment including serial numbers.

• In accordance with timescales specified by anexamination scheme, or after the occurrence ofexceptional circumstances.

• That the lifting equipment would be safe tooperate or otherwise.

• Identification of any part found to have adefect that is or could become a danger topersons and a description of the defect.

• Particulars of any repair, renewal or alterationrequired to remedy a defect found to be adanger to persons.

• In the case of a defect which is not yet butcould become a danger to persons, the time bywhich it could become such a danger andparticulars of any repair, renewal or alterationrequired to remedy the defect.

• The date of the detailed inspection.• The name of the person signing or

authenticating the report.

• The date of the report.

Records should be kept at the premises of use butwhere this proves impractical they may be held ata central location. They must still, however, remain


available for inspection. There is no requirement tokeep a record of pre-use checks.

3.9.5 Disposal of Equipment

Any item of equipment used for work at heightwhich reaches the end of the manufacturer'srecommended life expectancy or fails aninspection and cannot be repaired, should beremoved from service and be destroyed to preventre-use. In order to assist brigades discharging theirgeneral duty of care the principles of safe disposalshould be considered when any item of equipmentis withdrawn from service.

Safe Work at Height

Chapter 4 - Training

4.1 General Requirements

In order for individuals to work safely at height itis important that a systematic process is in place toensure that personnel are properly trained and theydemonstrate possession of the necessaryknowledge, skills and understanding.

Fire and rescue services should implement specifictraining programmes for personnel to achieve andmaintain the required level of competence forwork at height. Each fire and rescue service willneed to determine the boundary between coreskills applicable to all personnel who work atheight and the more technical skill required of staffwho undertake specialist duties. Appropriate levelsof training in specialist activities cannot easily beachieved for all personnel.

Specific good practice guidance on training forwork at Height is provided by:

• The Health and Safety Executive,.l:through theirWork at Height Syllabus preJ:ared by theAdvisory Committee on Work at HeightTraining (www.acwaht.org.uk).

• BS 8454:2006: Code of practice for thedelivery of training and education for workat height and rescue.

4.1.1 Training Structure

Training programmes should include:

• Initial training, to acquire the requiredknowledge skills and understanding, alongwith assessment of initial development.

• Continuation training, to provide ongoingassessment of individual and team levels ofknowledge skills and understanding.

Chapter

4

• Continuing professional development (CPD),to provide a point in time review of knowledge,skills and understanding.

The training needs of individuals, their level ofexperience, and the circumstances of local workenvironments will dictate the quantity andfrequency of training activities. All specialisttechnical training activities should be planned andconducted by a competent technical supervisor orinstructor.

Model training aims and objectives for work atheight are outlined under the following headings:

• Knowledge skills and understanding requiredby all firefighters.

• Training for specialist rope operator supportduties.

• Training for specialist rope operator duties.• Rope work supervisor training.• Rope work instructor training.• Continuation and CPD training.• Ongoing assessment.

4.1.2 Instructors

Fire and rescue services that undertake technicalspecialist rope work activities should appoint asenior rope work instructor who will beresponsible for:

• Validating the technical aspects of rope.working and the suitability of equipment.

• Assessing the knowledge, skills andunderstanding of other instructors.

• Supervising the conduct and assessment ofspecialist rope operator courses.


Aim 3Understand the practical application of general lifting and lowering techniques and apply them in

practice.

Fire and rescue services must ensure that ropework instructors are competent and haveappropriate experience. When this is not availablewithin the fire and rescue service, considerationshould be given to:

• The use of competent instmctors from otherfire and rescue services.

• Provision of training by external trainingproviders.

4.2 Training Requirements for allFirefighters

Training for safe work at height should beprovided at trainee stage. Where FRSs operatespecialised rope work equipment, familiarisationshould also be provided. It may also be appropriatefor elements of more specialised training to beprovided where there is a realistic probability thatsuch skills will be generally required. In thesecircumstances fire and rescue services should addthe relevant parts of specialist training described inlater paragraphs.

Aim 2Use ropes to secure equipment and other items.

Knowledge and Understanding

Application, use and Limitations of ropes, knots andlashings.

Capabilities and limitations of ropes in general usewithin the fire and rescue service.

Practical Skills

Use ropes knots and lashings in a range of differentcontexts.

Knowledge and Understanding Practical Skills

Training AimsKnowledge Skills and Understanding Required by all Firefighters

Prior Learning

Aim I

Aim2

Aim3

Aim4

Practical Skills

Recognise circumstances where work at height may lead to the risk of a falland implement appropriate safety systems.

Use ropes to secure equipment and other items.

Understand the practical application of general lifting and lowering techniquesand apply them in practice.

Inspect and maintain ropes and associated equipment in general use.

Meaning of Safe Working Load, Working Load Limit,Factor of Safety and associated terminology.

Limitations imposed by manual handlingrequirements.

Mechanical advantage.

Use and limitations of attachments and ancillarycquipment used for lifting purposes.

Apply systems using mechanical advantage to rope workactivities.

Use attachments and ancillary equipment for liftingpurposes.

Aim 4Inspect and maintain ropes and associated equipment in general use.

Aim 1Recognise circumstances where work at height may lead to the risk of a fall and implementappropriate safety systems.



Requirements of the Work at Height Regulations 2005.

Specific guidance can be found in the HSE Work atHeight Syllabus prepared by the Advisory Committeeon Work at Height Training (www.acwaht.org.uk).

Circumstances where actions should be taken to protectpersonnel from the risk of a fall.

Use and limitations of different fall prevention and fallprotection equipment and systems.

Limitations of use for safety belts and harnesses.

Suitable anchor points and their limitations.

Capabilities and limitations of ropes, slings, connectorsand associated equipment used for 'work restraint' and'fall arrest' systems.

Principles of safe practices for working near unguardededges.

Practical Skills

Select and use work practices that avoid work at height.

Select and use equipment to prevent the risk of a fall.

Select and use work equipment to minimise theconsequences of a fall.

Select and use appropriate collective or personalprotection systems.

Select and use suitable anchor points.

Use ropes, slings, connectors and associated equipmentfor 'work restraint' and 'fall arrest' systems.

Apply safe practices for working near unguarded edges.

Inspection and maintenance requirements for ropes,harnesses and other webbing equipment.

Inspection and maintenance requirements forconnectors, other hardware and ancillary equipment.

Stowage and transport of ropes, harnesses, otherhardware and ancillary equipment.

Demonstrate the inspection and maintenance of ropes,harnesses and other webbing cquipment.

Demonstrate the inspection and maintenance ofconnectors, other hardware and ancillary equipment.

Demonstrate the correct stowage and transport of ropes,harnesses, other hardware and ancillary equipment.


4.3 Specialist Rope Operator Suppo."tDuties

AIM 3:Undertake safety checks

Personnel expected to work in this role shouldreceive training specific to the use of specialisedequipment. Such training need not be to the sameextent as training required by operators, but shouldinclude such things as preparation prior to use,operational use, operational safety points andincident command principles.


Safety checks undertaken before a specialist ropework team operator descends a rope or ascendsa structure.

Safety checks undertaken throughout the time thatpersonnel are suspended from rope.

Practical Skills

Demonstrate the safety checks undertaken before aspecialist rope work team operator descends a rope orascends a structure.

Demonstrate the safety checks undertaken throughout thetime that personnel are suspended from rope.

Training AimsSpecialist Rope Operator Support Duties


AIM 4:Set up and manage rope belay points and anchor systems

Set up and monitor a secure rope belay for each typeof anchor.

Describe the issues to be taken into account whenmonitoring rope belays and anchors.

Various types of anchor system available for use andtheir limitations.

Meet the equipment and support requirements of specialist rope work teams.

Possession of the knowledge, skills and understanding of rope working requiredby all firefighters.

Identify, establish and manage the hazard zone above, adjacent to and below anyworking area.

Prior learning

Aim I

Aim2

Aim 3 Undertake safety checks.

Aim4 Set up and manage rope anchorage and belay points.

AimS Inspect and maintain ropes and associated equipment. AIM 5:Inspect and maintain ropes and associated equipment in specialist use

Knowledge and Undustanding Practical Skills

Aim 1:Identify, establish and manage the hazard zone above, adjacent to and below any working area


Inspection and maintenance requirements for harnessesand other webbing equipment.

Inspection and maintenance requirements forconnectors and ancillary equipment.

Inspect ropes. harnesses, other webbing equipment,connectors and ancillary equipment and demonstratemaintenance regimes.

Principles and guidelines for setting up andmanaging a hazard zone.

Set up a hazard zone and demonstrate itsmanagement.

Stowage and transport of specialist ropes, harnessesand all associated equipment.

Methods of safe working within thehazard zone.

Demonstrate the methods of safe working within thehazard zone.

AIM 2:Meet the equipment and support requirements of specialist rope work teams


Name and describe items of specia'lised rope workingequipment.

Select items of specialised rope working equipmentby name and description

Principles and guidelines for equipment management atan incident

Set up an equipment dump and demonstrate itsmanagement.

Principles of rope hauling and loweringsystems.

Set up, monitor and operate rope hauling and loweringsystems.

Principles of safety back-up systems. Set up and monitor safety back-up systems.

92 Fire and Rescue Service lvlanualSafe Work at Height 93

. Practical SkillsKnowledge and Understandmg

~~~e~s a scene of operations and return to the starting point using standard techniques

4.4 Specialist Rope Operator Duties

Specialist rope work which involves activities inhigh and exposed situations, places particulardemands on the individual, such that some peopleare not able to cope with the psychological orphysiological demands involved. Members ofspecialist rope work teams must have the attitudeand aptitude for such work. Selection and trainingprocesses should take account of:

• Medical, physical and psychological fitnessto work in high and exposed locations.(Fire and rescue services may wish to use theiroccupational health screening facilities toidentify these characteristics.)

• The need for specialist operators to work indifficult environments out of sight of theirsupervisors.

• The need for new trainees to be closelymonitored.

• The need for individuals who experience signsof psychological or physiological difficultiesto be identified and to be given the opportunityto address these problems or to withdraw or bewithdrawn from specialist activities

After completing a course of initial trammg,specialist rope operators should undertake a furtherperiod of consolidation training which should:

• Be under the direct observation of a specialistrope work supervisor or instructor.

• Cover all specialist rope work activities.• Conclude with a formal assessment of

knowledge, skills and understanding, appliedto range of simulated rescue scenarios.

Specialist operators should not be considered forspecialist rope work duties in an operationalcontext until the consolidation training and aformal practical assessment has been successfullycompleted.

Equipment appropriate for use in a range of specialistactivities.

Safety checks undertaken before descentor ascent.

Standard techniques for descending and ascending arope and the application of a safety back-up system III arange of locations to meet local nsks.

Standard practices for ascending and descending astructure using fall-arrest techniques.

Improvised systems of work and the relevant safeworking limits of equipment.

Additional rope techniques (e.g. cableways, haulingsystems etc) that are appropriate to meet the full ,rangeof local risks and the anticipated reqUIrements atincidents.

Select and don the correct equipment forthe task.

Undertake all safety checks necessary before descentor ascent.

Use standard techniques to·descend and asccnd a ropeand apply a safety back-up system in a range of locatIOnsto meet local risks.

Ascend and descend a structure using fall-arresttechniques.

Use improvised systems of work within the safeworking limits of equipment.

Use additional rope techniques (e.g. cableways, haulingsystems etc) as appropriate to the range of local nsks andanticipated requirements of JI1cldents.

Training AimsSpecialist Rope Operator Duties

Prior learning

Aim I

Aim2

Aim3

Aim4

Possession of the knowledge, skills and understanding required forspecialist rope operator support duties.

Understand the hazards and risks associated with specialist rope activities and applyappropriate control measures in practical situations.

Access a scene of operations and return to the starting point using standard rope techniques.Rescue a casualty.

Provide a safe work environment for other personnel, e.g. paramedics who may needto access the work area.

AIM 3:Rescue a casualty


Standard techniques for rescue using a rescue harnessor stretcher in a range the circumstances appropnate tolocal risks.

First aid and casualty handling to the standard requiredby Health and Safety First Aid at Work RegulatIOns orany such equivalent first aid or casualty handlJl1g .qualification in line with fire and rescue servIce policy.

The range of injuries likely to be sustained by casualtiesand the implic<J!ion for rescue techmques.

Practical Skills

Rescue of a casualty from a range of different locations/environments using a rescue harness or stretcher.

Apply effective casualty care.

AIM 1:

Understand the hazards and risks associated with specialist rope activities and apply appropriatecontrol measures in practical situations AIM 4: d. ho may need to accessProvide a safe work environment for other personnel e.g. parame ICS w

the work areaKnOWledge and Understanding

General safety procedures.

Principles of site management and incident command atspecialist rope work incidents.

IdentitY situations requiring the use of restraint, workpositioning or fall arrest equipment.

Identify appropriate PPE for a range of specialist ropeactivities.

Fall factors and the dangers of excessive shock loads.

Practical Skills

Application of general safety procedures.

Apply the principles of site management and incidentcommand at specialist rope work incidents.

Select the correct equipment and PPE for usein a range of special ist rope activities.


Safety factors required to provide a safe workenvironment

PPE and systems of work to lower and recover otherpersonnel to and from a work site.

Practical Skills

Brief relevant people on all safety factors and confirmunderstanding.

Select appropriate PPE, lower other personnel to andfrom a work site and recover them to a safc place.


Safe Work af Heighf 95


AIM 3:Plan and supervise the activities of teams undertaking rope work

4.5 Rope Work Supervisor

The role of rope work supervisors is to:

• Supervise continuation training.• Undertake assessment of the knowledge, skills

and understanding of specialist rope operatorson an ongoing basis.

• Act as team leaders at incidents.

Rope work supervisors should be drawn frompersonnel who have demonstrated competence as aspecialist rope operator and in generalinstructional skills.

Supervisor status should be reviewed periodically.It is recommended that this process take place atleast every three years and should include CPD.

Application of specialist rope activities in operationalsituations.

Equipment maintenance, inspect,ion and testingregimes.

Plan work and supervise work teams in operationa'lsituations.

Supervise equipment maintenance, inspection andtesting regimes.

AIM 1:Plan and conduct a continuation training session for personnel


Training AimsRope Work Supervisor

Prior learning

Aim I

Aim2

Aim3

Possession of the knowledge, skills and understanding required to undertakespecialist rope operator duties.Experience in undertaking the role of a specialist rope operator.Possession of general instructor skills.

Plan and conduct a continuation training session for persOlmel.

Give instruction on equipment and technical aspects of rope working.

Plan and supervise the activities of teams undertaking rope work activities.

Practical Skills

Deliver a practical and a theoretical training session anddemonstrate the assessment of performance.

4.6 Rope Work Instructor

Individuals nominated for training as instructorsfor rope work, should be experienced rope work

supervisors.

Rope work instructors will undertake the following

roles:

• Initial training of specialist rope operators,supervisors and other instructors.

• Continuation training for supervisors and otherinstructors.

• Formal assessments of knowledge, skills andunderstanding for all operators, supervisors

and instructors.

• Advise management on systems of work and

equipment.

Fire and rescue services should appoint acompetent person to co-ordinate and manage

instructor training.

Rope work instructor status should be reviewedperiodically. It is recommended that this processtakes place annually and should include CPD.

Training aims and objectives should include:

Training AimsRope Work Instructor

Identification of training needs, preparation of Irainingsessions, assessment of performance and provision offeedback on specialist rope work activities.

Identify training needs and prepare a lesson plan for apractical and a theoretical training session.

Provide effective feedback on performance and identifyany further training needs.

Prior learning

Aim I

Possession of the knowledge, skills and understanding required to undertakethe role of a rope work supervisor.Experience in undertaking the role of a specialist rope work supervisor.

Provide training courses for all specialist rope operators, rope work supervisors

and instructors.

AIM 2:Give instruction on equipment and technical aspects of rope working


Aim2 Monitor the performance of rope work activities and give advice on procedures

and equipment.

Use of equipment, limitations as to use, safety factors,care and maintenance and safe systems of work

Fall factors and shock loads.

Prepare and deliver continuation training on equipment.

Prepare and deliver continuation training on systems ofwork.

Describe the meaning of fall factors and explain theirimportance in relation to shock loads.

96 Fire and Rescue Service ManualSafe I'Vork at Height 97

AIM 1:Provide training courses for all rope work operators, supervisors and instructors

AIM 2:Monitor the performance of rope work activities and give advice on specialist proceduresand equipment


Identification of training needs, pre,paration of trainingsessions, assessment of performance and provision offeedback on specialist rope work activities.


Maintenance and knowledge of developments inequipment, good practice and safe systems of work.

4.7 Technical Rope Work Officer

The officer nominated to take overall managementresponsibility for technical rope work shouldensure that an appropriate level of corporateknowledge is maintained and new developmentsare properly considered. Suitable activities willinclude:

• Attendance at seminars and conferences.• Participation in User Groups.• Attendance on appropriate courses provided by

other brigades or recognised external trainers.• Reviewing technical journals and

manufacturers' information.

• Liaison with other agencies involved in ropeworking activities.

4.8 Continuation Training and CPD

4.8.1 General Requirements

Ongoing assessment of knowledge, skills andunderstanding is essential to ensure systems forsafe work at height continue to be appliedcorrectly. This should be undertaken in a

Practical Skills

Prepare and deliver specialist rope operator, supervisorand instructor initial training courses.

Prepare training programmes and deliver supervisor andinstructor continuation training courses

Conduct performance assessments of specialist ropeoperators, supervisors and instructors, Give feedbackand identify further traini,ng needs.

Practical Skills

Review procedures, equipment and working practices ona regular basis. Provide guidance and advice on revisions.

structured and systematic way to ensure all aspectsare addressed on a regular basis and that allrelevant personnel are included. A specificprogramme should be in place for personnel whouse ropes, harnesses and associated equipment in amore specialised technical way.

The more specialist aspects of rope working are bynature complex and critical in their application. Itis essential, therefore, that the knowledge, skillsand understanding of specialist rope operators isregularly assessed through a structured programmeof activities.

Good practice developed in FRSs that haveoperated specialist rope rescue teams over anumber of years indicates that ePD andcontinuation training will:

• Be structured and progressive to address theknowledge, skills and understanding requiredby specialist rope operators on a continuingbasis.

• Include ongoing assessment of performance inpractical skills, procedural knowledge andequipment management.

• Provide a mlnllnUm of six opportunltles foreach specialist rope operator to handleequipment and apply systems of work in asimulated rescue situation evenly distributedover each each twelve-month period.

• Provide more frequent opportunities forpersonnel with limited experience of specialistrope work to handle equipment and applysystems of work to simulated rescue

situations.• Provide an assessment of knowledge, skills

and understanding for specialist ropeoperators who have been away from specialistduties in excess of twelve weeks or otherperiod as determined by individual servicepolicy. The assessment will either confirmcompetence to undertake operational duties orindicate the need for refresher training.

• Provide opportunities to develop new relevantknowledge, skills and understanding

4.9 Use of Live Casualties

When training for work at height, the part of thecasualty or victim is generally best served by useof a training manikin. Manual handlingconsiderations must be taken into account,particularly during the placement of a manikin forrescue. There are circumstances where risk topersonnel in placing the manikin in a realisticrescue situation is such that the activity shouldpreferably be avoided. Risk assessment of trainingsites will identify such locations.

There are times when the experience of workingwith or receiving continuous feedback from a livecasualty is a key part of learning (e.g. for casualtyhandling) and the required learning outcomescannot be met if a training manikin is used. A livecasualty should be an individual competent to

work at height.

When competent specialist personnel undertakethe role of the casualty, valuable feedback onperformance can be provided with safetyobservations and direct instructions being given as

needed.

The guiding principles for the use oflive casualtiesshould ensure that:

• The use of live casualties is avoided unlessessential to the outcomes required.

• Any exposure to risk is justified andeffectively managed to achieve clear andestablished learning outcomes.

• The risk is not disproportionate to thebenefits.

• The risk to the 'casualty' should not be greaterthan that to the rescuer.

• Live casualties are used when casualty care isthe prime objective of the training session.

• Live casualties are provided with appropriatePPE, including a separate safety system as

appropriate.

These same principles could be applied whenassessing of the need for personnel to be trained toundertake a 'carry down' using fire serviceladders. If it is determined that such an activity isforeseeable and training therefore needs to beprovided, the technique of mounting a laddercarrying a live casualty could be practiced at lowlevel on a purpose designed facility withappropriate fall protection in place.

If the purpose of the exercise is to practicedescending a ladder carrying a load over adistance, then a simulated load could be used torepresent the casualty and the individualundergoing the training could be protected with afall arrest system as necessary.

98 Fire and Rescue Service ManuafSafe Work at Height 99

Safe Work at Height

Bibliography

Legislation

Attention is drawn to the following acts andregulations, and HSE approved codes of practice(ACoP) and guidance.

Health and Safety at Work etc. Act J974.

Construction (Design and Management)Regulations 1994 (CDM Regulations) SI 199413140 as amended and ACoP Managing construction

for health and safety (HSE L54).

Work at Height Regulations 2005 (WAHRegulations) SI 2005/735.

Construction (Health, Safety and Welfare)Regulations J996 (CHSW Regulations) SI1996/1592 (as amended by the Work at HeightRegulations 2005 SI 2005/735).

Construction (Head Protection) Regulations 1989

SI 1989/2209.

Electricity at Work Regulations 1989.

Health and Safety (First Aid) Regulations 1981.

Lifting Operations and Lifting EquipmentRegulations 1998 (LOLER) SI 1998/2307 andACoP and Guidance Safe use of lifting equipment1998 (HSE LlI3).

Management of Health and Safety at WorkRegulations 1999 (MHSW Regulations) SI 199913242 and ACoP Management ofhealth and safetyat work (HSE L21).

Personal Protective Equipment Regulations 2002

SI 200211 144.

Personal Protective Equipment at WorkRegulations 1992 (PPE) SI 1992/2966 andamendments, and guidance document Personalprotective equipment at work 1992 (HSE L25).

Provision and Use of Work Equipment Regulations1998 (PUWER) SI 1998/2306 and ACoP Safe useof work equipment (HSE L22).

Workplace (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations1992 SI 1992/3004 as amended and ACoPWorkplace health, safety and welfare (HSE L24).

The Confined Spaces Regulations 1997, SI No.1713 1997; ACoP and Guidance, Safe work inconfined spaces (HSE) L 101

H E Guidance

HSG 150 Further information on guardrails (and

working platforms).

HSE Information Sheet MISC614, PreventingFalls From Boom-type Mobile Elevating Work

Platforms

HSE INDG 367 Inspecting Fall Arrest EquipmentMade from Webbing or Rope.

HSE Information Sheet ConstructionInformation Sheet No: 49 (Revision) GeneralAccess Scaffolds and Ladders

HSE Information Sheet Construction InformationSheet No: 10 (Revision 4) Tower Scaffolds.

Fire and Rescue Service sp cifie

Fire & Rescue Manual Volume 4, Fire ServiceTraining, Foundation Training & Development,

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Safe Work at Height

Glossary

This Glossary refers to terminology that is likely to be encountered in relation to rope working and goes

beyond the detail included in the main text of this document.

HM Fire Service Inspectorate, 1998: FireService Guide 'Dynamic Management of Risk atOperational Incidents'[HM Stationery Office 1998 ISBN 0 11 341221 5]

HM Fire Service Inspectorate, 1998: A Guide forManagers, Health and Safety, Fire Service guideVolume 2.[The Stationery Office ISBN 0 I1 3412193]

HM Fire Service Inspectorate, 1998: A Guide toOperational Risk Assessment, Fire Service GuideVolume 3[HM Stationery Office 1998 ISBN 0 II 3412207]

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DeOL 05/2004 Item A: Guidance relating topersonnel on decks of aerial appliances

DeOL 03/2004 Item E: Aerial Appliances Provision of anchor devices.

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Lifting Equipment

EN 696, Fibre ropes for general service PolyamideEN 697, Fibre ropesjor general service - PolyesterEN 698, Fibre ropes for general service - Manilaand sisalEN 699, Fibre ropes for general service PolypropyleneEN 1050: 1996, Sa[ety o/machinery - Principles ofrisk assessmentEN 1261, Fibre ropes for general service - HempEN 1677-1, Components for slings - Sa/ery - Part1: Forged steel components, Grade 8EN 1677-2, Componentsjor slings - Safety - Part 2:Forged steellifiing hooks with latch. Grade 8EN 1677-3, Componentsfors/ings-Sajety-Part 3:Forged steel self-locking hooks, Grade 8EN 1677-4, Componentsfor slings - Saje(y - Part 4:Links,Grade8EN 1677-5, Components/or slings - Safety - Part 5:Forged steel lifiing hooks with latch, Grade 4

EN 1677-6, Components/or slings - Safety - Part 6:Links. Grade 4EN 13411-1, Terminations .for steel wire ropes Safety - Part 1: Thimbles/or steel wire rope slingsEN ISO 1968:2004, Fibre ropes and cordage Terms and dejinitions (ISO 1968:2004)EN ISO 7500-1: 1999, Metallic materials Verification of static uniaxial testing machines Part 1: Tension/compression testing machines (ISO7500-1:1999)EN ISO 12100-2, Sa[ety of machinery - Basicconcepls, general principles jar design - Part 2:Technical principles (1S0 12100-2:2003)

Fall Protection

BS EN 354, Personal protective equipment againstfalls from a height - Lanyards.BS EN 355, Personal pmtective equipment againstfalls from a height - Energy absorbers.BS EN 358:2000, Personal protective equipment

.for I'vork positioning and prevention of/allsfrom aheight - Belts for work positioning and restraintand work positioning lanvards.BS E 360, Personal prorective equipmenl againstfalls.from a height - Retractable typefall arresters.BS EN 361, Personal protective equipment against

IallsFom a height - Full bodv harnesses.BS EN 362, Personal protective equipment againstfalls from a height - Connectors.BS EN 363, Personal protective equipment againstfallsfrom a height - Fall arrest sysrems.BS EN 795: 1997, Protection against jaILs from aheight -Anchor devices - Requirements and testing.BS EN 813, Personal protective equipment .for theprevention offalls from a height - Sil harnesses.BS EN 892: 1996, Mountaineering equipment Dynamic mountaineering ropes Safet)'requirements and test methods.BS EN 1497, Personal fall protection equipmentRescue harnesses.BS EN 1891: 1998, Personal protective equipmentfor the prevention of falls from a height - Lowstretch kernmantel ropes.BS 8437:2005 - Code o/practice.for selection, useand maintenance of personal fall protectionsystems and equipment j(;,. use in the workplace.

ISO 114(): 1990, Ropes - Polyamide -Specification.ISO 1141: 1990, Ropes - Polyester - SpeCification.

active ropellive rope

aid climbing

anchor; anchor point

anchor rope

ascender

back-up device

back-up rope; safetysecondary rope

belay

belaying or life lining

rope;

Rope tied to the harness of a movmg rescuer or load and

controlled by a belayer.

Progression by clipping into successive anchor points using shortlanyards, etriers, andlor ropes, to gain access to higher or more

difficult places.

A safe point or object to which an individual or system may be

securely attached.

Flexible rope connected at least at one end to a reliable anchorto provide a means of support, restraint or other safeguard for aperson wearing a body support. An anchor rope may be a working

rope or a safety rope.

A mechanical rope control device which, when attached to a ropeof appropriate type and diameter, will slip freely in one directionbut lock under load in the opposite direction.

A rope control device for a safety rope of appropriate type anddiameter, which accompanies the user during changes of positionor allows adjustment of the length of the safety rope, and whichlocks automatically to the safety rope, or only allows gradualmovement along it, when a sudden load occurs.

Rope provided as a safeguard. This rope is used to protect againstfalls if the rope operator slips or if the primary supp0l1 (e.g. theworking rope), anchor or positioning mechanism fails.

Place where ropes or people may be anchored or secured.The practice of providing safety backup by use of a rope and

rope control device attached to an anchor.

Method of providing a safety rope to a person op.erating in ahazard area where a fall or slip is likely. The rope IS controlled

by a rope control device, operated by the belayer.

102 Fire and Rescue Service ManualSafe Work at Heighr 103

'below'

bight

body support

breaking load; failure load

cable way

clearance

connector

cow's tail

danger area

descender

dogging the tails; rope dog

dynamic rope

edge rollers

edge protection

A warning that is shouted when any object is thrown, dropped ordislodged from a height and is applicable to all persons in thehazard area.

The middle part ofa length of rope. The term also applies to a loopof rope, and to 'make a bight' is to form a loop.

A belt or harness used to attach a person to a rope or anchor point.

The load which, when applied to an item of equipment when itis new will cause complete failure (previously called breakingstrain).

Tensioned rope suspended between two points, along whichrescuers and casualties may traverse.

Required distance below a person or load to prevent them/itstriking the ground in the event of a fall, taking account of anyenergy absorber plus any stretch or give in the system.

Openable device used to connect components of a rope workingsystem.

Short strop, lanyard or sling connected to the mall1 attachmentpoint of a harness.

Defined in the Work at Height Regulations. Referred to in thisdocument as a 'Hazard Zone'

Manually operated, friction inducing, rope control device, whichwhen attached to a rope of appropriate type and diameter, allowsthe user to achieve a controlled descent and (dependent onspecific model) a stop at any point on a rope.

Consists of two I metre tails of rope at one end and a sewn eye atthe other. When laced onto a working rope, it provides a method ofattaching a hauling system while applying minimum damage to therope. It works on a similar principle to a spliced rope.

Note: Dogging the tails does not comply with LOLER unless givena SWL by supplier

Rope specifically designed to absorb energy in a fall by extendingin length, thereby minimising the impact force.

Pulley-type devices used at the edge of vertical or angled drops toreduce friction and also avoid rope abrasion.

Within the context of the WAH Regulations 'edge protection' is aterm used to describe physical barriers such as parapets, sills, guardrai Is etc.

energy absorber

etrier

existing place of work

exposure

factor of safety

fail safe

failure load; breaking load

fall arrest

fall factor

hazard zone

hawser-laid

hitch

A device designed to limit the shock load on equipment and anchorpoints generated by a fall to 6kN - also thereby minimising theimpact load absorbed by the body of the faller. It may do this bydeforming under a shock load.

System of loops to provide foot and hand purchase using rope ortape mimicking a rope ladder.

An existing building or permanent structure including its means ofaccess or egress from which there is no risk of a fall occurring. Itdoes not require the use or addition of any work equipment to

prevent a fall.

(a) a subjective measure of the insecurity induced by the effect ofheight and/or an area of expanse beneath the operator/rescuer.

(b) cooling of the body resulting from an inability of the body'smetabolism to generate heat as rapidly as the environment isremoving it, often leading to Hypothermia.

The figure by which the breaking strength of new rope is divided todetermine its safe working load.

A term used to describe either a device that will auto-lock whenused in accordance with the manufacturers instructions, or asystem with sufficient redundancy that should anyone item fail,there is adequate back-up to prevent an accident.

Minimum breaking load of an item of equipment when it is new,previously called breaking strain.

Technique using PPE to safely arrest a fall in the event of loss ofcontrolled contact with the working surface.

A measure of the maximum force of a fall expressed as anumber - derived from the height or distance of the fall divided bythe length of rope in the belay or fall arrest system. The higher thefigure the more serious the effects of the fall.

An area inside the field of operations within which the degree ofrisk from potential hazards including falls or falling objects issufficient to warrant the application of special control measures.

Rope made of three strands laid up in the form of a helix in theopposite direction to the lay of the strands.

A simple fastening of a rope to some object by passing the roperound the object and crossing one part over the other.


impact force

karabiner

kernmantel rope

knot

laid

lay

lead climbing

life lining or belaying

lifting equipment

line

The force generated by a fall - depends principally on the fallfacrar, the weight of the faIler or load, the elasticity of thecomponents that link the faller or load to the anchor (primari lythe rope) and the amount of friction in the system.

Type of connector, formed as a complete loop, with a spring loadedentry gate often lockable in the closed position by a screwed ring(when it is known as a 'screwgate karabiner') or automatic lockingdevice.

Textile rope consisting of a core enclosed by a sheath. The core isusually the main load bearing element and typically consists ofparallel elements which have been drawn and turned together insingle or several layers, or of braided elements. The sheath isgenerally braided and protects the core, for example from externalabrasion and ultra violet degradation.

The interlacement of cordage in a specific pattern for thepurpose of stopping ends, joining ends, forming loops, securingequipment, etc. A knot may be formed with a number of loops,hitches or turns involving any part of a rope or ropes. For thepurposes of this manual, the term knot is also deemed to includevarious bends, lashings and hitches.

A descriptive term to indicate the style of makeup of the rope(see hawser-laid).

The pitch of one complete turn of a strand measured in a straightline parallel to the axis of the rope.

Technique for reaching a higher point during which the climber isprotected by ropes, running belays, and a person (known as abelayer) operating a fall arrest device.

Method of providing a safety rope to a person operating in ahazard area where a fall or slip is likely. The rope is controlledby a rope control device, operated by the belayer.

Work equipment for lifting or lowering loads, includingattachments used for anchoring, fixing or supporting, e.g. chainor rope sling or similar, ring, Iink, hook, plate-clamp, shackle,swivel, eyebolt, webbing.

Traditional term for cordage cut to a specific length for aparticular purpose. Used to differentiate between a full-length ropeas originally manufactured (traditionally in imperial measure 120fathoms, or 720 feet, which equates to 219 metres) and lengths cutfrom it.

load

low stretch rope

mailIon rapide; screwlink

mousing

natural anchor

passive rope

payout

proof load

prusiking

redundancy

I'ceve, rove

rope

Any item that is being lifted, lowered or supported. Under LOLERthe term load includes any person, when it is then referred to as a'liveload'.

Textile rope with lower elongation and, therefore, less energyabsorbing characteristics than dynamic rope.

Screwlink type of connector formed as an open loop, whichis closed by a threaded sleeve rather than a hinged gate (seekarabiner), thus capable of sustaining loads applied in more thantwo directions. Used where a strong, secure fastening is requiredthat need not be opened or closed quickly. It should be noted that'maillon rapide' is a trade name, which has come into common useto describe this type of connector.

An object secured across the opening of a hook to prevent thefastening secured to the hook from unhooking.

A solid object occurring naturally such as a boulder or tree. Mustbe at least as strong as the rope tied to it unless the load is sharedover a number of anchors.

Rope which is directly attached to an anchor and which is notmoving, such as a rope being used to descend with descentcontrolled directly by a rescuer.

To ease out or slacken a rope.

Test load applied to verify that an item of equipment will notexhibit permanent deformation under that load, at that particulartime. This result can then be theoretically related to theperformance of the test piece under its expected conditionsIn service.

A method of climbing a fixed rope by means of rope grippingdevices such as knots (i.e. prusik knot) or mechanical ascend rs.

Spare capacity built into the system to ensure that a sufficientdegree of safety remains in the event of a pa11ial system failure.

To thread a rope through a pulley block.

Cordage formed by laying three or more strands together to form ahelix round a central axis or by braiding strands around a centralcore.


-

Safe Work al Heighr 107

rope access

rope control device

rope dog; dogging the tails

rope protection

running belay

running end

running part

'safe'

safe working load (SWL)

safety rope; secondary rope;back-up rope

screwlink; (mailJon rapide)

seizing

Technique using ropes, normally incorporating two separatelysecured systems, one as a means of access and the other as asafety back-up, used with a harness in combination with otherdevices, for getting to and from the place of work and for workpositioning.

A mechanical device, generally relying on friction, whichprovides control over the movement of rope or any attached load.Generic name for ascenders, descenders and back-up devices.

Consists of 2 dne metre tails of rope at one end and a sewn"thimble" at the other. When laced onto a working rope, it is amethod of attaching a hauling system while applying minimumdamage. It works on a similar principle to a spliced rope.

Protection for rope or other equipment where it passes over or restson any edge. May also be referred to as edge protection.

A belay through which a rope is threaded and through which it canmove freely.

The free end of the rope.

The moving part of a rope which IS loose and IS used to hoistor lower.

A term to be used by anyone during a tralOlOg or operationalincident when they have reached a position of safety and are secure.

Designated maximum working load of an item of equipment underparticular, specified conditions. See also working loadlimit (WLL).

A rope which is under the control of a competent person andconnected via a rope control device to an anchor point in sucha way that it will protect a worker against a fall in the event ofa slip or a failure of the primary working rope or system.

Type of connector formed as an open loop, which is closed bya threaded sleeve rather than a hinged gate (see karabiner), thuscapable of sustaining loads applied in more than two directions.Used where a strong, secure fastening is required that need not beopened or closed quickly. It should be noted that 'maillon rapide' isa trade name, which has come into common use to describe thistype of connector.

Binding used to fasten two ropes or parts of one rope to preventthem moving in relation to each other.

shock absorber

shock load

splicing

stance

standing part

static rope

tensile strength

traversing

whipping

work positioning

work restraint

working area

working rope

working load limit (WLL)

See 'energy absorber'.

The additional load imposed on equipment and anchor points whena fall or movement is stopped suddenly.

A method of joining two ropes together, or of making an eye in theend of a rope, by unlaying the strands for a shortdistance and then interlocking the strands of the two parts into one

another.

A position where a rope operator can stand balanced on his/her feet

with both hands free to work.

The part of the bight of a rope that is nearest the eye, bend or hitch,

as opposed to the end.

Old term for rope with lower elongation characteristics thandynamic rope, superseded by the term 'low stretch rope'. Now onlyapplies to ropes with negligible stretch, such as wire or Kevlar,which show little extension at failure and hence havelittle or no ability to absorb shock loads.

The point at which a material no longer has resistance to breakage.

Broadly horizontal progression, normally in suspension, using aidclimbing techniques and/or pulley systems on transverse ropes or

cables.

Binding around the end of a rope to prevent the strands from

unlaying (unravelling).

A system of work in which the firefighter's weight is supported toallow the firefighter to carry out necessary work by using PPE intension in such a way as to prevent a fall.

Technique using PPE to prevent a firefighter reaching a pointwhere the potential of a fall likely to cause personal injury exists.

Zone outside the 'Hazard Area' where rope operations such as

operating pulley systems should be carried out.

Primary rope used for work positioning or restraint - including for

descending and ascending.

Maximum load that can be lifted by an item of equipment under

conditions specified by the manufacturer.

108 Fire and Rescue Service t'vlanualSale HIll''' ut Height 109

Safe Work at Height APPE DIXA

Appendix A - Work at Height Flowchart

Identify, risk assess and record where work at height is carried out

tIs there a risk of a pel'son falling a distance liable to cause injury?

t tYes I I No

tPerform that task ina safe manner

Is it reasonably practicable to avoid work at height?

t tYes I I No

Perform that task ina safe manner fromthe ground

Take suitable and sufficient steps to:

PREVENT the risk of a fall, MINIMISE the distance andincluding: consequences of any fall. This includes

• Selection of an existing work place taking account of the factors detailedthat complies with schedule 1 and in regulation 7.where this is not possible When selecting work equipment give

• Selection of the most suitable work priority to collective fall protectionequipment in accordance with measures over personal protection.regulation 7


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