Scurta istorie a stiintei cognitie

Notiuni generale

Stiinta cognitiei (SC) = Explicarea cognitiei; “Mintea proceseaza informatia”

Interdisciplinar

• Neurostiinta: structura si functiile creierului

• Psihologia: psihologia cognitiva, dezvol.

• Inteligenta artificiala + Robotica (Computer science, Neural nets): modele artificiale

• Lingvistica: sintaxa, semantica, fonologia

• Filosofia: fundamentele teoretice

• Antropologia

Nasterea SC: etape, directii...

• 11 Septembrie, 1956 (Symposium on Information Theory, MIT): Newell + Simon (computer science), Chomsky (lingvist), Miller (psiholog)

• Neurostiinta – initial puternica, apoi declin; lingvistica crestere puternica

• Anii 1970: Filosofia, sociologia, antropologia - contributii distinctive

Discipline ale SC din prima perioada

Logica

• 1854, The Laws of Thought, Boole: operatiile formale performate asupra unor multimi corespund unor operatori logici (si, sau, nu) aplicati la propozitii = legile gandirii

Lingvistica

Chomsky (1956), (1959) – vs. Skinner, theoria behaviorista a limbajului

• “No purely stimulus-driven mechanisms could possibly learn the structure of natural language → Language learning - innate cognitive representational structures = UG.” (Chomsky 1957, 1959)

Computer Science

• Mintea = procesor de informatie (analogia cu un computer)

• Anii 1930-40: Automata theory (Turing machine), cybernetics (Weiner’s feedback loops), designs for implementing Boolean operations via electric onoff switches, and information theory (Shannon)

• Implementare – inventia circuite electrice, vacuum tubes, tranzistori (1944-6)

• Anii 1950, Newell and Simon – primul program de functionarea pt rationamente, (Logic Theorist) + primul list-processing language

• McCarthy + Minsky (MIT) - artificial intelligence (AI)

Psychology:

• Behaviorism in US

• (‘50s) Tolman (behaviorist) – harta soarecelui

• Majoritatea psihologilor: Invatarea (nu congnitia) e domeniul de cercetare

George Mandler (looking back on his graduate student days at Yale):

“… cognition was a dirty word for us … because cognitive psychologists were seen as fuzzy, hand-waving, imprecise people who never really did anything that was testable.” (Baars 1986)

• Continental Europe (Piaget’s GE)

• UK (Bartlett’s schemas for memory distortions, Broadbent’s analyses of memory and attention)

• Germany + Austria (Gestalt psychology)

• Soviet Union (Vygotsky and Luria)

• The US, psychophysics: Miller, Donald Norman - nu behavioristi!

• 1956, Bruner, Goodnow, Austin - A Study of Thinking

• 1960, Miller, Galanter, Karl Pribram - Plans and the Structure of Behavior.

• 1967, Neisser - Cognitive Psychology

Neuroscience

• 1950s, Geschwind + others – tehnici eletrofiziologici (brain stimulation, single cell recording, EEG)

• 1940-60, Neural networks, McCulloch + Pitts

• Donald Hebb: Cell-assemblies by strengthening connections between neurons that fired simultaneously

• Selfridge - Layers of units competing in

parallel to recognize patterns

• Rosenblatt - Layered networks - learned through error correction (Perceptron)

• Neural networks pierde influenta prin critica devastatoare a lui Minsky si Papert in 1969!

Dupa 1970 – Perioada de maturare a CS• O'Keefe si Dostrovsky (1971): “Place cells“

in hipocampusul soarecelui – cellule ce se activeaza doar cand soarecele percepe o locatie

• Newell si Simon (1972, Human Problem Solving): Sistem de productie = Memoria de lucru + operatii (productii) raspund si altereaza continutul memoriei → Modelarea strategiei umane in rezolvarea problemelor

• McCarthy - list processing language (LISP), standard tool of AI

• Early ’70, Winograd’s SHRDLU at MIT

• IA – Limitari a rationamentului doar la informatie atomizata

• Structuri de cunoastere la scara larga (Schank’s scripts + Minsky’s frames)

• Progres in arii specializate: sisteme experte, intelegerea vorbirii, lingvistica computationala

Psihologia

• 1968, Atkinson + Shiffrin (model - integrated control processes), sensory memory (Sperling), short-term memory (Peterson & Peterson), distinction between short-term + long-term memory (William James; Waugh & Norman)

• Roger Shepard - Mathematical psychology

• Notiunea “cognitive science” in 2 carti:- “Explorations in Cognition” (UCSD)“concerted efforts of a number of people

from . . . linguistics, artificial intelligence, and psychology may be creating a new field: cognitive science” (Norman & Rumelhart, p. 409) (1975)

- “Representation and Understanding: Studies in Cognitive Science” (Bobrow, Collins) (1975)

• 1977 - Alfred P. Sloan Foundation - Particular Program in Cognitive Science, peste 10 ani - $17.4 million

• UCSD – prin Sloan grants – 1979, La Jolla Conference on Cognition

• Journal Cognitive Science in 1977

Anii ’80

• Modulari computationale a cognitiei, limbajului, si psiholimbajului

• Filosofia: Fodor + Churchlands

• Dreyfus: Cognitia nu e doar compuatrea formala

• Neisser: Integreaza procesarea informatiei cu psihologia ecologica (J+E Gibson)

• Hutchens + altii: “Embodiment” + “situatated” cognition

Revenirea neurostiintei

• 1980+’90 - Cognitive Neuroscience: Posner, Raichle, Petersen – imagini cu PET --- legatura intre creier si procese si stari cognitive

• fMRI – Rezolutie spatiala mai mare

• Alte metode prin EEG - Rezolutie temporala mai mare

-----------------------------------------------------------

Explicatia in CS• Multidisciplinaritate localista: Un domeniu

= multidisciplinar daca cercetarile individuale sunt multidisciplinare (CS)

vs.

Multidisciplinaritate holista: Un domeniu = multidisciplinar daca disciplinele multiple contribuie la executarea programului de cercetare (von Eckhardt 2001) (vezi CNS)

Sistemul cognitiv = Mecanism de procesare a informatiei

• Perceptia – Informatie despre spatiu exterior

• Folosirea limbajului – Sintaxa, semantica, fonologia

• Rationamentele + gandire (on si off)

• Actiunea – Folosirea informatiei pt. actiune, planificare, ghidare

• Memoria – Pastrarea, amintirea

Notiuni • Reprezentari/patternuri neuronale• Computari/procesari neuronale • Niveluri de analiza/explicatie• Modularitate• Autoorganizare • Emergenta si reductionism• Functii minte/creier• Interactiuni intre niveluri si mediu exterior

(cauzalitate) • Localizare

Teorii principale• Computationalism (logica, Chomsky,

computerul) – R si computari, software nu hardware

• Conexionismul (PDP, McClelland and Rumelhart 1986) – R distribuita (ca neuronii)

• Teoria sistemelor dinamice (’90) + Embodied cognition (Brooks) + Situated cognition– Nu R/computari

Relatia psihologie-neurostiinta

• 1974, Fodor - “Special sciences”

• ’90, Cognitive Neuroscience (Johnson, Gazzaniga, Kosslyn)

• Neuroimaging: “localizarea”

- Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

- Positron emission tomography (PET)

- Electrophysiological recordings (EEG)

- Magnetoencephalography (MEG)

Dihotomii psihologice ale R/procese/ mem./k:

• declarativ-procedural (Anderson ’83)

• accesibil-inaccesibil

• constient-inconstient

• conceptual-sensoriomotor

• simbolic-subsimbolic (conceptual-subconcep. procesessing, Smolensky ’88)

• explicit-implicit

• serial-paralel (minte-creier)

• semantic (free context) – episodic memory (self and time) (Tulving)

Interconectate, se suprapun dar nu identice

• C. declarativ-procedurala se refera la tipuri diferite de Rs/procesari

• Bazata pe c. accesibila or inaccesibila constiintei

• C. procedural = inaccesibila constiintei; avem acces la efectele ei nu la procedura

(Cunoasterea Ryle: “knowing that” vs. “knowing how” – pt. recunoasterea perceptuala si abilitati motorii)

• Nu suntem “aware” de detaliile c. procedurale → Prin obisnuita, creste performanta corpului pt. realizarea anumitor actiuni

• Nefiind conceptualizata, informatia senzoriomotorie = procedurala

• Suntem “aware” de sensatii perceptuale si invatare motorie

• “You see that a tree is green, you experience greenness, but this is not the same as thinking”. → Diferenta dintre conceptual-sensoriomotor

• Declarative-procedural - “Distinctie in formatul representational”

(Implicit-explicit - “distinctie in procesare”)

• C. declarativ – Rs statice, discrete

• C. procedurala – procese continue

• Ex. declarativa – Limba straina sau logica

Novicele – reguli si simboluri, invatare → parte din c. explicita in c. implicita

• C. logicii - declarativa (implicit ori/sau explicita), c. procedurala - doar implicita

C. procedurala (perceptuala+sensomotorie):

• Inaccessibila constiintei

• Dificil de descris in limbaj

• Invatare lenta

• Dependenta de context

• Senzitiva la frecventa

• Nu e reprezentata sub forma de reguli

→ Nu are forme simbolice a representarilor (poate sunt subsimbolice)

C. declarative (conceptuala):

• Accesibila constiintei

• Se poate descrie in limbaj

• Necesita atentia sa fie incodata in format

• Posibila sa fie invatata dintr-o singura incercare

• Caracter static

• Reprezentare simbolica

• Suntem constienti de c. perceptuala si sensoromotorie dar nu e accesibla datorita formatului procedural din memorie (recunoasterea fetei)

vs. Informatie verbala = declarativa (amintirea,

planificarea)

• C. conceptuala este simbolica

• Relatia intre perceptie si cognitie Pylyshyn (impenetrabilitatea perceptiei de

catre cognitie) vs. Kosslyn (penetrabilitate, pe linie kantiana)

• Top-down = Conceptual influences perceptual

• Bottom-up = Conceptual - constructed on perceptual

• Gandire online vs. offline