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Network for Sciences, Engineering, Arts and Design

TO: SEAD Working Group Jan 30 2016

FROM: SEAD Steering Committee

One of the areas requiring attention that we identified in the SEAD report (http://www.mitpressjournals.org/page/NSF_SEAD ) was the need to identify and synthesize the varieties of evidence that motivate the recommendations to invest in SEAD objectives.

As part of this activity, Robert Root-Bernstein and Ania Pathak, Department of Physiology, Michigan State University, have been conducting a meta- analysis of existing studies. They provide here a draft of their report for distribution at the Feb 2 SEAD Working Group meeting February 2 , 2016, in Washington D.C. Robert Root Bernstein will present this work briefly at the working group meeting, and solicits your comments and suggestions as he and Ania Pathak finalize and publish this study. If you are aware of other studies, or compilations, that should be included in this meta-analysis please bring them to the author’s attention. For now we prefer you not redistribute this document without the authors approval outside of the attendees of the working group meeting.

A Review of Studies Demonstrating the Effectiveness of Integrating Arts, Music, Performing, Crafts and Design into Science, Technology, Engineering, Mathematics and Medical Education, Part 1: Background Robert Root-Bernstein* and Ania Pathak, Department of Physiology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824 USA. * Author to whom correspondence should be addressed: rootbern@msu.edu

NB: DRAFT!!!! Part 1 needs addition of references and more complete discussion of near-far transfer issue; Part 2 peters out at the end without a clear conclusion (desperately in need of revision!), so

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please read with some forgiveness! Useful comments and suggestions encouraged! (Bob R-B, 25 Jan 2016)

Abstract: This is Part 1 of a two-part analysis of studies concerning useful ways in which visual and plastic arts, music, performing, crafts, and design (referred to for simplicity as Arts-Crafts-Design or ACD) may improve learning of Science, Technology, Engineering, Mathematics and Medicine (STEMM) and increase professional success in these subjects. We address: 1) what are the ways in which arts and STEM can interact fruitfully; 2) which of these have been explored using well-devised studies and what do these tell us about efficacy; 3) where are the gaps (and therefore the opportunities) that can readily be addressed by new studies; and 4) what kinds of methods can be used to generate reliable data? Part 1 summarizes studies demonstrating that ACD are valuable to STEMM professionals; provides a taxonomy of the various ways that STEMM professionals employ ACD; and discusses limitations of these studies. Not all STEMM professionals find ACD useful; those who do differ in believing that all knowledge can be unified through “integrated networks of enterprise”; and integrators are very significantly more likely to achieve greater success than those who do not. Moreover, STEMM professionals who use ACD always connect disciplines using specific ways of thinking, skills, materials, models, analogies, structures or processes. These findings make the issue of near and far transfer irrelevant: the question of far transfer between ACD and STEMM subjects reduces to whether specific links between the two can be found that create direct near-transfer bridges. (241 words)

"The greatest scientists are artists as well” Albert Einstein, pianist and violinist, Nobel Prize, Physics, 1921. In: The Expanded Quotable Einstein, 2000, pp. 155, 245.

“The creative scientist needs… an artistic imagination” Max Planck, pianist, Nobel Prize, Physics, 1919. In: Autobiography,1949, p. 14

“If I were asked to select the best chemist in any gathering, I should find out first who played the 'cello best.” T. W. Richards, Nobel Prize, Chemistry, 1914, cellist and painter (Gordon, 1932, 366)

Introduction: Why Integrate Arts, Crafts and Design in Science, Technology, Engineering, Mathematics and Medical Education?

How can we train students to become creative or innovative science, technology, engineering, mathematics or medical (STEMM) professionals as opposed to mere technicians of one of these subjects? How can we develop student skills and invigorate their interest in STEMM subjects so that they want to become creative professionals? Various studies that will be reviewed below suggest that training in arts, crafts and design (ACD) may help to address these questions, but available research on the best ways to integrate with STEMM subjects is sparse and it is evident that there are many ways that such integration can be done badly or even harmfully. To understand how best to integrate ACD with

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STEMM it is therefore necessary first to understand the nature of the skills and knowledge that each requires in and of itself and among these, the ones that may contribute fruitfully to their combination.

From the very first introduction of STEMM subjects into school and college curricula during the late nineteenth century, people involved in science education, policy, psychology and other disciplines have tried to characterize the kinds of skills and knowledge required to teach STEMM subjects to general students and more particularly to train creative STEMM professionals. Thomas Henry Huxley, the biologist most responsible for the introduction of science as a required subject in secondary and collegiate education in the United Kingdom, surprisingly, tied ability in scientific research to competency in arts and crafts. He insisted that any school or college that introduced science into its curriculum also make art and music mandatory as well. Huxley, who was himself a talented watercolorist, a fine draughtsman and was fond of singing, founded the Department of Science and Art at the Normal School of Science in South Kensington (which was later absorbed into the Imperial College of Science and Technology and then the University of London). There, his biology students (who notably included the novelist H. G. Wells) were required to take painting and drawing lessons (Bibby, 1960). Huxley argued that, "The business of education is, in the first place, to provide the young with the means and habit of observation; and secondly to supply the subject-matter of knowledge either in the shape of science or of art, or of both combined." (Huxley, III, 175) How, he asked, can a scientist be trained in the habits of observation if they do not train their eyes, ears, and hands through art and music? Thus, he said that, “I should make it absolutely necessary for everybody, for a longer or shorter period, to learn to draw… you will find it an implement of learning of extreme value. I do not think its value can be exaggerated, because it gives you the means of training the young in attention and accuracy, which are the two things in which all mankind are more deficient than in any other mental quality whatever..... You cannot begin this habit too early, and I consider there is nothing of so great a value as the habit of drawing, to secure those two desirable ends.” (Huxley, III, 183-184; See also, III, 409-410) In addition to the arts, Huxley also advocated an education that required the development of technical skills. One must, he argued, have direct experience of things to understand them: "Clever talk touching joinery will not make a chair; and I know that it is of about as much value in the physical sciences. Mother Nature is serenely obdurate to honeyed words; only those who understand the ways of things, and can silently and effectually handle them, get any good out of her." (Huxley, III, 408) So in an essay on “Technical Education” in 1877, Huxley asserted that although his title proclaimed him a biologist, “I am, and have been, any time these thirty years, a man who works with his hands—a handicraftsman. I do not say this in the broadly metaphorical sense... I really mean my words to be taken in their direct, literal, and straightforward sense. In fact, if the most nimble-fingered watchmaker among you will come to my workshop, he may set me to put a watch together, and I will set him to dissect, say, a blackbeetle’s nerves. I do not wish to vaunt, but I am inclined to think that I shall manage my job to his satisfaction sooner than he will do his piece of work to mine.” (Huxley, Essays III, 1899, p. 406) As a result of Huxley’s arguments, many universities founded, and still have, a “College of Arts and Sciences”, though most have forgotten the history and rationale that led to this particular combination.

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Unfortunately, Huxley’s synthesis of arts, crafts and sciences was rapidly undermined in the UK by disciplinary specialization and the social stigmas that separated people who worked with their hands from “intellectuals”. The separation was less evident in the United States, which lacked a class-based intellectual elite and derived a large portion of its emerging scientific talent from farming and industrial backgrounds in which handwork was highly valued. When World War II created the need to recruit scientists for war work, these social and national differences had very practical implications that became the focus of a mammoth study led by the Nobel laureate (Physics, 1915) William Lawrence Bragg. Bragg, himself an excellent craftsman fully capable of making his own laboratory equipment, and also a talented painter, was put in charge of a group of eminent scientists (including the physicist-novelist C. P. Snow of “Two Cultures” fame) who interviewed and placed every scientist in the UK into some type of war work. Bragg and his colleagues quickly realized that US scientists were outstripping UK scientists in devising new inventions such as radar, the reason being that very few UK scientists had any practical skills. Bragg concluded in a public report that, “The training of our physicists is literally too academic.” (Bragg, 1942) Like Huxley, he believed that arts and crafts should part of every scientist’s education. Thus, when the UK government threatened to shut down all arts schools to free up manpower for the war, he argued strongly against the move, in part for the practical reason that, “more study of arts subjects … [will foster] those who will later follow science." (Bragg, 1942) In 1963, he expanded his argument to include craftsmanship along with the arts as necessary skills for budding scientists, maintaining that, “practical work is far more effective than book-reading in giving them [future science students] a feel for science. School training provides the background.... but a perhaps even more important incentive comes from their hobbies…." (Bragg, 1963)

Among the Nobel Laureates who joined Bragg in his campaign to make scientific training more practical was P. M. S. Blackett (Physics, 1948) who wrote an essay agreeing that arts and crafts skills are essential components of a scientist’s training: “The experimental physicist is a Jack-of-All-Trades, a versatile but amateur craftsman. He must blow glass and turn metal…he must carpenter, photograph, wire electric circuits and be a master of gadgets of all kinds; he may find invaluable a training as an engineer and can profit always by utilising his gifts as a mathematician.” (Blackett, 1933, 67) Indeed, a few years ago, Professor Heinz Wolff of the British Institute of Engineering and Technology proclaimed the “death of competence” as a result of the loss of arts and handicrafts in education: “Apart from typing, we don’t use our hands. Girls don’t embroider; boys don’t play with Meccano [Erector sets]. With these things you effectively develop an eye at the end of the finger, and you do this when you’re seven years old. And it’s really very clever. But it’s gone…Our engineering students can’t make things. They might be able to design things on a computer, but they can’t make things. And I don’t believe that you can be an engineer properly, in terms of it circulating in your blood and your brain, without having a degree of skill in making things.” (http://micromath.wordpress.com/2012/01/11/manual-dexterity/)

Bragg, Blackett, and Wolff were joined by the British embryologist C. H. Waddington, who was also a talented dancer, artist and historian. Waddington argued in his book Behind Appearance (1969), a study of the interactions between sciences and arts in the 20th century, that: “There is a peculiar affinity… between the experimental scientist and the painter in their experience of coaxing parts of the

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material world – paint, canvas, stone, or ultramicrotomes, bubble-chambers or simple hypochondriac embryos – to do what they want them to do. Painters and laboratory scientists have to recognize and respect the ‘green-finger’ ability of some people to pull things off when others just make a mess…. [This] affinity between technical mastery in painting and in laboratory work is much closer than between either of them and ‘writing well’. All three, including writing like an angel, depend mainly on non-conscious mental processes; but outstanding execution in scientific experimentation and painting have in common a dependence on ability -- probably ultimately muscular -- to handle the physical stuff of the world in a way which is not at all demanded by literary composition. The values which some modern painters see in calligraphy are already part of the scientific ethos.” (Waddington, 1969, 158)

Physicist, novelist and historian of technology Mitchell Wilson (one of Enrico Fermi’s valued collaborators) provided an explanation for why such broad skills are necessary to STEM professionals. Beyond basic technical knowledge and mathematical skill, "The particular kinds of sensibilities required by a scientist… [include an] intense awareness of words and their meanings.... [He must be] capable of inventing new words to express new physical concepts. He must be able to reason verbally by analogy.... The scientist must also think graphically, in terms of dynamic models, three-dimensional arrangements in space... Formulas and equations printed on a two-dimensional page have three-dimensional meaning, and the scientist must be able to read three dimensions to 'see the picture' at once…. [for] unless a man has some kind of spatial imagination along with his verbal sensibility, he will always be – as far as science goes – in the role of the tone-deaf struggling with a course in music appreciation. “ (Wilson, 1972, 11-12) Wilson also wrote in all of his novels about the importance of developing a literal “feel” for materials in the invention and building of scientific devices: “Copper was so soft and chewy that one had to be tender with it. Brass was good and brittle and could be worked with relaxing ease. Steels were unpredictable; some tough, and others soft with knots of hardness spread throughout like seasoning. Whenever he had to work on nickel, he approached the job with dread. He preferred to work with glass because glass blowing… was an artist’s medium. One came to it with no tools but one’s breath, an eye, a sense of timing, and the jets on the torch.” (Wilson, 1959, 71)

Beyond Anecdotes to Formal, Large-Scale Studies of the Relationship between ACD and STEMM

These accounts are, of course, biased by the experiences of the individuals who espoused their particular views of what kind of education makes the most creative or innovative STEMM professional, but it is interesting that all of them suggest that arts, crafts, design and even literary skills may not only be valuable, but a requirement for the highest levels of achievement. It is therefore striking to observe that various larger and better-controlled studies have validated these individual observations. For example, in 1962, David Saunders of the Educational Testing Service performed a study of engineers working for five industry powerhouses: AT&T Bell System, Detroit Edison, B. F.Goodrich, IBM and Westinghouse. He found that those engineers who excelled at research and innovation could be distinguished from engineers working on development and applications problems in having a higher tolerance for ambiguity, greater empathy for other people, skill at inducing patterns, and they were “less practical” and “more artistic” than their colleagues (Saunders, 1963, 326). Two years later, Joseph

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Rossman published a study of inventors having multiple patents, characterizing them in many of the same terms– practical, analytical, self-critical and persistent - and adding that many were “ingenious”, “imaginative”, of an “artistic or poetic nature”, “observant”, “unusually cultured” and “mechanically skilled” (Rossman, 1964, pp. 35-55). Root-Bernstein, et al. have confirmed these previous studies, demonstrating that professional engineers are significantly more likely to have avocations involving crafts, music, visual arts, and photography than are members of the general public (Root-Bernstein, et al., 2013). Moreover, as Saunders (1962) had found previously, the most innovative engineers – in this case, those who produced the five or more patents or founded at least one company – were significantly more likely than those who did not to be individuals who participated in crafts, photography and fine arts over their lifetime (Root-Bernstein, et al., 2013).

Studies of scientists and mathematicians have yielded findings similar to those for engineers. P. J. Möbius (1900) (the nephew of the famous mathematician who invented the Möbius strip) reported that musical, literary, poetic and artistic avocations were reported by the majority of mathematicians he surveyed in his study of their working methods. His study is perhaps the first to provide some credence to claims by various eminent mathematicians at an artistic sensibility lay at the heart of their creativity. “Mathematics and music! The most glaring possible opposites of human thought! and yet connected, mutually sustained! It is as if they would demonstrate the hidden consensus of all the actions of our mind, which in the revelations of genius makes us forefeel unconscious utterances of a mysteriously active intelligence,” proclaimed the physicist and musician Hermann von Helmholtz (Helmholtz, 1857). “May not Music be described as the Mathematic of sense, Mathematic as the Music of reason?” asked mathematician-musician Joseph Sylvester: “The soul of each the same! Thus the musician feels Mathematic, the mathematician thinks Music.” [152, p. 419] In the same vein, Sofia Kovalevskaya, one of the greatest women mathematicians of all time as well as a world-renowned poet and playwright, wrote that mathematics is a “science [that] requires great fantasy, and one of the first mathematicians of our century [Weierstrass] very correctly said that it is not possible to be a complete mathematician without having the soul of a poet.” (quoted from Kennedy, 1983) Kovalevskaya was, herself, a very successful poet and playwright (Kennedy, 1983). Studies following in the footsteps of Mobius also found that mathematicians were much more likely to be musicians than was common among the general population or even among other scientific specialists. Claparede and Flournoy (1904), for example, found that 52% of the professional mathematicians that they surveyed reported music as an avocation. This figure compares with the 23% of Nobel prizewinning scientists who listed music as an avocation, 16 % of U. S. National Academy of Sciences members, and 15% of U. K. Royal Society members (Root-Bernstein, et al., 2008).

Studies of uncontrolled, convenience samples of eminent scientists from the mid-19 th century on also suggested that the most creative scientists were, like the best mathematicians, more likely than their average colleagues to engage in crafts, arts and design avocations. Sir Francis Galton, one of the founders of modern psychology, found that members of the British Royal Society were unusually likely to be mechanically skilled (REFERENCE). J. H. van’t Hoff, himself the first Nobel Prize winner in Chemistry, performed a study of several hundred scientific biographies and reported that the more creative a scientist was, the more likely he was to display his creativity in other forms such as arts, music, invention, poetry or literary composition (van’t Hoff, 1878). (Van’t Hoff was, himself, a flautist, poet, and artist). Anne Roe, the first modern psychologist to formally study scientific creativity, found that members of the U. S. National Academy of Sciences were characterized by extraordinary

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visualization skills and Anzai (1991) that increasingly skilled use of drawings and diagrams was a direct correlate of increasing expertise in physics. D. W. Taylor (1963) reported that literary ability and experience with tools (i.e., craftsmanship) were also skills that differentiated the most successful scientists from their more average peers in industrial laboratories.

Eiduson (1962; 1973) also noted that the best scientists could be differentiated from their more average colleagues in having greater interest in the arts and literature. Eiduson performed the first longitudinal study of scientific careers using forty male scientists that included four men who won Nobel Prizes; two more nominated for that Prize; eleven members of the U. S. National Academy of Sciences; two dozen average scientists; and three who failed to obtain tenure. Her study found that participation in artistic, musical, crafts, literary pursuits and physical recreations was highly correlated with various measures of career success (Root-Bernstein, et al., 1995). Scientists who painted, drew, sculpted, photographed, wrote poetry and did wood- or metalworking were significantly more likely to have authored very highly cited articles (>100 citations in a 10 year period – a figure that included all of the Nobel laureates and members of the National Academy) than the rest of the scientists in the group. The most successful of the scientists were what Eiduson herself characterized as “gentlemen of science”, meaning erudite, cultured individuals who were clearly distinct in the range of their learning and non-academic pursuits from the average scientist.

Subsequent studies of larger groups of scientists using various types of control groups have yielded similar results. Root-Bernstein, et al. (2008) compared the avocational interests of all Nobel laureates in the sciences (to 2000) with those of an average group of scientists (represented by Sigma Xi, the Research Organization that any working scientist may join) and those of the general U. S. public. The avocational interests of average scientists was not significantly different than that of the public, but Nobel laureates were at least twice as likely to be photographers or musicians as the typical scientist, and between fifteen and twenty-five times as likely to participate actively in visual and plastic arts, crafts such as woodworking and metalworking, performing arts such as acting and singing, and creative forms of writing such as poetry, novels and plays. Indeed, a substantial subset of these Nobel laureates not only had arts and crafts avocations, but engaged in concurrent or second professional careers in the arts or literature. Members of the U. S. National Academy of Sciences and the U.K. Royal Society were on a par, engaging, on average, in music, arts and crafts at about half the rate found among Nobel Prize winners and about twice the rate found among average scientists and the general public. In other words, the more ACD a scientist devoted time to across a lifetime, the greater their probability of achieving eminence as a scientist.

Root-Bernstein, et al. (2013) also compared the avocations of mid-career Michigan State University Honors College Graduates who had gone on to have careers in the sciences and who had produced patents or founded scientific companies (i.e., entrepreneurial innovators) with those who had done neither. The entrepreneurial innovators were significantly more likely to have had sustained participation over their lifetimes in drawing and photography; musical composition (but not playing music); dancing; and crafts such as mechanics, woodworking, and electronics than their equally successful but less innovative cohort. A musical avocation was actually negatively correlated with patent production, an observation also made during the analysis of a very different type of population. Niemi (2015) analyzed how “leisure time interests in the arts relate to entrepreneurship and innovation at work in a large sample (N=7,148) of Americans from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979

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(NLSY79). Self-reported interest in visual arts, music, and literature was analyzed in relation to occupational innovation as indexed by history of business ownership, contributions to work leading to patent applications, and considering oneself an entrepreneur. Analyses controlled for personality characteristics previously suggested to underlie innovation and creativity, including self-mastery and a willingness to take risks, as well as general educational attainment and math and verbal aptitudes.” Forty-six percent of the participants in the survey went to college , of whom five percent did some post-graduate training. Approximately one percent (n = 96) of the participants in this survey had contributed to a filed patent application by the time they were 52 years old. Of all the factors investigated (music, literature, verbal and mathematical SAT scores, and psychological factors such as “self mastery” and “willingness to take risks”, only interest in visual arts (painting; drawing or prints; architecture; sculpture) remained a statistically significant predictor of filing a patent even when other control variables were factored in.

In sum, the weight of current evidence demonstrates a strong correlation between success in STEMM careers and serious, persistent avocational participation in ACD over a lifetime.

Possible Explanations of Why ACD Are Associated with Success in STEMM Careers.

Correlations are not, of course, causation. What one would like to see are interventions that demonstrate not only that, but also how, ACD can improve STEMM performance. The second part of this paper will provide such evidence. But first it is necessary to consider what kinds of connections one might expect there to be between ACD and STEMM. Much as it would nice to be able to say that practicing any ACD will improve STEMM performance across the board, the evidence summarized above does not support such a conclusion. While musical avocations were extremely common among successful mathematicians, music was negatively correlated with being a patented inventor in other studies. Similarly, while there is no evidence of a relationship between craft skills (such as mechanical ability) and mathematical ability, such a relationship almost certainly exists with inventiveness and experimental ability. In short, it would appear that some ACD, or perhaps even more particularly, some specific types of skills and knowledge obtained through the practice of ACD, are valuable to some aspects of STEMM practice, and we need to know which these are. In fact, many of the studies summarized above include interview or survey responses in which STEMM professionals address the kinds of connections that they personally perceive between their professional work and ACD avocations or training. While some of these are quite idiosyncratic ( a point to which we will return below), these responses generally fall into about sixteen relatively distinct categories that can be used to direct further analysis of how ACD and STEMM learning might most fruitfully be integrated. Many of the articles cited above (especially… REFS) contain multiple examples of these links between ACD and STEMM practices, so we will provide only one exemplar to illustrate each one here:

1) Mental skills or “tools for thinking” such as observing, imaging, abstracting, pattern recognition and pattern forming, analogizing, empathizing and playacting, body thinking, dimensional thinking, modeling, playing, transforming and synthesizing, which are required to perform any kind of

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observational or experimental science (Root-Bernstein, 1989; Root-Bernstein and Root-Bernstein, 1999). A good example of how many of these “tools” are recognized to be of value to STEMM professionals can be found in the descriptions of skills provided above by Huxley, Bragg, Blackett, Waddington and Wilson.

2) Experience with materials, tools and methods of using them that may then inform STEMM practices. Alexis Carrel, the 1912 Nobel Laureate in Medicine or Physiology, "learned [as a child] the intricate stitching required for his [later surgical experiments] from the renowned lace makers of Lyon, one of whom was his mother." (Bishop, 2003, 140)

3) Techniques and phenomena previously unknown to STEMM professionals. The artist Marcel Duchamps experimented with various effects of moving images on human perception through a form of art he invented called “Rotoreliefs”. Some of these effects, such as a rotating disc in which the image appears to spiral both in and out simultaneously. These Rotoreliefs became the basis for subsequent perceptual psychology investigations. (Sekular and Levinson, 1977)

4) Novel principles and structures that reveal new aspects of natural processes. Attempts by Leonardo da Vinci to understand how to draw trees realistically led him to contemplate the principles underlying their structures. The result is something called “Da Vinci’s Principle”. The rediscovery of this principle in da Vinci’s notebooks about a century ago led to the flowering of botanical studies around his “principle” that are ongoing today.

5) Recognition of unsolved problems lying at the junctions of ACD and STEMM. Modern theories of “plication”, the science of folding structures, has direct connections to investigations by STEMM professionals such as Robert J. Lang of the mathematical and physical bases of the art of origami; in turn, the elucidation of these mathematical and physical principles has led to a renaissance in origami innovations in the past two decades (www.langorigami.com).

6) Experience navigating the creative process more efficiently and cogently. Georges Urbain was the discoverer of element Lutetium and also a sculptor, musician and composer who wrote of the connections between his diverse activities that, “The musician combines sounds in the same way the chemist combines substances…. It is true that musician and chemist reason in their respective fields in the same way, despite the profound difference of the materials they use.” (Urbain, 1924)

7) Practice in the application of transdisciplinary aesthetic principles. Evolutionary biologist Per Olaf Wickman writes in the preface to his book on Aesthetic Experience in Science Education (2006) that, “In science education research there is rarely any mention of the aesthetic sides of science, and often aesthetics is pictured as other than science. However my own time as a researcher was both an intellectual and aesthetic experience. In saying this I have to stress that aesthetic experience was not simply a motivational drive for my engagement in science; it was continually present when working.”

8) Strategies for exploring and mastering new material efficiently. The Nobel Prize winner Doroth Crowfoot Hodgkin’s mother was a professionally trained artist who taught her how to draw and paint

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everything she observed. As part of her home schooling, Hodgkin helped her parents as an illustrator of the archeological digs they carried out, especially the mosaic floors found at some of the sites. Hodgkin commented that, “I began to think of the restraints imposed by two dimensional order in a plane” (Ferry, 1998, 8), an exercise she subsequently associated with her ability to think about the scientific principles underlying her chosen profession, crystallography.

9) Mnemonic and other mental devices that increase acquisition and retention of learned material. “We describe a new method, bodypainting, to enhance courses in living anatomy… We designed a course in which the students familiarized themselves with the surface markings and subsequently painted the full organ at the site of its projection on the body surface. Based on our first experiences, we conclude that the course is a successful and enjoyable means of teaching various aspects of anatomy in relation to physical examination. This was confirmed by an evaluation among the first groups of students.” (Op Den Akker, et al., 2002)

10) Practice translating, transforming and transferring concepts and practices between and among disciplines. Jonathan Kingdon, a member of the faculty of the Zoology Department of Oxford University and author of a series of encyclopedias about the evolution, diversification and geographical distribution of African mammals that were listed as being among the 100 most important science books of the past century (Morrison and Morrison, 1999) has written that: "Drawing is a way of exploring. Scientists have lots of techniques. They make histograms, graphs and tables. These techniques are no different to drawing. Drawing is just as scientific.” (Anonymous, 2003, 46) Explicating further, he writes that, “It is hardly possible to compare animals without asking questions, and drawing is an exercise in comparisons, comparing the proportions of parts with parts, parts with wholes and comparing one form with another… The comparison of forms…. Raises questions, and drawing can be employed as a wordless questioning of form; the pencil seeks to extract form the complex whole some limited coherent pattern that our eyes and minds can grasp. The probing pencil is like the dissecting scalpel, seeking to expose relevant structures that may not be immediately obvious and are certainly hidden from the shadowy world of the camera lens.” (Kingdon, 1983, 251) Kingdon’s use of artistic methods to explore his science is mirrored by STEMM professionals in the physical sciences as well. The late MIT metallurgist Cyril Stanley Smith wrote: “ I have slowly come to realize that the analytic, quantitative approach I had been taught to regard as the only respectable one for a scientist is insufficient… the richest aspects of any large and complicated system arise from factors that cannot be measured easily if at all. For these, the artist’s approach, uncertain though it inevitably is, seems to find and convey more meaning.” (Smith 1981, 9)

11) Recreation (often involving re-creation) that stimulates new creation. Frederick Banting, the Nobel Laureate (1923) who discovered insulin, wrote that some people ‘‘for recreation and on account of high life are wreckreated, while others who go for recreation are re-created’’(Banting, 1979, p. 36). Banting’s own recreation was outdoor painting, which he treated as a type of research and used to stimulate new ideas.

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12) Recording and Communication. Various types of dance notation have been adapted for recording animal behavior and as adjuncts in the study of the impact of neurological deficits on human movement. (E.g., Benesh and McGuinness, 1974; McGuinness-Scott, 1981; Harrison, et al., 1992; Teitelbaum, et al., 2004; Wishaw and Pellis, 1991; Melvin, et al., 2005)

Integration of ACD into STEMM Must Be Explicit

As the examples provided above illustrate, STEMM professionals who find ACD useful are very explicit about specific ways in which ACD affect their STEMM practices. Since we have provided only a handful of such examples, however, it is perhaps worth a moment to provide broader evidence of this claim. Three studies are particularly incisive. The first was carried out by Visher (1947) on “starred scientists” (those considered to be the most eminent) listed in American Men of Science in 1947. These scientists were asked whether the arts should be part of STEM education, and even though 39 percent had had no such training themselves, 80% replied “yes”! The reasons given generally involved the notion of improving skills or creative ability. A more recent study of 235 mid-career scientists and engineers were similarly asked, “Would you recommend arts and crafts education as a useful or even essential background for a scientific innovator? Why or why not?” Again, just over eighty percent of the respondents replied that arts and crafts should be part of STEM education (Root-Bernstein, et al., 2013). The 235 scientists were also asked: “Does your avocation or hobby— or the skills, knowledge, esthetic, social contacts, creative practices, or just plain perseverance that you have gained from it— play any role in your current vocation? If so, please explain how.” Sixty-five percent of the respondents stated that they recognized that their arts or crafts avocation stimulated their vocational practice (Root-Bernstein, et al., 2013). These survey results provide evidence that the correlations between arts and crafts participation and career success rise above some intangible and subconscious association to explicit awareness of utility. Notably, scientists who found no use for the arts in their own work were also very likely to argue that arts were not useful for STEMM training, either.

A third pair of studies is perhaps the most important, however, for examining the need for such explicit awareness of utility. In a pair of studies, Root-Bernstein, et al (1993; 1995) investigated the work habits and avocations of 40-scientist group studied by Eiduson that has been mentioned above. This group was notable in having several Nobel Prizewinners and eleven members of the National Academy of Sciences at one end of the spectrum and a number of scientists who did not achieve tenure at the other. Adult ACD avocations were highly predictive of career success among this group and like the two studies summarized in the previous paragraph, the most successful scientist provided many examples of how their ACD avocations were useful to their STEMM research (Root-Bernstein, et al., 1995). Three other striking factors also differentiated the highest-performing and lowest-performing participants in the study that shed light on the ACD-STEMM connection. The first is that the most successful scientists uniformly avowed that their avocations (whether ACD –related or involving other activities such as politics, sports or games) were sources of inspiration for their professional work, whereas the lowest

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performing scientists uniformly viewed their avocations as a “waste of time” (Root-Bernstein, et al., 1995). These self-evaluations correlated almost perfectly with the scientist’s reports of their work habits. The highest-performing scientists uniformly reported that taking time off from their vocational work was an essential strategy that they used to stimulate new ideas (i.e., they employed ACD as recreations that stimulated creation) whereas the lowest-performing scientists uniformly described time away from work as a “waste” (Root-Bernstein, et al., 1993). Finally, the highest performing scientists uniformly expressed the view that C. P. Snow’s “two culture” gap was a fallacy that the best scientists bridged by being themselves artists, musicians and writers, while, once again, the lowest-performing scientists were equally certain that the “two culture” gap was real (Root-Bernstein, et al., 1995).

In sum, the three sets of studies just summarized provide evidence that the factors at work in the correlation between ACD and STEMM professional success are not just the fact that the most successful and innovative STEMM professionals willingly engage in ACD avocations, but that they also perceive these avocations as integral parts of a holistic approach to their professional lives. Such integration of skills and knowledge from diverse life experiences has been noted previously by several investigators attempting to understand the cognitive bases of creative ability. John Dewey noted that creative people universally constructed integrated “activity sets” that linked their apparently diverse interests (Dewey, 1934; King, 1996, 6-8, 52, 228-29, 259). Howard Gruber explained Darwin’s amazingly integrative insights as resulting from integrated “networks of enterprise”, in which every method and fact that he learned in each of the many disciplines he studied was linked to those he learned in every other (Gruber, 1984; 1988; 1989). And Root-Bernstein has called this phenomenon “correlative talents” to denote the fact that it was not sufficient to be polymathic in one’s training; the innovator must also discover the functional relationships between what has been learned (Root-Bernstein, 1989, 313-315).

In short, there is no reason to believe from any of the evidence provided so far that simply providing STEMM students with ACD training will necessarily be any more effective in improving STEMM education than the current system of college “distribution requirements” that already force students to take some art or music. If students and teachers do not recognize some STEMM-derived need that ACD training can supply, or if they find ACD training unappealing or a waste of time, then not only will integration fail to occur, but negative lessons could be learned. Integration of ACD into STEMM education will require teaching students professional strategies such as looking for specific ways in which ACD training can be functionally effective in STEMM contexts and personally valuable within each individual’s style of learning and working. So the goal of ACD-STEMM integration must be the formulation of individualized integrated networks of enterprise, not merely the integration of artists or art lessons into science classrooms.

ACD-STEMM Connections Are Specific, Not General

In light of the many very specific and various ways in which STEMM professionals have utilized ACD as adjuncts to their professional work, it becomes clear that an enlightened approach to integrating arts, crafts and design into STEMM education requires breaking down the specific types of skills or

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knowledge that any particular art, craft or design project develops and how these may overlap with skills and knowledge required in a STEMM subject. Hypotheses such as “arts will make STEMM professionals more creative” are too broad and amorphous to be testable or implementable. A more nuanced approach that examines specific types of bridges between ACD and STEMM subjects is required. Ainsworth , et al., (2011) and Quillin and Thomas (2015), for example, have provided excellent analyses and summary of research concerning the many ways that a single artistic process, in their case drawing, can be implemented within a STEMM context (varying from teacher presented to teacher produced to student produced, with many variants inbetween) and the wide range of learning outcomes that drawing can influence. Drawing can be employed to improve the interpretation of visual information; to enhance motivation to study a STEMM subject; to elicit and train students’ mental models and model-based reasoning; to enhance observational skill; to connect concepts and ideas (e.g., through mental or mind “maps”); to emphasize science as a process skill rather than as a set of facts; to display quantitative information and communicate it more effectively; to teach design principles for scientists; or to enhance visuo-spatial ability (references to formal studies in Quillin and Thomas, 2015). While simply drawing for the sake of drawing can potentially provide transferrable skills appropriate to each of these goals (as we will demonstrate below), it should be obvious that specifically designing drawing lessons for the purpose of developing one or a small subset of these goals will be a far more effective pedagogical strategy. Skill and knowledge transfer are much more likely to occur when student and teacher both understand and are explicit about the purpose for which a lesson is being carried out. In addition, the use of an art or craft to achieve a particular pedagogical goal must be appropriate to that purpose. It makes no sense, for example, to use dance to try to improve the memorization of lists of scientific terms, to improve observational skill in the use of a microscope, or to model static scientific objects. Dance has no characteristics that make it appropriate to such uses. Dance might, however, help students model kinetic processes, learn to transform such processes into equations or interpret how an equation “behaves”, and communicate their understanding of such processes to others. Thus, one of the most important things that is needed to make ACD-STEMM integration work as effectively as possible is a formal understanding of what specific characteristics make any particular ACD most appropriate for improving any particular STEMM educational outcome.

In sum, melding ACD with STEMM is not a mere matter of presenting the two together, or using ACD to more clearly explain a STEMM concept to students; rather, such melding must have some recognizable and explicit basis in the type of ACD being used to deliver a lesson and an explicit utility for the emerging STEMM professional in terms of skills, knowledge, concepts, structures, processes, methods, problems or aesthetic criteria. Equally importantly, it must be recognized in developing ACD-STEMM –integrated programs that different STEMM professionals use ACD for different reasons. There can be no “one-size-fits-all” approach to ACD-STEMM integration; integration must, in the end, be not only discipline-appropriate, but also personalized. All this must be born in mind in considering how ACD and STEMM material can and ought to be integrated in light of the various purposes such integration might have for different people.

The Futility of Distinguishing Between Near and Far Transfer

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In conclusion, we would like to make a very brief but important comment on the on-going debate about near and far transfer that has bedeviled many discussions of whether ACD can usefully be integrated into STEMM learning. We believe that the evidence we have compiled here makes the entire near-far issue moot. Transfer occurs when and where there is a bridge between subjects. Whether near or far, the bridge creates a link that draws the subjects together – to use an analogy from Madeline L’Engle’s A Wrinkle in Time, a “tesseract” that folds space and time to bring together that which was previously separated. These bridges are not made by having science students make art, or mathematicians play music, but by revealing functional commonalities in methods, skills, knowledge, structures, and processes through the recognition of common patterns, analogies, etc. etc. The more specific we can be about what the bridges are between any particular ACD activity and any STEMM learning objective, the more useful ACD-STEMM integration will be. Conversely, the less explicit the bridges are, the more futile it will be to put them in the same classrooms. Thus, in the second part of this report, we have therefore broken down our analysis of ACD-STEMM pedagogical studies according to the twelve ways in which STEMM professionals generally find that ACD are useful in their professional research. One of the most important conclusions that we will reach is that there are very few controlled studies demonstrating the effectiveness of ACD-STEMM integration at any level of education, but that those studies that do exist make a very strong case for such effectiveness when the combination is focused on development of a specific outcome and, conversely, that there is no evidence that ACD-STEMM integration has any benefits when the desired outcome is something general like employing music or painting classes to improve IQ, math ability, or creativity. In other words, all educational transfer is mediated by “near” mechanisms even when the disciplines are “far” apart.

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Review of Studies Demonstrating the Effectiveness of Integrating Arts, Music, Performing, Crafts and Design into Science, Technology, Engineering, Mathematics and Medical Education, Part 2: Statistically-Validated and Controlled Pedagogical Studies

Robert Root-Bernstein* and Ania Pathak, Department of Physiology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824 USA. * Author to whom correspondence should be addressed: rootbern@msu.edu

Abstract: This is Part 2 of a two-part analysis of studies concerning useful ways in which visual and plastic arts, music, performing, crafts, and design (referred to for simplicity as Arts-Crafts-Design or ACD) may improve learning of Science, Technology, Engineering, Mathematics and Medicine (STEMM) and

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increase professional success in these subjects. Part 1 outlined eleven ways in which STEMM professionals say they use ACD in their work and the evidence for the efficacy of doing so. Part 2 summarizes pedagogical studies that test whether ACD improve aspects of STEMM learning. Using a wide variety of search methods and sources, we have attempted to find all studies that employed some type of control group along with some type of formal analysis of results. We found only a few dozen acceptable studies. Most of these involved one or more “tools for thinking” such as observing, imaging, abstracting and/or patterning. These studies universally demonstrated one or more significant benefits from utilizing ACD as means to improve STEMM outcomes such as acquisition of skills, improved learning, and longer retention of learned material. Similarly good outcomes were found for acquisition of manipulative skills associated with experimentation and surgical ability. Most of the twelve ways that STEMM professionals have found ACD to be useful, however, have not been tested in pedagogically sound ways. Attempts to utilize ACD to improve IQ, general mathematics ability, professional success, etc. did not yield improvements. We conclude that properly designed ACD-STEMM curricula can have clear benefits but that very few ACD-STEMM intersections have yet been properly tested. There is a tremendous opportunity here for future studies and pedagogical innovations. (267 words)

Introduction

In the first part of this paper, we provided evidence that there are twelve fundamental ways in which science, technology, engineering, mathematics and medical (STEMM) professionals have utilized arts, crafts and design (ACD) thinking, methods and materials in their professional work. In this second part of our paper, we will employ these twelve types of ACD-STEMM interactions to evaluate and review the existing literature on pedagogical approaches to integrating ACD with STEMM education. In order to gather these studies we have used a wide range of methods, ranging from key word searches on PubMed, Google, ProQuest and JSTOR databases to following footnotes within the studies that were so acquired, and also asking knowledgeable colleagues (especially those involved with the Science Engineering Arts Design [SEAD] Network) to provide sources. Our criteria for including sources in this review are that they have some sort of control that provided a basis for statistical analysis of the results. In general, studies that we have included here are of one of the following three types: 1) studies in which there was a statistically significant difference in a STEMM outcome correlated with whether participants had prior ACD training of some kind; 2) studies in which one STEMM group was provided with ACD training and another was not; 3) studies in which different STEMM groups were provided with different types of ACD (or unrelated) training and the effects of the different interventions on STEMM outcomes were measured. We have also included groups of controlled studies in which the ACD is only indirectly implicated in the STEMM outcome. For example, there are many studies demonstrating that explicit training in various of the “tools for thinking” (such as observing or patterning or modeling) result in significant improvements in STEMM learning; and concomitant studies demonstrating that it is possible to teach the same “tools” utilizing ACD; but for which there are no studies utilizing the ACD as a means to improve STEMM learning directly. These sets of studies have been included because it is logical that since teaching the “tool” improves STEMM outcomes and ACD can teach the “tool”

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effectively, that ACD can improve STEMM outcomes as well; but obviously, the demonstration that ACD have such an impact on STEMM learning remains to be demonstrated properly.

Overall, studies that provide different ACD (or unrelated) training to comparable groups and measure STEMM outcomes are the most reliable of the types of studies we summarize, and are certainly more so than ones that involve an ACD intervention compared with no intervention. We found no double-blinded studies (a virtual impossibility in an educational setting since the teacher, unlike a pharmacist in a pharmaceutical study, is inseparable from the intervention) or cross-over studies (which would not make sense, since any lesson learned would presumable persist, unlike in a pharmaceutical study, after the cross-over). The correlation studies are the weakest in terms of drawing reliable conclusions regarding the impact of ACD on STEMM performance, but such studies are often the only data currently available. They, as well as the studies that indirectly link ACD training through “thinking tools” to improved STEMM outcomes, provide the basis for future, better designed and controlled studies. As will quickly become apparent, huge gaps exist in our knowledge of whether the twelve types of ACD-STEMM interactions can be employed in pedagogically useful ways. It is hoped that this study will provide the evidential and methodological case that these gaps are well-worth filling and encourage new and better studies in the future.

1) “Tools for Thinking: Observing, imaging, abstracting, pattern recognition and pattern forming, etc., that are required to perform any kind of observational or experimental science.

Root-Bernstein and Root-Bernstein (1989; 1999) identified thirteen “thinking tools” that people in STEMM and ACD professions share. These are: observing; imaging; abstracting; pattern recognition; pattern forming; analogizing; body thinking; empathizing and playacting; dimensional thinking; modeling; playing; transforming; and synthesizing. Since all thirteen “thinking tools” have previously been demonstrated to form useful links between STEMM and ACD for professionals in these disciplines, we explored here whether these “tools” had been found to be pedagogically useful as well.

OBSERVING. Observing can be defined as sustained attention to some phenomenon using any or all of one’s senses (Root-Bernstein and Root-Bernstein, 1999). While every science textbook and every science curriculum of which we are aware advocates observing as a fundamental STEMM skill, there are a surprising paucity of well-controlled studies describing effective means to train observational skills. The one STEMM discipline in which the most pedagogical research on observing appears to have been done seems to be medicine where health care providers have a very limited amount of time to make observations critical to their diagnostic and treatment options. Many studies have documented the fact that medical and nursing students general perform very poorly on visual observation tests, which has led to various arts-related interventions for training observational skills. In well-controlled studies, medical students, physicians and nurses have all been shown to benefit in a statistically significant manner from courses designed to educate visual observing skills through the examination and analysis of paintings and drawings (Grossman, et al., 2014; Perry, et al., 2011; Klugman, et al., 2011; Naghshineh, et al., 2008; Kirklin, et al., 2007; Dolev, et al., 2001). Surprisingly, one quite obvious type of intervention that has not

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been subject to well-controlled study is having such students actually draw or paint objects themselves. Given that one of the most common statements made by late nineteenth and early twentieth-century scientists with regard to the value of arts for science is some variant of, “that which has not been drawn has not been seen,” this oversight is quite striking. It is also noteworthy that equivalent types of interventions have not, apparently, been attempted outside of the medical field where one could expect them to be equally efficacious and where art-science curricula have existed since the late nineteenth century (Jones, 1898; Mueller, 1935).

Aural observing can also be honed, particularly through musical training. Mangione and Nieman (1999; 1997) tested 868 medical students and interns for their ability to learn how to distinguish between and identify correctly stethoscope recordings of twelve different typical heart diseases. Those who could play a musical instrument were statistically significantly more likely to get the diagnoses correct. Given that the average physician is able to correctly diagnose only 19 percent of heart diseases using stethoscopy and even cardiologists get only 23 percent of such diagnoses correct, there is clearly a desperate need to hone aural observation skills among medical professionals! (Zoneraich and Spodick, 1995) Physicians and nurses also use aural observational skills when dealing with surgical and critical care equipment utilizing melodic alarm functions. It has been found that physicians and nurses who had previously played instruments are very significantly better at discriminating between, correctly identifying, and responding to melodic medical equipment alarms used in surgery and critical care settings (Wee and Sanderson, 2008; Sanderson, et al. 2006). Once again, there appear to be no equivalent types of studies concerning the efficacy of music lessons for training the aural abilities of, for example, field biologists to be able to identify and distinguish the species they study or for mechanical engineers to correctly diagnose and identify the causes of various mechanical failures by sound.

Like visual observational skills, aural observation skills are trainable. The fact that healthcare professionals who have had music lessons have demonstrably better aural observation skills than those who have not speaks indirectly to this issue. More apposite are two studies of nurses and nursing students demonstrating that music lessons are an effective means to remediate aural observational deficits. Pellico, et al (2012) worked with a professional composer (T. C. Duffy of Yale University) to compose music with attributes appropriate for learning about heart sounds and rhythms. Advanced nursing students taking a 180 hour diagnostic course (much of it involving direct patient diagnosis and care) were randomized into two groups, one of which got an additional two hour musical auditory training (MAT) session in which they learned how to attend to pitch, timbre, rhythm, and masking sounds within a complex musical environment. This single two hour session resulted in the MAT-trained nurses performing significantly better in recognizing and correctly diagnosing a wide range of bowel, lung and heart sounds (p < 0.001). (Study participants who did not receive the MAT training prior to the test were provided the training after the study was completed.) A pilot study by Collins, et al. (2014) also suggests that a pair of 90 minute music lessons focusing on how to attend to rhythm, tempo, pattern, noise, and remembering sounds (but not tied directly to medical sounds as in the Pellico, et al. study) had a similar effect. In short, auditory observational skill appears to be trainable through music. These results are consistent with other studies demonstrating that musicians are significantly better than non-

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musicians at speech-in-noise discrimination (Parbery-Clark, et al., 2009) and develop better aural working memory (Pallesen, et al., 2010), both of which are essential skills required not only for health professionals but for STEMM professionals in many specialties.

IMAGING. Having observed accurately, STEMM professionals need to be able to recall and mentally manipulate their observations, as skill often called “imaging”. Imaging, like observing, can, and often does, employ any or all of one’s sense (Root-Bernstein and Root-Bernstein, 1999).

Imaging skills are highly correlated with multiple measures of success in STEMM subjects. Within imaging skills, spatial reasoning ability, which includes the ability to visualize objects in multiple dimensions and to imagine what they look like as they are rotated or moved, is of particular importance to STEMM students and professionals and has been demonstrated in every STEMM subject. Blade demonstrated that “the figural, or spatial, area of mental ability” appeared to be of far greater importance in predicting engineering ability than “verbal, reasoning, abstract mathematical and quantitative abilities… I believe that figural or spatial ability is related to the creative performance of engineering students” (Blade, 1961, 112; Blade and Watson, 1955). Similarly, engineer Eugene Ferguson argued that the work of the imaginative engineer is almost completely non-verbal and non-mathematical: “Much of the creative thought of the designers of our technological world is nonverbal, not easily reducible to words; its language is an object or a picture or a visual image in the mind. It is out of this kind of thinking that the clock, printing press, and snowmobile have arisen. Technologists, converting their nonverbal knowledge into objects directly (as when an artisan fashioned an American ax) or into drawings that have enabled others to build what was in their minds, have chosen the shape and many of the qualities of our man-made surroundings. This intellectual component of technology, which is non-literary and non-scientific, has been generally unnoticed because its origins lie in art and not in science. As the scientific component of knowledge in technology has increased markedly in the 19th and 20th centuries, the tendency has been to lose sight of the crucial part played by nonverbal knowledge in making the ‘big’ decisions of form, arrangement, and texture, that determine the parameters within which a system will operate” (Ferguson, 1977, 835; see also Ferguson, 1994). Indeed, one recent study argued that, “Spatial reasoning accounts for 90% of the engineering research and design process” (Bertoline and Weibe, 2003). Another asserted that, ““eighty percent of the manufacturing gross national product passes through CAD, CAM, and CAE systems at some point. Every vehicle, aircraft, sophisticated electronics system, most industrial and manufacturing equipment, and most consumer products depend upon these tools.”(Marks and Riley, 1995) In short, while not every engineering problem involves imaging skills, most do and engineers who lack this skills are at a clear disadvantage.

The same disadvantages attend to students of medicine. Among medical students studying anatomy, those that performed the worst on a battery of visuo-spatial tests also performed the worst on practical tests of anatomical knowledge and dissection ability although these same students did no worse than those with high visuo-spatial scores on non-spatial tasks and tests such as learning the names of nerves, bones, etc. (Rochford, 1985).

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Similarly, spatial reasoning skills and visual imaging ability have been tied by many studies to success in all types of science courses and mathematics. A comprehensive recent review of this literature has recently been carried out by Uttal and Cohen (2012) so it will not be duplicated here. Suffice it to say that students who do poorly on a variety of tests of visuo-spatial ability consistently perform poorly in their STEMM courses, while students who do well on such tests, tend to perform much better. The striking thing about visuo-spatial ability is that, as James Mohler has written, “Most researchers agree that spatial ability is a trainable attribute.” (Mohler, 2007; see also Tillotson, 1984). Indeed, Uttal and Cohen’s (2012) review provides dozens of well-controlled studies performed on students ranging from middle-school through graduate school demonstrating that interventions involving the training of visuo-spatial skills, devoid of STEMM content, nonetheless result not only in improved scores on visuo-spatial tests, but concomitantly on various measures of STEMM learning such as classroom tests, standardized STEM tests, persistence in major, and probability of graduating within a STEMM major. Uttal and Cohen particularly point to the work by Sorby as a model program (Sorby & Baartmans, 1996; 2000; Sorby, 2009a; 2009b).

What is most striking about studies of visual thinking interventions is that it does not seem to matter how visual thinking is taught for it to have substantive benefits for STEM learning outcomes: course material may involve specific visual thinking exercises, consist of learning computer-aided design, or focus on drawing, industrial drawing (or draughting) painting or sculpting (Uttal & Cohen, 2012; Ainsworth, et al., 2011; Halpine, 2004; Groenendijk, et al., 2013; Hinz, et al., 2013), but drawing stimulates ideational fluency over use of computer-aided design programs. Drawing, painting and sculpting lessons may also improve body or kinesthetic thinking associated with engineering tasks such as designing robots (Vertisi, 2012).

It is also important to note that groups of students that typically underperform in STEMM subjects, such as women and some minorities, benefit the most from visuo-spatial training (Sorby & Baartmans, 1996; 2000; Sorby, 2009a; 2009b). Most studies involve ACD-related interventions that last months or years, but in some cases, even very short arts-related exercises can have a significant impact as the following study attest: “83 undergraduates [Ss] were pretested on 4 standard tests of visual–spatial skill, including the Group Embedded Figures Test and the Space Relations Test of the Differential Aptitude Tests. Half of the Ss were given 3 hrs of training relevant to the spatial tasks presented by 3 of the tests; all Ss were then posttested. The hypothesis that spatial "ability" is susceptible to practice and training effects was strongly supported. MANOVA showed that experimental Ss improved significantly more than controls, males and females improved equally and substantially, and training effects generalized to the untrained spatial task. The hypothesis that females score lower on spatial tests because they lack relevant practice was also supported; when female experimental Ss were compared with male controls on the posttests, the sex-related pretest difference favoring males was eliminated.” (Stericker and Levesconte, 1982).

ABSTRACTING. Abstracting is the process of eliminating all unnecessary information from a set of observations to leave the essential elements or meaning (Root-Bernstein and Root-Bernstein, 1999).

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Abstracting is another critical skill that is used in a wide range of STEMM subjects (Root-Bernstein, 1989). Surprisingly, then, there has been very little empirical research into the uses of abstractions, as opposed to realistic representations of material, in learning STEMM subjects. The existing evidence suggests that realistic representation of material is favored over abstract representations if the object of a lesson is to identify the details of a specific object or process. If, however, the purpose of a lesson is to present a principle or process that is to be generalized across dissimilar sets of material or to diverse situations, then abstract representations are far more effective. Scheiter, et al. (2009) have demonstrated in a well-controlled study that material regarding cell mitosis was learned and generalized to other biological situations much better by training students with schematic diagrams of the process rather than photographs or video material of actual mitotic events. Similarly, Goldstone and Sakamoto (2003) found that students introduced to an abstracted, schematic version of strategies for food acquisition among ants were much better at transferring their understanding to other situations (e.g., other types of animal foraging) than those who observed actual ants foraging. Van Gendt and Verhagen (2001) observed the same outcome when teaching anatomy: students trained on photographs were better able to identify specific structures than students trained on abstracted line drawings, but the latter students were better able to generalize and apply their learning to other anatomical structures. And, to provide one more example, in another well-controlled study, Johnson, et al (2014) found that circuit analysis principle were learned by electrical engineering students much more effectively and generalizably when the circuits were taught as abstractions rather than as realistic, contextualized images. Goldstone and Son (2005) also found that students who were introduced first to realistic protein models and then to abstractions of their basic structures were much more capable of generalizing their knowledge to new examples than those limited to manipulating realistic models. (See also: Dwyer, 1968; Dwyer, 1976; Ferguson and Hegerty, 1995; Goldstone and Sakamoto, 2003; Johnson, et al., 2014)

As with the other “thinking tools” described above, even in courses in which abstracting is a critical component, tests of abstracting ability at the outset of science and engineering courses do not predict class ranking at the end of the course suggesting that abstracting is a learnable skill (Bennedssen and Caspersen, 2008; Mostrom, et al., 2008). Unfortunately, this skill is not explicitly taught in almost any STEMM curriculum, even in courses such as computer programming, where there is explicit recognition of its importance (Koppelman , 2010). An additional problem with all of these studies, from the perspective of ACD-STEMM integration, is that in no case has anyone taught students how to make their own abstract pictures or diagrams of the material that is to be learned! All extant studies of the importance of abstracting for generalizability and transfer of learning to new situations provide the abstracted information passively to the students. A clear need exists to determine whether students can be taught to abstract material for themselves and whether lessons in abstracting purveyed by means of art lessons can be equally, or more, effective than teacher-provided materials.

PATTERNING. Patterning is another “thinking tool” for which ACD may provide some valuable skill development. Pellico, et al. (2014) point out that observational skills are attendant on expectation and expectation in turn depends on the set of patterns with which one is familiar. Thus, part of observational training inevitably involves building up patterns of expectation through repetition and the

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memory (or image) of that pattern. Musical training clearly helps to develop pattern recognition and aural memory (i.e., aural imaging) concurrently with aural observation skills (Pellico, et al., 2014; Wee and Sanderson, 2008; Sanderson, et al., 2006). Similarly, Shapiro, et al. (2006) found that medical students provided with 90 minute visual art and dance interventions weekly for six months had significantly improved pattern recognition skills compared with those viewing clinical photographs. There is, however, a stunning paucity of studies involving the explicit teaching of pattern recognition and pattern forming with regard to STEMM learning, whether by means of ACD or by direct teaching of these “tools”.

ANALOGIZING. Analogies and metaphors can be useful for STEMM professionals by creating bridges between solved problems and unsolved ones. It is important to distinguish between analogies, metaphors and patterns. Analogies and metaphors can be types of patterns, demonstrating links between disparate objects or processes, but patterns are created by the ordering of many elements, whereas analogies and metaphors are generally limited to pairs or small numbers of elements. In addition, metaphors generally involve the comparison of properties common to the elements or objects being juxtaposed, whereas analogies compare processes shared by objects with dissimilar properties. Thus, a bat wing is like an airplane wing (a metaphor) but a bat is analogous to a rocket in that both fly.

One example of how STEMM professionals utilize analogies is the field of biomimicry, in which solutions to problems solved by evolutionary processes are examined as clues to ways to solve technical and engineering problems in other fields. Another is the widespread use of M. C. Escher artwork to illustrate and teach all of the different types of crystallographic forms of symmetry operations (e.g., MIT, 2015; e.g., Buseck, 2015; Orlov, et al., 2006) One notable example is a design program called “Escher Sketch” that has been widely adopted by chemists: “Since 1987, many crystallographers and many other specialists enjoyed the attractive software written for the Macintosh by Terry Flaherty from Loyola University in New Orleans. Escher Sketch was originally created for the purpose of designing periodic decorations. It was soon realized however that this application was an excellent teaching tool for the illustration of basic crystallography courses.” (Chapuis and Shoeni, 2015)

The use of Escher’s artwork to teach crystallography has not, apparently, been the subject of formal pedagogical evaluation, so its popularity may or may not indicate efficacy. More generally, analogizing is widely recognized to be a teaching tool that can benefit STEMM teaching. Harrison and Treagust (2006) have reviewed the many uses of analogies and metaphors in STEMM teaching (as well as the dangers posed by inaccurate and misleading analogies!), but very few properly controlled studies of their effectiveness seem to exist. One notable exception is the study by Newby, et al. (1995) in which 161 college students receiving instruction in 10 physiological were divided into three groups, one group being taught the concepts without analogies, the second group being taught the same material with the addition of a relevant analogy, and the third group receiving instruction with analogies along with additional instruction in how to best make use of these analogies. The students receiving instruction with analogies outperformed those without analogy training on both immediate test performance and long term retention of material, and those students receiving additional instruction on best use of

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analogies performed better than those who received analogy training without additional instruction (see also Stepich and Newby, 1988). Baker and Lawson (2001) also found significant improvement in college student learning of genetics concepts in a group provided with complex analogies as compared with the group not provided with analogies. Very similarly-designed studies using elementary school children learning basic science concepts had virtually identical positive outcomes, with the greatest improvement in learning and retention occurring when the analogy was reinforced both textually and graphically (Glynn and Takahashi, 1998; Yanowitz, 2001).

One caveat in all of these studies is the recognition that analogies function best when they link what a student already knows to what needs to be learned (Harrison and Treagust, 2006) and are geared to the level of understanding of the student (Galesic and Garcia-Retamero ,2013). Whether ACD-related analogies might therefore be particularly effective in tying STEMM concepts into student experiences, especially for students with appropriate prior ACD training, has not been studied formally. Another glaring oversight is that there appears to be no research into whether student-generated analogies can be as effective as teacher-provided ones. Indeed, teachers very rarely ask students to generate their own analogies, which may be an area of great potential.

MODELING and DIMENSIONAL THINKING. “For some scholars … sensori-motor experiences are at the heart of all our thinking” (Ke, et al., 2005, 1590; see also National Research Council, 2006). Despite this fact, very little research has been performed to investigate ways in which mental and physical modeling might improve STEMM education. Roberts, et al. (2005) and Bain, et al., (2006) demonstrated that the use of physical models in biochemistry courses not only significantly increased student learning outcomes, but also their understanding, appreciation and use of computer modeling software. Their results suggest that one effect of combining physical and computer models is to provide students with mediocre visualization skills practice transforming between 3D and 2D representations of objects, without which the students fail to comprehend the nature of the 2D images. Similar effects have been observed by Copolo &Hounshell (1995), Wu and Shah (2004) and Harris, et al., (2009). As Hermann, et al. (2006) conclude, ”protein models function as “thinking tools” that stimulate discussion because the model itself provides spatial insights that stimulate questions and because participants can clearly articulate their questions in reference to the model.” More generally, one might expect that physical models in general will provide STEMM students in all disciplines greater insights into the meaning and content of the 2D representation that they find on their computers and in their textbooks, and also by adding tactile and dynamic aspects to these models that may otherwise be lacking (Wu and Shah, 2004).

Once again, however, as with so many of the previous thinking tools, the vast majority of the existing studies of the effectiveness of modeling for improved STEMM learning involve teacher-supplied models and only one, uncontrolled attempt has been made to study whether student-made models might be even more effective than prepared models. This same study is the only one to explore whether modeling skills can be improved by arts-related modeling practices. The study in question was made by Gurnon, et al., (2013) and involved an integrated team of two artists (Julian Voss-Andreae, a former

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physicist; and Jacob Stanley) and a biochemist (Danial Gurnon) and brought together art and biochemistry students in a project to model protein folding through a series of student-designed and built artistic sculptures. Students were required to master not only the biochemical principles involved in protein folding, but also a combination of electronic modeling software as well as the craft techniques required to actually build the sculptures and the aesthetic principles necessary to make these sculptures more than mere models. Students and teachers alike reported high levels of interest and participation leading to novel questions and increased facility with computer modeling software.” For the science students who built the piece, the experience of fabricating the sculpture with their own hands provided a tactile insight into structures they were only accustomed to studying intellectually. Perhaps as a result, students developed an intuition for complex concepts of protein structure and folding. For example while constructing a wooden maquette of the most elongated backbone, students wondered whether a protein would begin folding as it emerges from the ribosome, and thus never truly resemble the completely unfolded structure they were building; in truth, the molecular dynamics simulation we employed begins with an artificially elongated molecule. On another occasion, walking alongside the row of completed structures, a first-year student asked if proteins fold by first crumpling inward and later adopting the recognizable patterns of a-helices and b-sheets—a question that is, in fact, still a matter of debate in the field.” (Gurnon, 2013, 3) If the results of this study are replicated by a better-controlled one, it could provide a very important benchmark for ACD-facilitated STEMM learning.

EMPATHIZING AND PLAYACTING. Hay, et al. (2013) have noted that one of the least studied, but most important aspects of acquiring STEMM expertise is that, “the individual scientist gradually develops an embodied relationship with the phenomenal identities that constitute their object(s) of inquiry (Knorr Cetina, 1999; Myers, 2008).” Part of this embodiment involves what has been denoted above as “body thinking” and is expressed in the kinesthetic, sensual and manipulative feelings associated with working with scientific materials, but an equally important aspect of such embodiment is the ability of the STEMM expert to “become” the object of his or her study, “playacting” some part in the system that needs to be understood or engineered (Root-Bernstein and Root-Bernstein, 1999). The physical chemist/philosopher Michael Polanyi called this “personal knowledge”, noting that such idiosyncratic ways of “understanding” science often underpin creative work in the subject (Polanyi, 1962).

Empathizing is a skill that is highly valued among medical practitioners and one that many lack. In consequence, a concerted effort has been made by many medical programs to teach empathy to healthcare providers. These programs often involve the reading of plays or poetry, the watching of performances about people suffering from various medical problems, or even the live enactment of patient-practitioner interactions by students themselves. Unfortunately, the vast majority of such programs do not utilize reliable measures or instruments for measuring improvements in empathic ability. Stepien and Baernstein (2006) reviewed the available literature in 2006 and found only 13 studies utilizing reliable tests of empathy. Of these, only four involved a control group. Three of the four reported significant improvements in empathic ability among medical students, but the intervention in each case was explicit teaching of interview techniques. An additional five studies utilized theater or

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writing interventions and reported improved empathic ability among the students, but these studies were flawed by lack of controls or even pre-post testing. On the other hand, such studies do suggest the plausibility of utilizing theater-acting techniques to improve empathic ability. For example, HeadSpace Theater (Ballon, et al., 2007) employs extremely clever role-playing improvisation games to teach medical students about the experiences of psychiatric patients, in which every student is assigned a role in a “play”, but none of the roles are what they appear to be. For example, a person assigned the role of the “doctor” discovers only during the play that everyone else in the room has been told that he is a psychiatric patient who thinks she is a doctor, thereby experiencing quite unexpectedly what it is like to be treated as if “crazy”! Pre-post interview data from the HeadSpace programs demonstrate very high rates of participant self-reports of much more intensive and deep learning from the program than through standard clinical teaching models (Ballon, et al., 2007). One suspects that if such a study were repeated with a proper control group and utilizing a standardized empathy-measuring instrument (Stepien and Baernstein, 2006), very significant results would emerge.

The role of empathizing and playacting has been very rarely studied outside of medicine and we found few studies that explored the use of ACD to improve STEMM learning by means of improved empathizing. The outstanding exception is Hay, et al.’s (2013) use of drawing in conjunction with empathizing to improve student learning of neurobiology. Three groups of participants were involved in the study: a group of expert neurobiologists (professors and active researchers); post-doctoral students; and undergraduate students. At the outset of the study, all three groups made drawings of neurons. Expert neurobiologists were readily able to identify the drawings of other experts and differentiate these from student drawings. Post-doctoral students had more difficulty making these distinctions, while undergraduate students were essentially unable to differentiate the expertise level of the artists. Indeed, undergraduate students tended to identify expertise in terms of how well a drawing matched the textbook images they were used to seeing (which are, in fact, often quite poor in terms of embodying expert knowledge). Various interventions were then employed with the student groups including constantly admonishing them as they were learning about neurons, “Remember at all times that you are a neuron.” In other words, the teachers attempted to get the students to think about everything they were learning in terms of how it pertained to “being” a neuron as a subjective, embodied from of “knowing”. An analysis of the drawings made by the students after this intervention, and the ability of the students to identify expert drawings, demonstrated notable improvements in both, such that some of the undergraduate students were able to produce drawings indistinguishable from the experts themselves.

BODY THINKING: Body thinking involves sensual and manipulative skills such as hand-eye coordination and embodied thinking that are essential for experimental research and invention of all sorts. As noted in the first part of this essay, STEMM professionals in a variety of fields have pointed out the importance of these elements of body thinking for success in their careers and linked their acquisition to ACD pursuits. Body thinking includes fine motor control, manipulative ability, hand-eye coordination and kinesthetic awareness as well as the ability to use body images as part of more generalized thinking. Particularly important is the observation that student’s manipulative skills and

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dexterity are not commensurate with or predicted by their academic performance (Fadzil and Saat, 2014). Students with great intellectual ability are not necessarily adept at laboratory manipulations and those who excel at laboratory manipulations do not always do well in testing situations. In addition, training in manipulative skills is generally short-changed in most STEMM curricula (Trowbridge, Bybee & Powell, 2000). Moreover, standard approaches to teaching manipulative skills and dexterity within the STEMM curriculum are generally ineffective (Abrahams and Millar, 2008; Millar and Abrahams, 2009).

In light of the preceding, it is not surprising to find that formal studies have associated STEMM success, particularly in experimental sciences and engineering, with knowledge of and experience with tools. One of the few reliable correlates of engineering success in industrial settings is skill using tools that is developed prior to professional training (Taylor, 1963; Saunders, 1963; Rossmann, 1964). Sets of case studies by Ferguson (1977), Hindle (1981; 1984), and Koch (1978) also confirm the importance of arts for developing manipulative skills, visual and kinesthetic observational ability (e.g., having a literal “feel” for how materials behave). Despite the clear need for manipulative skills and dexterity for experimental sciences, there appear to be no studies of whether art or design experience can develop these skills. The majority of such studies come from health related sciences such as dentistry and surgery.

Most American dental schools require applicants to their programs to provide evidence that they have taken at least a year of some visual or plastic art, or a craft such as jewelry design that requires the manipulation of materials in three dimensions. A number of well-designed studies have demonstrated the utility of such requirements.

The most carefully carried out study of the relationship of drawing ability to manipulative skill and hand-eye coordination as related to dental skills was done recently by Sulieman Al-Jahony, et al. (2011) using 71 second-year Arab dental students. The study found that there was an excellent correlation (p < 0.001 by the cross-tabulation method) between both handwriting ability (determined from a written essay and measured by handwriting teachers) and drawing ability (copying a picture, as measured by professional art teachers) and dental skill (as measured by a class 1 amalgam cavity preparation). Similar results were obtained by Gillet, et al. (2002), who correlated the abilities of 45 French second-year dental students on pre-dental school standardized test scores, dental school written examinations, drawing ability, and dental practical skills (making fillings, crowns, etc.) assessment examination results. It was found that there were no significant correlations between any of the factors and the pre-dental school examination scores, but good correlations (p < 0.01 by ANOVA and Kruskal-Wallace tests) between measures of drawing ability and both dental school written work and the practical skills assessments. These studies confirmed previous studies relating manipulative ability on a variety of tests (such as bending wire to make a miniature sculpture or carving wax or plaster to match a pre-existing model or to match the dimensions indicated by a diagram) to dental skills such as making dental crowns or passing final practical skills tests. (Glyn-Jones, 1979; Suddick, Yancey, Devine, et al., 1982; Walcott, Knight, Charlick, 1986; Heintz, Radeborg, Bengtsson, et al., 2004). Shelton and Smithgall (2008) expanded the types of ACD activities from just drawing ability to include music, visual arts and

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various crafts including mechanics and carpentry, and also found similar correlations between having broader ACD experience and better practical skills assessments among first year American dental students. Their data are unfortunately marred in providing no statistics.

Given the link that appears to exist between manipulative skills learned through the arts and dental skills, it is not surprising to find that a similar link appears to exist between musical training and surgical skills since music develops . Boyd, e tal. (2008) introduced a group of 30 medical students without previous training to laparascopic surgical procedures and found that those with no music training learned the techniques slowest; those who had played an instrument at some time in the past but were not currently practicing learned the techniques faster; and that those currently playing an instrument learned the techniques most efficiently. Harper, et al. (2007) reached the same conclusion in their study of 242 medical students learning robotic suturing and knot-tying techniques. Students who had been athletes or musicians were very significantly (p < 0.01) able to learn robotic surgical techniques much more quickly, and to make fewer errors while doing so, than those without such training. Other crafts and hobbies did not provide any significant benefit in learning these robotic techniques and, unexpectedly, students who reported significant time playing video games, which one might expect to prepare them for robotic procedures, actually did significantly worse than the musicians and athletes.

As with many of the previous “tools for thinking”, there is evidence that manipulative skills, hand-eye coordination and related body-thinking skills are trainable, not innate. While trainability has not been demonstrated directly in STEMM subjects, many studies of medical and dental students have noted that, despite a strong correlation between tested manipulative or hand-eye coordination studies and ACD at the outset of dental or medical training, there is no evidence of such a correlation when the subjects are early-career professionals. Scores on the various medical and dental manipulation, sculpting or drawing tests performed as part of the application process to professional schools, or performed during the first two years, have no predictive value at all for which students will best-master surgical or dental techniques, or be rated as passing the practical skills tests to graduate from medical or dental schools (Boyle and Santelli, 1985; Weinstein, et al., 1979; Gansky, Pritchard, Kahl, et al., 2004; REFERENCES). These studies strongly suggest that while ACD give pre-health students an advantage with practical skills at the outset of their professional education, any deficit in ACD-related practical skills can be more than overcome by clinically-related practice. Moreover, there is a possibly cautionary lesson here, which is that having performed excellently on ACD-related skills tests at the outset of their education, the most proficient students may fall prey to the all-too-common temptation to rest on their laurels, while the deficient students know that they must practice hard and long, and then surpass their lazier peers. Similar types of studies have been performed among students preparing for careers in surgery. Interestingly, no significant correlations have been found between any ACD and laparoscopic or orthopedic surgical skill among first year medical students, but video game playing is correlated with laparoscopic skill (Putnam, et al., 2014; Madan, et al., 2008). Harper, et al. (2007) note that laparoscopic manipulation and robotic manipulation differ significantly in terms of how the hands are used and in a greater need for 3D visualization in robotic surgery than in laparoscopic. These findings strongly suggest that most surgical skills can be acquired directly by practice and the benefits of arts and musical training

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in novice learners do not necessarily carry over after intensive training. Whether similar effects are present regarding experimental skills among scientists is completely unstudied.

TRANSFORMING AND SYNTHESIZING. One aspect of STEMM research and learning is rarely taught explicitly and that is the necessity to transform data into hypotheses expressed through diagrams and models that synthesize multiple experiments and observations gathered using a variety of techniques. The desired outcome is a synthesis of sensations, feelings, impressions, information, theory and experiments integrated and expressed as coherent understanding. Seymour Papert described a similar concept with the term “syntonic learning”, meaning learning that, “is firmly related to children’s sense and knowledge about their own bodies…. [and] is coherent with children’s sense of themselves as people with intention, goals, desired, likes and dislikes.” (Papert, 1993, 63) While Papert’s experiments in the use of “Turtle geometry” to teach basic mathematical concepts was based on the concept of syntonic learning, and has often been cited as a major advance in mathematics teaching, there appear to be no well-controlled studies actually demonstrating its effectiveness. A related development is “Aesthetic Computing”, founded on an increasing collection of literature on the role of the body in learning, specifically in mathematics” and the necessity to translate sensual understanding into a formal machine language (Fishwick, nd, 1).

We found only one study that explicitly investigated such understanding and that was carried out on college students in a biology course by Jarvinen and Jarvinen (2012). Students were introduced so a section on neurotransmission by means of three approaches: 1) the “Conventional approach” (CA) (lecture and readings) (55 participants) ; 2) the “Powerpoint” approach (PPT), in which students added to CA a group-designed Powerpoint presentations on the material they learned (155 participants); or 3) the digital video approach (VID), in which students added to CA a group-designed video presentation on the material they learned (27 participants). The efficacy of the three approaches was evaluated by means of a common final examination in which neurotransmission questions were designed to measure the “Remembering” and “Understanding” levels of Bloom’s taxonomy of higher reasoning skills through both multiple choice and sketching diagrams. Data were analyzed using ANOVA and pairwise comparisons with Bonferroni correction. The VID group significantly outperformed the PPT group which, in turn, significantly outperformed the CA group on both Remembering and Understanding measures. Students benefited equally in each group whether they were, or were not, biology major and the time required to create the Powerpoint presentations was not significantly different than that required to perform the VID presentations. Improved learning outcomes were therefore independent of the amount of work performed by the students, suggesting that the nature of the extra work was what was most important for improving memory and understanding in both the PPT and VID groups. The single flaw in the study is that it appears that choice of group was not made randomly, but by individual student choice. It is therefore possible that VID students out-performed the rest because they were more highly motivated or had a higher level of STEMM learning prior to the interventions; additionally, CA students may simply have been the least motivated. Nonetheless, this study is well worth replicating in other STEMM contexts with the addition of randomized groupings.

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2) Experience with materials, tools and methods of using them that may then inform STEMM practices. Innovative experimental scientists and engineers differ from their less inventive colleagues in having significantly more experience with crafts that introduce them to materials, their properties, and the tools and methods required to work with them (Taylor, 1963; Saunders, 1963; Rossmann, 1964; Root-Bernstein, et al., 2014; Lamore, et al., 2014). For example, Martin Perl, Nobel Prize, Physics, 1995, reports that, “The skills and knowledge I acquired at the Polytechlnic Institute have been crucial in all my experimental work: the use of strength of materials principles in equipment design, machine shop practice, engineering drawing,… metallurgy….” (Perl, 2014) Similarly, Richard Smalley, Nobel Prize, Chemistry, 1996 says that, “From my father I learned to build things, to take them apart, and to fix mechanical and electrical equipment in general. I spent vast hours in a woodworking shop he maintained in the basement of our house, building gadgets, working both with my father and alone, often late into the night. My mother taught me mechanical drawing so that I could be more systematic in my design work, and I continued in drafting classes throughout my 4 years in high school. This play with building, fixing, and designing was my favorite activity throughout my childhood, and was a wonderful preparation for my later career as an experimentalist working on the frontiers of chemistry and physics.” (Smalley, 2014). A search through the Nobel Prize website for similar stories about crafts experiences reveals that dozens of other Nobel laureates recount similar experiences (http://www.nobelprize.org). Unfortunately, there appears to be no pedagogical research whatsoever into the use of arts and crafts to develop and understanding of material properties or to develop associated expertise with tools and methods related to invention and construction – a possibly grave oversight if the object of STEMM education is to train future innovators!

3) Artistic techniques and phenomena previously unknown to STEMM professionals. The artist Adelbert Ames invented one of the most interesting perceptual phenomena to puzzle psychologists in many years. By building a shape-distorted room and permitting the viewer to observe it only through a single aperture, it was possible to trick the viewer into thinking that two equal-sized people were as much as two or three times different in height. This “Ames Room” became a standard apparatus for perceptual studies. Gestalt imagery, Rorschach cards, and many other types of perceptual studies have been developed from artist’s discoveries, while Marcel Duchamp’s “Rotoreliefs”, Op Art, “impossible figures” and other artistic inventions have also contributed. Strangely, despite the huge impact of the arts on perceptual studies, and the use of artist’s materials to illustrate many STEMM textbooks, there appears to have been no systematic investigation of artistic innovations as sources of STEMM insights, nor any systematic attempt to use these connections as a means to introduce STEMM students to these insights.

4) Novel artistic principles and structures that reveal new aspects of natural processes. A considerable number of artists and designer take out patents on their inventions, and novel structures and principles of construction represent a significant proportion of these inventions. As in the case of artistic techniques and phenomena, these principles and structures can provide valuable insights for STEMM professionals, yet are rarely, if ever, explored systematically or used for teaching purposes. A particularly fecund example is Buckminster Fuller’s invention of geodesic forms and the elucidation of

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the principles underlying their construction and stability. Fuller’s ideas directly inspired both the solution of spherical virus structures and the elucidation of the class of chemical compounds now named after Fuller, “buckminsterfullerenes”. Kenneth Snelson’s invention of tensegrity structures has had an equivalent impact on engineering design and even cell biology! There appear to be, however, no courses designed to introduce STEMM students to ACD structures of principles of construction and design. This is an are ripe for pedagogical exploration.

5) Recognition of unsolved problems lying at the junctions of ACD and STEMM. The invention of perspective drawing and its broader application to anamorphic transformations provide an excellent example of how problems lying at the junction of ACD and STEMM can simultaneously benefit both sets of disciplines. Once again, this ACD-STEMM intersection does not appear to have been mined for its pedagogical applications, a particularly striking oversight given the obvious ways in which its exploration could benefit education in both sets of disciplines simultaneously.

6) Experience navigating the creative process more efficiently and cogently. Some STEMM professionals have asserted that their practice of ACD helps prepare them to understand and utilize the creative process more effectively in their STEMM profession. For example, surgeon Pascal Vouhé has written that:

“Most of the qualities developed by musicians during performance, can be applied metaphorically to surgical practice:

Concentration. Intense concentration is a basic requirement for both musical performance and difficult surgical procedures.

Strictness. A strict respect of the musical score is obviously mandatory. Similarly, the steps of a surgical procedure must be followed strictly to provide a satisfactory outcome.

Anticipation. A musician is reading the score many bars in advance of what he or she is playing. A surgeon should also prepare subsequent surgical steps well in advance.

Improvisation. Improvisation is the essence of jazz music. Even in classical music, there is place for some improvisation called rubato; this makes the expressive differences in interpretation between several performers. Improvisation in surgery is necessary to take care of any unexpected operative event.

Virtuosity. Musical virtuosity includes several elements such as style, elegance, rhythm, spontaneity, rapidity or risk-taking. The same words can be used to define surgical virtuosity which makes a surgical operation safer and quicker.

Ability to listen. A mandatory quality for a musician is the ability to listen to other musicians. In a surgical team, the surgeon should also be able to listen to the ideas and concerns of all the other team members.

Capacity to create harmony. Harmony is the essence of musical performance. This a common experience that an efficient surgical team is constituted by a group of several people, physicians and nurses, working in harmony.

I am convinced from personal experience, that developing those qualities inherent to musical practice and adapting them to surgery could improve surgical performance.” (Vouhé, 2010)

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In addition to the studies by Root-Bernstein, et al. (2008; 2013), Lamore, et al. (2014), and Niemi (2015) cited in Part 1 of this paper, two additional large-scale studies have generally validated Vouhé’s proposition that practicing any creative activity in one’s leisure time can improve one’s professional creative potential. One study was a long-term analysis of thousands of Israelis from the time they underwent testing for mandatory military service at age eighteen into their mid-thirties. Milgram, et al. (1997; 2005; and Hong, et al., 1993) found that standard measures such as IQ, standardized test scores, and grades did not predict accurately career success, but that having an intensive, persistent avocation such as music, painting, photography, chess, etc. was highly predictive. The second study involved 341 individuals in the United States whose leisure-time activities were analyzed in relation to various measures of openness and flexibility of thinking as well as job-related measures of performance (Eschleman, et al., 2014). As in Milgram’s study, there was a very significant correlation between the amount of personal time spent on creative activities and high measures of job performance. These studies suggest that people learn valuable skills from their avocations that are mediated by an increased understanding of how to perform well.

The closest thing to a formal pedagogical study of whether training in the creative process itself (or perhaps practice learning to learn) can have a positive impact on STEMM learning is a series of uncontrolled observations of the effects of integrating engineering and arts students into a common college design course. College students at the University of Georgia were organized into mixed engineer-arts groups that had to solve common design problems. Throughout the course, students were required to reflect deliberately on their creative practices and to share with each other their reflections. Results were analyzed in terms of the “tools for thinking” described above. The investigators found that there were significant qualitative changes in problem raising and problem solving skills among both groups over the semester that students believed would change the way they performed not only how they studied and performed work in their major field but also how they learned in general. In particular, engineering students were more likely to explore multiple possibilities and play with materials before settling on a presumably optimal approach than they were at the beginning of the course, while art students were more likely to employ logical thinking and optimization methods to discover the approach to their project. Students in both groups also became more likely to use more of the “tools for thinking” described here, and in more explicit ways, by the end of the course than they had at the beginning (Walther, et al., 2009; Walther, e tla., 2010; Costantino, et al., 2010; Guyotte, et al., 2014; . This study is obviously promising and should be replicated for other ACD-STEMM combinations but needs to be validated by a randomly controlled study employing statistical methods. It should be noted, however, that the group carrying out these studies has addressed explicitly rationales for qualitative evaluation of learning outcomes that bear serious consideration in terms of what methodologies are most appropriate to pedagogical outcomes such as quality of work and thinking strategies (Walther, et al., 2010; Walther, et al., 2013).

7) Practice in the application of transdisciplinary aesthetic principles. STEMM professionals often discuss the importance of aesthetic criteria and drives interest in STEMM subjects as well as the development and analysis of STEMM research and results (e.g., Tauber, 1997; Wechsler, 1978; Sinclair, et al., 2006; Silver and Metzger, 1989), but the origins of scientific aesthetic sensibility are still largely unknown. Floyd Ratliff, the biographer of George von Békésy , the Nobel Prize winner in Physiology or

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Medicine in 1961, in noting that Békésy had a life-long devotion to music, visual and plastic arts also links this interest to the development of Békésy highly developed aesthetic sensibility. Ratliff explained that, “Békésy studied art not only for the great pleasure it gave him, but also for the effect that he believed it would have on his mind. Comparing one art object to another to determine quality and authenticity, he thought, greatly improved his ability to make judgments about the quality of scientific work, too. “ (Ratliff, 1976, 31-32) While aesthetics is rarely mentioned in the teaching of STEMM subjects (reviewed in Mehta, et al., 2016), on the rare occasions when it is, case studies indicate that aesthetic sensibility and overt aesthetic training are effective STEMM teaching enhancers (e.g., Sinclair, 2004; Sinclair, 2006; Wickman, 2006; Jacobson and Wickman, 2008; Hadzigeorgiou, et al., 2015; Resnik, et al., 2000; Flannery, 1992; Flannery, 1993; Pugh and Girod, 2007; Zubrowski, 1982). Once again, however, there appear to be very few formal controlled pedagogical studies of whether training in ACD-related aesthetic principles and concerns carries over, as von Békésy thought they did, to a better understanding of, or ability to implement, STEMM-related aesthetic criteria. One notable exception is a study by Girod, et al. (2010) in which elementary school children were taught three standard science lessons either in a typical, objectivist manner or specifically modified to explore and elicit from students the aesthetic qualities of the material being learned. “Tests of conceptual understanding before, after, and one month after instruction reveal teaching for transformative, aesthetic experience fosters more, and more enduring, learning of science concepts. Investigations of transfer also suggest students learning for transformative, aesthetic experiences learn to see the world differently and find more interest and excitement in the world outside of school.” (Girod, et al., 2010) Beyond this type of study, there is need for even more important studies of whether STEMM teachers trained in ACD aesthetics can better implement scientific aesthetic considerations into their STEMM teaching, and also whether students trained in ACD aesthetics are more likely to be able to recognize and use such aesthetics in STEMM learning.

8) Strategies for exploring and mastering new material efficiently. Robert B. Laughlin, Nobel Prize, Physics, 1998, says that music lessons and practice helped him become the hardworking individual he became: “It was impressed upon me that there was such a thing as good study habits and that I would have to acquire them if I wanted to be a scholar. My mother also had us take piano lessons, and this had a similar effect. I hated those lessons, but I now play regularly for pleasure and have even tried my hand at composing. So mothers everywhere take heart. The indoctrination you administer now may have unanticipated positive effects years later.” (Laughlin, 2014) The possibility that ACD develop efficient learning strategies has been explored by Jonides (2008). Jonides investigated the effects of musical training in college students asked to remember long lists of words. Students with many years of music training significantly out-performed students without any musical training. This effect disappeared, however when the musically-trained students were prevented from rehearsing the lists of words. Then, both groups performed equally. Jonides concludes that musically-trained students acquire strategies and habits (such as the repetition or rehearsal) for learning and retaining information that are more effective than untrained students. This improved “executive function” may explain the many other studies that exist demonstrating that students who participate in music or other arts over extended

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periods of time tend to have higher grades and standardized test scores than students who do not (e.g., Schellenberg, 2004; Southgate and Roscigno, 2009; Benedek, et al., 2014). Whether the elements of improved learning strategies inherent in ACD practice can be identified and isolated for use in more generally effective teaching has yet to be explored.

9) Mnemonic and other mental devices that increase acquisition and retention of learned material. Most disciplines have verbal mnemonic devices that students use to master material that they need to have available in rote memory (e.g., medical students and practitioners, reviewed in McDeavitt et al., 2014). In some instances, STEMM professionals have exploited the benefits of music to aid such mnemonic purposes since rhyme, rhythm, and meter help to organize complex material in more memorable ways than free-form note-taking and also limit the possible types of errors that can occur during recall (Bower and Bolton, 1969). Notable examples of science songs that embed complex and sometimes lengthy material include the Biochemist’s Songbook (Baum, 1982; 1995) a compilation of all the major biochemical pathways set to various show tunes; Gilberts (2006) “The Histone Song” about the function of histone proteins in controlling chromosomes; and Flansburgh and, Linnell’s (2009) Here Comes Science, an introduction to science concepts for grade school science students.

Unfortunately, very few rigorous studies of the use of musical mnemonics in STEMM education exist, though those that do are promising. For example, VanVoorhis (2002) found that students of statistics exposed to relevant jingles recalled terms and their meanings better on tests than students who were only provided written definitions and McCurdy, et al. (2008) found that some groups of students clearly benefited from food-safety-related songs . Two other studies found that the majority of students enjoyed and found useful Gilbert’s “Histone Song” (Crowther, 2006) and the majority of engineers taking a biology class found the biology songs useful as well (McLachlin, 2009), but neither of these studies was properly controlled. In addition, Cirigliano (2013) has recently reviewed the literature on the use of musical mnemonic devices in medical training and found that while there are many music videos on UTube that are used by medical students and teachers at quite high rates (some have more than 100,000 views), there appear to be no controlled studies demonstrating that such medical songs actually accomplish their goal of improving student learning or retention. Indeed, there are serious limitations to learning new words in the context of song. Both Racette and Peretz (2007) and Tamminen, et al. (2015) found that word acquisition was improved only if the song was already known to the student. Otherwise, the listener had two, separate tasks to learn simultaneously, which interfered with both. Thus, as Crowther (2012) has concluded, there is a great deal of research needed to validate the utility of musical mnemonic devices for STEMM learning, not least of which is whether students would benefit more from learning STEMM-related songs provided to them or from making up their own lyrics to their own favorite songs.

Other types of ACD-related activities may also provide mnemonic benefits similar to those that appear to exist for songs. In the first part of this essay, we noted that some anatomy classes are successfully using body painting as a means of consolidating learning (Nicholson, et al., 2016; Bennett, 2014; Finn, et al., 2011; Op Den Akker, et al., 2002) For example, making original digital videos of

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neurobiological concepts produced deeper conceptual learning and increased retention (Jarvinen and Jarvinen, 2012). Presumably, the creation of one’s own audio-visual materials requires more intellectual effort than merely memorizing terms or remembering pictures. The pedagogical question then becomes one of where the trade-offs occur between shallower, more fleeting learning or more material learned by efficient standardized teaching methods and the deeper, more sustained learning of less material acquired through the time-consuming effort of making one’s own media-based materials. Moreover, it appears that not all types of student generated pictures or images function more effectively than teacher-provided images as a means of learning and retaining new information (Carrier, et al., 1983). Clearly, this is an area in which more research is needed.

10) Practice translating, transforming and transferring concepts and practices among disciplines. Jeanne Bamberger studied the impact of having both teachers and students learn to make Calder mobiles in tandem with learning (or teaching) the basic physics of balancing weights on fulcrums. She found that both teachers and students fell into three groups: one understood “intuitively” or “bodily” how to build mobiles, but could not explain what they had done in terms of the physical principles; the second could describe the physical principles and solve problems using them but could not apply them in building a mobile; and the third, could transform readily between building practices and physical theory (Bamberger, 1991). The need to integrate theory and practice in order to develop complete understanding of subjects is clear from this study, as is the use of the arts to model STEMM principles illustrated well. The frightening observation that most teachers could not readily transform between theory and practice, nor synthesize the two activities into holistic understanding provides a cautionary tale that has many applications to other areas of STEMM learning, such as understanding the physical meaning of equations, transforming between words, equations and graphs, finding analogies between problems so that problem solving strategies employed successfully on one can inform the other, etc.

The two most explicit attempts to codify the process of translating, transferring and transforming concepts among and between disciplines to produce holistic understanding are Todd Siler’s “metaphorming” approach described in Think Like a Genius (Siler, 1996 and 2010) and the Root-Bernsteins “tools for thinking” approach described in their Sparks of Genius (1999), which share many common features.

Siler defines metaphorming is a way of linking everything one knows to everything else, using analogies, metaphors, similarities, comparisons, contrasts, images, words, sounds, memories, imagination – “any and all means of connection making”! For example, start with something as simple as the following statement: “We need to cultivate the gardens of our minds” (Siler, 2010, 10). There is obviously a metaphor here – that our minds, like a garden, need to be planted and cared for if we expect to produce a beautiful crop of ideas. Transform the metaphor into a testable hypothesis: that as in gardening, the best results from cultivating the mind will come from acting with considered care from well-understood principles derived from well-controlled experiments. Expand upon the mind-garden metaphor by searching for other sayings that link thinking with cultivation: e.g., “her thoughts were

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layered like an onion.” Use the onion as an analogy instead of a metaphor: the brain, too, is layered, and grows in a layered fashion. Understanding the ways in which the layers of the brain are formed (evolutionarily, embryologically and psychologically) through time can help us improve the product. Punning, too, is a valuable way metaphorming, so sticking with our botanical theme, one might suggest that we’ve wandered into a “mind field”! A field of minds shifts us from thinking about single minds to the ways in which minds interact, and many interactions in the physical world involve fields of a different sort: magnetic, electrical, gravitational. What are the equivalent “fields” by which human minds interact: language, art, music, mathematics, culture itself? Could equations be written for such “mind fields” by analogy to physical fields of force? And punning again, there is the obvious link to “mine fields” and the danger that over-doing a good thing.

The Root-Bernstein’s approach is similar to Siler’s, but breaks down the elements within the process into the “tools for thinking” described above under section 1 and uses the terms “transforming” and “synthesizing” to denote the processes that Siler encompasses in metaphorming.

While both approaches have been taught to and used by STEMM teachers (e.g., DeSchryver, 2015a, b; Henriksen, et al., 2015), there are unfortunately no well-controlled studies demonstrating the effectiveness of either.

11) Recreation (often involving re-creation) that stimulates new creation. Albert Einstein’s son Hans recounted that, ‘‘Whenever he [Einstein] felt that he had come to the end of the road or into a difficult situation in his work, he would take refuge in music, and that would usually resolve all his difficulties’’ (Hans Einstein, quoted in Clark, 1971, p. 106; see Maja Einstein, quoted in Sayen, 1985, p. 26). Platt and Baker (1931) and Root-Bernstein, et al. (1995) found that half of all scientific insights occurred outside of work, many during leisure-time activities. Davis, et al. (2013) found further that patented inventions developed during leisure time turned out to be more valuable in terms of subsequent licensing rights than patented inventions developed during work time. And Eschleman, et al. (2014) documented that those employees across many disciplines who had, or made, “recovery time” a regular part of their work week (often by means of ACD-related avocations and hobbies) had higher work performance evaluations than those who did not. The implications for students and professionals working in STEMM fields is obvious: getting away from one’s work can permit the mind to work in creative ways that brute force approaches do not.

Unfortunately, there are no pedagogical studies of whether STEMM students or professionals directly benefit by being trained, metaphorically, “to go to their piano” or, as Banting did, “to take up their paintbrush.” This is a strategy crying out for formal investigation.

12) Recording and Communication. We noted, in the first part of this essay, as an example of ACD-STEMM collaboration on recording and communication of data, that there is widespread use of dance notations to record and display animal behavior and neurology data. It is very common for STEMM professionals to enlist the aid of ACD professionals in order to better record and communicate their results (a very notable example being the longstanding collaboration between chemist George

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Whitesides of Harvard and MIT designer and photographer Felice Frankel [e.g., Frankel, 2002; Frankel and Whitesides, 1997; Frankel and Whitesides, 2009), and many books exist about how to use design principles to produce better STEMM graphs and illustrations (e.g., the famous set by Edward Tufte [Tufte, 1983; 1990; 1997;2003]. It appears, however that very little effort has gone into developing pedagogies that would improve STEMM student abilities in these areas through ACD exercises and lessons. In fact, the only well-controlled study that we found involved the use of role-playing exercises (a form of theater training) for medical students that significantly improved their patient interactions and ability to obtain and record data relevant to diagnoses (Windish, et al., 2005). So astonishingly, we are left having to ask whether fairly obvious connections between ACD and STEMM learning exist, such as whether students trained in visual arts make more effective graphs,

Combined Effects: It is very important to reiterate a point made in the first part of this essay to the effect that the “tools for thinking” categories being used to analyze ACD-STEMM studies here do not reflect insular categories of thinking skills, but are not only permeable, but integrable into a huge number of permutations. Thus, some studies have found that skill using more than one “tool” may be correlated with, or help to develop, a particular ACD-STEMM interaction. For example, Von Herzelee, et al., (2010) found that visuo-spatial ability, fine motor control, and imaging ability were each independently, and also as a group, predictive of endovascular surgery performance among medical student trainees.

Non-Cognitive Outcomes. Might the integration of ACD into STEMM education improve non-cognitive outcomes such as sustained interest, improved motivation, etc.? ACD, after all, exist in modern society largely to feed our non-intellectual desires and emotional needs, which also must be met in fostering the lifelong practice of STEMM disciplines. There appear to be no well-controlled, relevant studies on this possible aspect of ACD-STEMM integration.

General Studies. Dana Foundation neuroscience series on the effect of arts training on general cognition demonstrated, for example, lasting benefits from visual arts, music and dance for improved observation, pattern recognition, geometrical thinking and memory (or retention) across the curriculum (http://www.dana.org/Publications/ReportDetails.aspx?id=44267).

However, better controlled studies have questioned the efficacy of utilizing ACD as general effectors of enhanced STEMM learning. For example, Yang, et al. (2014) performed a very well-controlled study of Chinese students who had a year or more of music lessons compared with those who did not and found that while there was a slight improvement among the language skills of those who received music lessons, there was no improvement in mathematical ability or general academic performance.

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Hua Yang1,2*, Weiyi Ma1,3,4*, Diankun Gong1, Jiehui Hu1,3 & Dezhong Yao1 A Longitudinal Study on Children’s Music Training Experience and Academic DevelopmentSCIENTIFIC REPORTS | 4 : 5854 | DOI: 10.1038/srep05854

ETC, ETC.

Drawing. “Visual literacy” has been defined as, “ the ability of students both to interpret visual representations that are provided by instructors and also to create visual representations on their own.” (Quillin & Thomas, 2015) Drawing is one of the most common and simplest-to-learn modes of creating one’s own visual representations and one with manifest benefits to STEMM students as the review provided above demonstrates. Despite the evidence of its efficacy, drawing is, however, rarely used in teaching STEMM subjects. A recent survey by Coleman, et al., (2011) found that only 6% of elementary school science teachers frequently asked their students to either draw something themselves or to label a drawing that was handed out to them while 73% rarely or never did. If the benefits of drawing are so clear, why is it used so infrequently? There appear to be two quite different reasons, one involving teachers themselves, the other involving the kinds of tests most often used to evaluate STEMM learning. Teachers teach what they are comfortable teaching. As one recent study concluded, “We teach who we are.” (REF) Most STEMM teachers are not comfortable teaching drawing (or any other ACD) so, evidentially, they don’t. But we must excuse them for not doing so because the tests that they have been taught (or commanded by governmental fiat) to give do not benefit from the types of learning fostered by ACD. A recent study accompanied by a review of the relevant literature on the efficacy of drawing for STEMM learning by Leopold and Leutner (2012) concludes that students who were asked to create conceptual drawings of the science and engineering principles they were learning did no better on multiple choice tests than students who did not draw, but the students who drew fared very significantly better on tests of visualization, of interpretation of diagrams, and of transfer of their knowledge to other scientific problems. Given that drawings can be provided to students by the teacher to be labeled, copied by the students, generated by the teacher in front of the students to incorporate student concepts, modeled by the teacher for the students, or generated by the students themselves, significant research remains to be done to determine which type of ACD intervention is most effective even beyond the bounds of multiple choice testing. Indeed, Tytler, et al., (2103) have concluded that their own investigations of these problems suggested, “that there was a need to clarify teacher understanding of the form, function and purpose of representational work in the classroom. While teachers recognized that students found work with representations engaging, and as offering insights into their learning, there was a need to consider (a) the sequencing of the use of representations and re-representations, and (b) the role of representations in developing student reasoning and understanding.” In short, we must once again insist that integrating ACD with STEMM education is not a matter of simply asking students to draw or model or dance some scientific observation or concept, but a much more complex undertaking in which teachers must be comfortable using the ACD they expect the students to use, and in which students must understand why they are being asked to use any particular ACD method to address a given STEMM need. We learn best when we know both how and why we learn what we learn.

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Creativity and ACD. We have not reviewed the impact of ACD on measures of “creativity” for two reasons: 1) technically, creativity is not within the bounds of STEMM outcomes in most curricula; and 2) we do not believe that any reliable measure of STEMM-related creativity exists (for a review of the very problematic literature on this subject, see: XXXX). We therefore caution against any generalizations of our results to the broader question of whether ACD stimulate or foster in some way STEMM creativity. Our results demonstrate only the much more circumscribed conclusion that ACD are, or most likely can be, very effective in helping to develop specific skills required for optimal STEMM learning. We suspect, but have no evidence to demonstrate at present, that full mastery of STEMM learning is a prerequisite to the highest levels of professional STEMM performance and therefore that ACD can help to create the conditions of the highest levels of STEMM creativity, but only by means of specific, goal-directed uses of ACD rather than through some general fostering of “creativity” by ACD learning and participation.

We must also address the issue of whether ACD are some magic panacea for instilling creativity or other abilities that will somehow improve career performance or success in any STEMM profession. A reasonable reader might find it intrinsically ridiculous that art, music, or dance lessons would or could somehow transform an average or underperforming student into a stellar medical innovator or Nobel prizewinning physicist, and we would agree with their sentiment. It is therefore surprising to find that there are an extraordinary number of studies that have been done predicated, at least implicitly, on just such ridiculous expectations. For example, when it became clear that grades and post-graduate examination scores such as the MCATS and GREs do not accurately predict post-graduate or professional performance (REFERENCES), many studies began to look for replacements that had such predictive potential. Thus, a variety of “non-cognitive” tests (a term to which we object) were developed, such as manipulative skills tests for surgical and dental students, that were then tested for their ability to predict not baseline ability, but rather whether any given student would make a good surgeon or dentist (REFERENCES). The investigators performing these studies seem to have missed the irony that having found that measuring only one or two skills (e.g., verbal and mathematical knowledge) was inadequate to predict career success, they were now trying to reduce such success to yet another single factor. Career success in any discipline is never due to one skill or talent, but a complex mixture of many skills and abilities, including inter- and intrapersonal social skills, psychological factors such as tenacity, risk-taking, and emotional stability, as well as basic economic sense, etc. It should not, therefore, come as a surprise that the vast majority of studies utilizing single-factor tests of ACD skills or knowledge have universally failed to stand up to scrutiny when used to predict outcomes such as career success that are so manifestly polytypic (REFERENCES).

In addition, it is important to re-emphasize in this context that there is very strong evidence from many of the studies reviewed here demonstrating that ACD-related skills and knowledge are

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trainable. Thus, while visuo-spatial and hand-eye or manipulative ability tests clearly and very strongly relate artistic skill sets to STEMM-related ability at the time of testing (!), so that those who are artistic have an advantage of those who have not practiced and ACD, there is equally compelling evidence that practice of these skills (whether through an ACD or a STEMM-related activity) results in increased STEMM ability. In other words, ACD provide an effective means to train, or to correct deficiencies in the training of, skills essential to learning and using STEMM knowledge. Thus, we want to reiterate in concluding that this study should not be interpreted as a blanket advocacy for ACD as a means to solve STEMM education deficits. If we integrate ACD into STEMM education expecting the ACD to work miracles, we are going to be sadly disappointed. Rather, this study should be interpreted in the nuanced manner in which the best studies it reports have been nuanced, to demonstrate that ACD incorporate skills, knowledge, and methods of teaching these skills and knowledge, that can be of demonstrable benefit to STEMM education, when deployed properly and in appropriate contexts. Proper deployment of these benefits will require properly identifying which STEMM subjects, and which lessons within those subjects, require skills and knowledge best learned through ACD, and then applying ACD-based lessons in appropriate ways to develop those skills and that knowledge in a trans-disciplinary context in which the lessons can be expected to transfer. In other words, we, as educators, must learn how to integrate disparate ways of thinking about the world that only the most successful polymathic minds have succeeded in accomplishing in the past. The fact that a several year attempt to identify well-performed and analyzed studies of ACD-STEMM educational integration studies has reveals less than 100 instances should be a warning as to the amount of research that is still needed in this area. The paucity of good model studies should tell us that the goal of ACD-STEMM integration will not be achieved simply or without great effort, intensive cooperation, and well-reasoned planning on the part of professions across the entire ACD-STEMM spectrum.

Caveats. Now, everything that we have just written provides a very strong case for integrating ACD into STEMM education to improve the baseline skills that students need to succeed in STEMM subjects but also points out many glaring holes in existing evidence. Having reached this conclusion, however, we must step back and ask whether there is any reason that these skills must be learned through ACD lessons rather than through STEMM lessons. The answer is both no and yes. No, there is no reason that skills such as observing, imaging, patterning, etc. cannot be learned through STEMM-specific lessons. But also yes, ACD-derived lessons are much more likely to be effective in providing the desired outcomes because professionals in ACD subjects have been developing highly effective methods for teaching observing, imaging, patterning, etc. for centuries. Thus, while it would certainly be possible for STEMM professionals to develop new and appropriate means to teach the underlying skills required to succeed in their subjects, it makes little sense to do so when ACD professionals already have those means ready to hand. Moreover, there is an additional advantage in utilizing ACD-derived methods for teaching these skills, which is that in a STEMM context, these skills must be taught, practiced and tested as transferrable ones, which means that it is highly likely that they will be utilizable not only within STEMM learning, but across the curriculum. For in the end, we must remember that only a few percent of our students will become STEMM professionals, but all of them can potentially benefit from acquiring

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the skills that will make them effective lifelong learners and creative individuals (Root-Bernstein and Root-Bernstein, 1999).

The Futility of Distinguishing Between Near and Far Transfer

In conclusion, we would like to return to a point made in the conclusion of the first part of this essay about the ongoing debate over near and far transfer. The data summarized in the second part of this essay strongly supports our contention that the near-far transfer issue is moot. All effective transfer is “near” even when the disciplines are “far”, the transfer being mediated by specific skills or methods or ways of thinking that form direct connections between the disciplines. ACD are not, therefore, panaceas for improving STEMM education. ACD can be used, under highly constrained and appropriate conditions, to improve STEMM learning. Those constraints and conditions need to be attended to in any future pedagogical innovations in this area and in the means used to evaluate their efficacy.

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