second language acquisition and materials development.pptx
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8/18/2019 Second Language Acquisition and Materials Development.pptx
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Second Language Acquisition
andMaterials Development
Brian Tomlinson
Presented by: Mehran Daghestani
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Introduction
Second language acquisition (SLA)is the process by which people acquire
and/or learn any language in addition totheir frst language. It is also the name othe academic discipline which studiesthat process. Some SLA researchers use
the term 'acquisition' to reer to theinformal , subconscious process ogaining a language rom exposure and
use while resering the term 'learning'
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!here is considerable controersyin the feld as to which o theseprocesses is the most li"ely to helpa learner to deelop the ability to
use a language e#ectiely butmost researchers seem to agreethat learning is insucient and
needs to be at least supplementedby acquisition.
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Some researchers also di#erentiatebetween ‘acquisition’ and‘development’. $or example, !omlinson%&''(a, p. &) says that acquisition* is theinitial stage o gaining basiccommunicatie competence in a
language* and *deelopment* is thesubsequent stage o gaining the abilityto use the language successully in awide range o media and genres or awide ariety o purposes+.
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esearch and !heory
It is generally agreed that SLA isacilitated by-
A rich and meaningful exposure tolanguage in use
rashen %01. 002) claimed thatexposure to comprehensible input was both
necessary and su3cient or SLA. Ideally theinput which the learners are exposed toshould be rich in the sense that it containsa lot o implicit informal about how thelanguage is actually used to achiee
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It should also be meaningful inthe sense that it is relevant tothe learner and the learner is able
to understand enough o it togain meaning rom it.
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Self#con$dence and self#esteem are also important aspects oa#ectie engagement as is feeling
positive about the learning
enironment.It is also ery important that learnersare cognitiely engaged by the textsand tas"s they are gien to use. !hey
need to use such high leel mentals%ills as inferencing, connecting,
predicting and evaluating while
processing language.
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I they do, they are much more li"ely toachiee deep processing and toeentually acquire language and
develop language s%ills than i theyare restricts to using such low leeldecoding and encoding s"ills aslearning dictionar& de$nitions,
recogniing and repeating sounds,listening to and repeatingutterances, learning spellings and
reading aloud short phrases.
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Making use of those mentalresources typically used incommunication in the L1
In the L-9e ma"e ull use o the resources
o our brain when we uselanguage $or example, whenlistening or reading we ma"euse o our inner voice to silentlyecho the utterances we hear or
see and to comment to ourseles
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9e ma"e use o visual imaging torepresent the meaning o what is said
or written.:rior to spea%ing or riting we use
visual imaging and inner speech todeelop a mental representation o ourintended message and inner speech toprepare whet we are going to say orwrite.
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;et when learning an L& learnersrarely ma"e use o these mentalresources at all.
!his is mainly because-
!hey are not encouraged to do soby their teachers and materials.
!heir reluctance to tolerateambiguity
!heir *need* to "now the meaning
o eerything
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Noticing ho the L! is usedIt is essential or the learner to pay attentionto the salient eatures o the language theyencounter in order to eentually acquirethem. !he more the learner pays willingattention%either deliberately and consciouslyor incidentally and subconsciously) to a
eature o the language the more thelearner*s brain is li"ely to notice that eatureas salient in subsequent input and thereadier the learner will be or acquisition.
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:ienneman %01<) claims that ps&chological readiness is animportant acilitator o acquisitionand that this can be in=uenced bymaterials and teachers. >ne way odoing this is to dra the
learner's attention tolanguage features in use ortas" completion.
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A ery e#ectie way o helping learners toachiee ps&chological readiness is touse eperiential discover& approaches in which the learners frst o all respondpersonally to the content o an engagingwritten or spo"en text and then go bac" toma"e discoeries about the form and
function o a particular eature o thattext %!omlinson, 002, &''?b, &''(b@olitho et al., &''?@ olitho and !omlinson,&B'<)
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Another way is to ma"e use o aorm7ocused approach %Long,00@ Cllis, &''&@ 9illiams, &''<@$otos 8 4assa5i, &''(.) in whichlearners frst ocus on themeaning o a text and later ocus
on the form and function o aspecifc linguistic eature.
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"eing given opportunities forcontextuali#ed and purposefulcommunication in the L!
It has been ound that output %i.e. producinglanguage or communication) is also animportant acilitator o acquisition. It canproide learners with contetual feedbac% ,
it helps to automatie language! itconstitutes auto#input and it can elicitfurther comprehensible input too %Swam,00< 001@ Cllis, &''1@ >rtega, &'').
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It seems that pushed output%communicating something which isnot easy to express) can beparticularly benefcial as itstretches the learner's
capabilities by ma"ing them ma"eull use o their acquired languageand o their strategic competence,as well as proiding opportunities or
new but comprehensible input romtheir interlocutors who are helpingthem to negotiate meaning.
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"eing encouraged to interactLong %00D) posited an interactionhypothesis in which he claimed that oral
interaction in the L& creates propitiousconditions or its acquisition as it helpsto ma"e input more comprehensible, itproides meaningful feedbac% and it
pushes learners to modif& theiroutput .
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"eing alloed to focus onmeaning
!he learner*s natural syllabus ismeaning#focused and it is generallyagreed upon by SLA researchers that
learners are more li"ely to acquireorms i their primary ocus is onmeaning rather than orm %:rabhu,01(@ Long, 00D@ Cllis, &''1, &').
Eoweer it does seem that moreattention to orm is needed as thelearner progresses to adanced leels.
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>ne way o helping learners to acquirelanguage rom a ocus on meaning is touse an eperiential approach %olb,012@ !omlinson, &''?b) in which thelearners $rst eperience an engagingtext holisticall& , respond to itpersonally and then return to the text to
focus discretel& on a salient eature olanguage use.
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>ther generally accepted acilitatorso language acquisition and
deelopment-
*eing relaed 7a condition in which
can be promoted by giing learnersthe time, silence andencouragement to use their inneroice%!omlinson 8 Aila, &''(a, b)
and by textboo"s using a personalvoice and chatting to their learnersin the informal a& %ec" et al.,00<@ !omlinson, &'a).
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*eing motivated to participateand to learn%Fornyei, &'', &''<@Gshioda, &''?)@
eing helped to develop anemerging interlanguage whichgradually moes closer to thetarget language.
Feeloping h&potheses aboutho the language is used forcommunication%Hass 8 Selin"er,
&''1)@
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*eing catered for as an individualwho might learn aster or slower than
others, who has preerences orcertain learning styles and who willnot use language with consistentaccuracy and e#ect %Arnold, 000@Fornyei &''<@ Cllis, &''1)@
+a%ing full use of non#linguisticmeans of communicating
%c6a#erty %&''2), c6a#erty 8Stam %&''1) ).
*eing read& to acquire a focusedfeature.
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atch between SLA theory and CL! materials
!o try to gauge the match
between theory and practice !omlinson analyJed a number orecently published global
courseboo"s.9hat he ound is that there is aver& ea% match beteentheor& and practice.
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Ee ound that-
,one of the courseboo%s focus on
meaning.
-ourseboo%s are all forms#focused
he ma/orit& of their activities are
language item practice activitiesSome of the courseboo%s providesome opportunities for noticingand most ma%e attempt at
personaliation.,one of them oer choice content!
route of activities.
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According to !able &. in giing
scores out of 0 %with < indicating aperect match) !omlinson tried tobe as ob5ectie as possible. A
di#erent ealuator might haegien di#erent scores but hecannot imagine anybody giinghigh scores or any o the
categories.
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It is particularly noticeable that- 1er& little use is made of
literature(ecept in global).
he tets are ver& short and simple.
+ost activities involve practicerather than use.
he topics and activities are bland
safehe learners are rarel& as%ed to be
creative
he learners are rarel& as%ed tothin% for themselves ece t in ust
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he learners are rarel& as%ed to
spea% or rite at an& length.he learners are rarel& as%ed to
interact for a communicative purpose or at an& length
he units are predominantl&forms#focused.
All the units have revie
sections at the end but there islittle evidence of actualrec&cling of language in use.
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All the boo%s and all the units inthem are ver& similar in theirapproach and in their frequent use
of conventional practice eercises.
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!he big question is-
9hy is there typically such a wea"match between SLA theory andglobal courseboo"sK
1er& often SLA researchers endthe reports of their research b&sa&ing that the evidence isinconclusive or that more
research needs to be done.4ften research and theor& is
ritten about in language hichis onl& accessible to academics.
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-ourseboo% publishers are cateringmainl& for teachers ho do nothave access to research $ndings.
-ourseboo% publishersunderstandabl& publish hat the&%no the& can sell.
"ublishers are reluctant to ris%innovations that threaten the facevalidit& of their courseboo%s.
"ublishers understandabl& clone
courseboo%s hich have been big
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Some of the $ndings of SLA researchseem dicult to appl& to materialsdevelopment.
SLA research is often seen as a‘resource to inform teaching
practice’("ica 5660!p.578) rather thanas a determiner of the content and
format of courseboo%s.9n man& countries there is a massive
mismatch beteen t&picaleamination tas%s and SLA principles.
,ot all research $ndings are equall&applicable to all materialsdevelopment! contets or teachers.(3ichards! 5667)
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9hat we would li"e to "now about SLATheory
!here are still many unansweredquestions in SLA research.
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$or example-
9s SLA primaril& implicit or
eplicit:Some researchers %especially rashen,01) argue that it is implicitacquisition which enables the learner
to communicate spontaneousl& inan L& and that eplicit learning isonly o alue in monitoring output inorder to achiee repair and in planneddiscourse when the learner has thetime to ma"e use o explicitly learnedrules.
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ost researchers though %e.g. Cllis, I00?@Foughty 8 9illiams,001) claim thateplicit %noledge and conscious
practice can only acilitate theacquisition of implicit %noledge% i. e.they can help learners acquire morelanguage rom their exposure to it).
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9s there a natural sequence in
language acquisition:>ne plausible explanation orsimilarities in sequences oacquisition is o#ered by
ac9hinney %01(@ &''<). Eiscompetition model claims thatwhat learners can pay attention to
at any one time is limited and thatthey flter out eatures o languagewhen they listen to a secondlanguage.
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Learners graduall& get better atprocessing sentences and mentalresources are reed up to ocus on more
comple features o the input. !omlinsonwould argue that this inclination to learnthe simplest structures $rst isreinorced by the learner's initial
prioritiing of meaning over form.9hat is essential or communication islearned beore what is perceied asredundant.
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Are the factors hich determine
the eectiveness of languageacquisition variable:
uch has been written on thevariabilit& of L5 use and there
seems to be little doubt that learnerso an L& var& in accurac& andeectiveness from one interactionto another. A learner, or example,
might be accurate but restricted inexpression when tal"ing to a teacherand less accurate but more expressiewhen tal"ing to a riend.
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!here is een less doubt that Cnglish as anL& varies according to the region,language group and social class that
the interactants belong too and that L&users modiy their language byaccommodating towards theirinteractants* ariety o Cnglish.
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;oes tet enhancement facilitatelanguage acquisition:
Sharwood Smith %00?) proposed tetenhancement %e. g. color coding,
boldfacing, audio repetition) as a meanso drawing learners+ attention to salienteatures o their input.
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Suggestions or applying SLA theory to CL!materials deelopment
!here are a number o principledpedagogic approaches which doapply SLA theory to their practice
and or which materials hae beendeeloped.
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$or example-
$ask%&ased approach !as"7based materials %e.g. an denranden, &''D) proide the learnerwith a purpose and an outcome
which can only be achieed throughinteraction in the L&.
'ro&lem%&asedapproaches%ishan, &'')
In which learners communicate witheach other to sole a problem.
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oth approaches apply SLA theory topractice by proiding the learners withopportunities or purposeful , pushed
output , by stimulating interaction andoten by helping them to notice featureso their own and/or other people*s use othe language.
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(ontent and Language )ntegratedLearning*(L)L+ %Snow, &''<)
6LIL materials help learners to acquirean L& by teaching them a sub/ect , topic or s%ill they are interested in through
the medium o the L& %e.g. 6oyle et al.,&''@ !omlinson et at orthcoming). 6LILmaterials apply SLA theory by proidinga rich and meaningful eposure tothe language in use, by stimulatingaective and cognitive engagementand by proiding a need and purposeor learners to interact with each other.
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$ext%driven approach %!omlison,&''?)
!his approach has the greatest potential or the application o SLAtheory to materials deelopment.
!ext7drien materials are determinedby potentially engaging ritten
and<or spo%en tets rather than bylanguage teaching points.
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!he learners+ interactions with thetexts drie personal responseactivities, thin%ing activities,communication activities,
creative riting activities andlanguage aareness activities, aswell as oten initing supplementationwith other locally appropriate texts.
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!ext7drien approach -=pose the learners to rich and
meaningful use of language
=ngage the learners aectivel& and
cognitivel&Stimulate the learners to utilie the
resources of their brains
"rovide opportunities for purposeful andmeaningful communication
>elping the learners to notice features oflanguage use
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!omlinson %&''?) and !omlinson andasuhara %&''2) outline a =exible text7drien ramewor" which is designed to
help teachers to deelop principled ande#ectie materials ery quic"ly. !able&.& outlines the recommendedstages.
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6onclusion !he commercial publishers o globalcourseboo"s ace many di3culties ithey try to do the same %e.g. con=ict
with user expectations, teacherresistance to innoation con=ict withthe demands o examinations, etc. )4eertheless !omlinson beliees that
they could ma"e more attempt to applygenerally accepted principles o SLA totheir material deelopment. > coursethey would be helped to do this i global