smart power generation 4th edition

8/10/2019 Smart Power Generation 4th Edition

1/196

Jacob KlimstraMarkus Hotakainen

The Future of Electricity P


2/196


3/196

Jacob KlimstraMarkus Hotakainen


4/196

Smart power generation

Foreword..........................................................In roduc ion World o energy ....................

e Sun, March 9, 1989 ....................................e Ear h, March 13, 1989 ..............................

A Very Shor His ory o Elec rici y ..........

1. Te challenges o he u ure ...................... 1.1 e shape o hings o come ................ 1.2 Fac s abou he u ure ...................... 1.2.1 Popula ion grow h ............................17

1.2.2 Rising s andard of living ...................20 1.2.3 Clima e change .................................21 1.2.4 Increasing impor ance of elec rici y25 1.2.5 Increasing impor ance of energy

efficiency ............................................27 1.3 Making he connec ion ........................ 1.3.1 Aiming a exibili y ........................29 1.3.2 Teres no single, simple solu ion ......34 1.3.3 Fu ure a mater of choice ................35 1.3.4 Grey World .........................................37

1.3.5 Blue Globe ..........................................39 1.3.6 Green Ear h .......................................41 Summary .......................................................

2. Elec rici y highly in demand..................... 47 2.1 e role o elec rici y in he economy 2.2 Produc ion o elec rici y .................... 2.3 Elemen s de ermining he kWh cos s 2.4 enewable energy sources ..................... 2.4.1 Solar radia ion ...................................61 2.4.2 Wind power .......................................65 2.4.3 Solid bio fuels ....................................67 2.4.4 Liquid bio fuels .................................68 2.5 Nuclear uel .......................................... Summary .......................................................

contents:

Markus Hotakainen,Jacob Klimstra& Wrtsil Finland Oy Editorial work: Samu MielonenGraphic designer: Jiipee Mattila Printing house: Arkmedia, Vaasa 2011Publisher: Avain Publishers, Helsinki4th improved edition

ISBN 978-952-93-1640-3


5/196

Contents

3. Elec rici y genera ion ma chingproduc ion wi h demand ........................ 77

3.1 e asks o a genera or ....................................78 3.2 Elec rici y demand .............................................81 3.2.1 Power demand patern in Abu Dhabi ........82 3.2.2 Power demand patern

in Te Ne herlands ..........................................83 3.2.3 Power demand patern in exas, USA .......85 3.2.4 Power demand patern in Mexico ................86 3.2.5 Power demand patern in Tailand ............87

3.2.6 Power demand patern in Finland ...............88 3.2.7 Power demand paternin Sou h Aus ralia ............................................89

3.2.8 Power demand patern inOn ario, Canada ..............................................91

3.2.9 Power demand paterns worldwide .............92 3.3 Effec o unres ric ed supply o wind-based

elec rici y on sys em balancing .......................93 3.3.1. Examples of wind power ou pu ..................93 3.3.2 Wind power in Denmark ..............................94

3.3.3 Wind power in Sou h Aus ralia ....................98 3.3.4 Wind power in Nor h-Eas Germany .........99 3.3.5 Wind power in Spain ...................................105 3.4 Effec s o Solar PV ou pu

on sys em balancing ........................................ 110 3.5 S orage o elec ric energy .............................. 115 3.5.1 Smoo hing wind power ou pu ...................116 3.5.2 Smoo hing solar PV ou pu ........................119 3.5.3 Compressed-air energy s orage ...................121 3.5.4 Energy s orage as hea in wa er .................125 3.5.5 Energy s orage based on gas compared

wi h o her s orage echniques .....................126 3.5.6 Key performance indica ors for energy

s orage sys ems ...............................................127 Summary .................................................................. 129

4. Smar power genera ion Te roado he goal .............................................. 1

4.1 Challenges or poli ical decision makeor inves ors in power plan s ...............

4.2 Key per ormance indica ors opower plan s ...........................................

4.2.1 Specic capi al cos s .......................136 4.2.2 Specic fuel cos s .............................138 4.2.3 Specic main enance and

opera ion cos s ..................................140

4.2.4 Specic environmen al cos s ...........141 4.2.5 S ar -up ime and ramp-up ra e .....142 4.2.6 Availabili y and reliabili y................143 4.3 A s a is ical approach or ob aining

reliable power plan por olio .............. 4.4 Balancing unpredic able varia ions in

elec rici y produc ion and demand ..... 4.4.1 Effec of wind power variabili y on

power sys em balancing ....................151 4.4.2 Effec of solar power variabili y on

power sys em balancing ....................153 4.5 e in roduc ion o smar sys ems inelec rici y ne works ..............................

4.6 Smar power genera ion ...................... 4.6.1 Reliabili y and availabili y ...............159 4.6.2 Power varia ion in a large load range

while main aining fuel efficiency .....163 4.7 Sui able prime movers or smar powe

genera ion plan s based on mul iple uni 4.8 e bene s o cogenera ion ............... Summary .......................................................

5. Discussion and conclusions .................... 17 Summary .......................................................

Biography ..................................................... Bibliography and e erences ...................... Glossary.........................................................


6/196

Smart power generation

Foreword

I have always been ascina ed by elec rici y. I is a orm o energy ha can be used in so many ways: ligh , hea and mo ion bu equally bi s and by es,

F s, LEDs and o her marvels o modern elec ronics. Elec rici y hasgiven us he reedom o use power when we wan , where we wan , and in

he orm we wan .Bu elec rici y is s ill only a media; i has o be genera ed rom o her

sources o energy like ossil uels, hydro, wind and nuclear. And a everymomen we mus genera e he same amoun o elec rici y as we con-sume. oday, mos o our elec rici y is genera ed rom ossil uels and,regardless o whe her you look i rom he poin o cup hal ull or cuphal emp y, he hard ru h is ha here is only a limi ed amoun o ossil

uels on our plane . So i makes sense o make i las as long as possible.a is why Europe is pushing owards 20-20-20 vision or renewable

energy and why some consider nuclear power as he large scale energyor he u ure. is is also why smar grids have become a discussionpoin or morning coffee. Saving energy and nding new ways o gen-era e elec rici y, ha is he ques .

is book in roduces a new way o reaching hose goals, and i iscalledSmar Power Genera ion , which is all abou ataining capaci y man-agemen in he mos efficien way. I is all abou using dedica ed powergenera ion acili ies ha can op imise sys em efficiency and enable us

o use all possible ways o genera e elec rici y. And, ul ima ely, i allowseveryone o use elec rici y whenever hey need i .

I would like o hank he au hors o his book, Markus Ho akainen and Jacob Klims ra , or heir colossal effor s in crea ing his book or uso read.

Enjoy.

Vesa RiihimkiGroup Vice Presiden , Wr sil Power Plan s


7/196


8/196


9/196

introductionWorld of energy by Markus Hotakainen

Our world is elec ric. Ever since he early experimen son elec rici y, i has become increasingly impor anin all areas o our socie y. And oday i would bedifficul , i no impossible, o imagine a world wi houelec rici y.

Producing he ever-increasing amoun s o elec ri-ci y needed in everyday li e rom he mos commondomes ic appliances o he vas demands o indus ry is a challenge ha needs o be me . A he same

ime, several o her big issues mus be aken in oaccoun : popula ion grow h, clima e change, anddwindling ossil uel reserves.

Flexibili y is he key ingredien in nding a solu ionor he produc ion o elec rici y . I has been impor an

in he pas wi h examples o bo h having i and lackingi . We have o make sure ha we will have i in he

u ure.


10/196

10 Smart power generation

The Sun, March 9, 1989

Our Sun was approaching he maximum o i s 11-year ac ivi y cycle. As ronomers observed a gigan ic solar are on he gaseous sur aceo he Sun, an ins an aneous erup ion o elec romagne ic energy, heamoun o which could be in excess o 10 percen o he o al energyou pu o he Sun in one second.

e nex day ano her, even more power ul, erup ion hurled a vascloud o plasma in o space. Several billion ons o charged par icles,pro ons and elec rons, moving wi h veloci ies up o millions okilome ers per hour made heir way in o he in erplane ary space.

ey carried wi h hem a s rong magne ic eld sizzling wi h energy,crea ing a deadly s orm in space. Un or una ely, here was a inyobs acle in heir pa h: he Ear h.


11/196

Introduction World of energy 11

The Earth, March 13, 1989

e nigh skies o our plane were covered wi h cur ains o ligh andcolor: green, red, blue ey moved rapidly, changed shape, disap-peared, only o be replaced wi h vas bundles o rays s re ching all he way rom he zeni h o he horizon and back. Aurorae!

Bu his magnicen display o one o he grea es phenomena ona ure was jus he ip o he iceberg. In all i s beau y, i was a sign oan excep ionally s rong geomagne ic ac ivi y caused by he chargedpar icles launched rom he Sun our days earlier.

Jus as many ancien civiliza ions believed, he brigh aurorae were an omen o an impending doom. e charged par icles ha wereexci ing he a oms and molecules o he Ear h a mosphere o emiauroral ligh were also crea ing power ul elec ric curren s, so power ul

ha he pro ec ive relays o he power grids ripped.


12/196


Millions o people in he nor hern par s o he Nor h America were lef wi hou elec rici y or hours wi h he ou side empera urealmos minus en degrees cen igrade. People woke up in heirchilling homes and houses in o s one age o exaggera e only alitle. Modern socie y, wi h all i s com or and sa e y, proved o beex remely vulnerable only because o a lack o elec rici y.

A Very Short History of Electricity

Elec rici y has made modern socie y wha i is oday. ravelling,cooking, communica ing, hea ing You name i , we will ame i wi helec rici y. And wi hou ? Our living would come prac ically o a com-ple e hal .

e world has no always been like ha . Ac ually, he his ory oelec rici y as a commodi y is ra her shor despi e i having always

been presen in he mos spec acular na ural phenomena rom hun-ders orms o aurorae. An elec ric charge is a proper y o some suba omic par icles, and

he movemen o hese charged par icles crea es elec ric curren , he very basics o our elec ric world. As early as 5000 years ago, elec ricsh were known o exis , and me hods o produce s a ic elec rici y byrubbing cer ain ma erials like ur and amber agains each o her werediscovered more han 2500 years ago.

However, he ounda ions or he universal usage o elec rici y curren ly so sel -eviden have been laid only since he 18 h cen ury.

Benjamin Franklin, Luigi Galvani, Alessandro Vol a, Andr-Marie Ampre, Georg Ohm, no o men ion Nikola esla, " he man whoinven ed elec rici y" wi h his vas array o inven ions and innova ions,are among he pioneers o he research, and many o hem are amiliar

o us, i no as scien is s, bu as names o uni s o measuremen oelec rical proper ies.

Elec rici y was ound o be permea ing na ure, bo h livingcrea ures and inanima e phenomena. Wherever scien is s urned heirgaze, hey seemed o nd elec rici y. A major break hrough was hediscovery o he close rela ionship be ween elec rici y and magne ism:elec ric and magne ic phenomena are jus wo sides o a single unda-men al in erac ion, elec romagne ism.

Elec rici y was no longer a mere objec o scien ic curiosi y normerely some hing wi h which o make ascina ing ricks. I becamean essen ial ingredien and a s rong symbol o he second indus rialrevolu ion, paving he way or he nex major upheavals, rs hein orma ion and hen he digi al revolu ion.


13/196

Introduction World of energy 13

In he pioneering days, however, i was no obvious ha elec rici y would become essen ial o human li e and modern socie y. As la eas mid-19 h cen ury, Michael Faraday, discoverer o many elec ricalphenomena and inven or o several elec rical devices, was visi ed by William Glads one, he Chancellor o he Exchequer, la er he PrimeMinis er o he Uni ed Kingdom.

Glads one was impressed by he experimen s and demons ra ionsmade by Faraday in his labora ory, bu asked wha is he prac ical wor h o elec rici y. Faraday replied, wi h one o he bigges under-s a emen s in he his ory o science, None, sir, wha soever.

As wi h so many o her amous s ories classiable as urban legends,here is an al erna ive version o his discussion, making Faraday a

grea visionary ins ead o a shor -sigh ed academic. According o his varian , Faraday allegedly said o Glads one: Why, sir, here is everyprobabili y ha you will soon be able o ax i !

And was he righ abou he possibili y o collec axes? Yes, verymuch so, and no only ha . Elec rici y made i possible o develop agrea varie y o use ul appliances bo h or domes ic and indus rial use,

rom ovens and irons o heavy machinery. Especially afer World WarII, he usage o elec rici y increased rapidly in all areas o socie y.

In he 1950s and 1960s, here was a period o a as grow h in henumber o coal plan s o mee he ever growing demands or elec-

rici y, especially in indus ry. is was ollowed by he as emergenceo nuclear power in he 1970s, only o be emporarily in errup ed by

he he Chernobyl acciden in April 1986 and perhaps he same

will happen because o he even s in Fukushima in March 2011. Ahe same ime, he impor ance o gas increased, which has been acommon endency ever since.


14/196


15/196

The challengesof the future

by Markus Hotakainen


16/196


1.1 The shape of things to come

e u ure has always had a s rong appeal o he human mind, bo hindividually and collec ively. Ever since he dawn o humani y, here has been a mul i ude o effor s o oresee i hrough a varie y o me hods,always wi hou much success, bu never wi hou a s rong ai h in hepredic ions made. And ye , he u ure has always managed o surprise us.

For more han a cen ury, science c ion, or specula ive c ion, hasgiven us glimpses o he possible u ure or u ures bu now we areliving in a world beyond he wildes u uris ic dreams o he li erarypioneers. For example, a revolu ion in communica ions has urned he vas world in o a global village wi h almos ins an aneous access oalmos all he in orma ion ever acquired on any opic.

e basis or his revolu ion has been energy, especially elec rici y. A he ime o he rs iny and wary s eps in o he world o elec ro-

magne ism, i was no apprecia ed nor did i receivemuch more hanan academic in eres . Bu , as we have seen, he si ua ion was o bechanged and when i did, i changed or good. ere is no going back: our world is a world o elec rici y.

We are s ill lacking he means o oresee he u ure, bu we arenow more capable han ever o make choices, decisions, inven ionsand innova ions o help crea e a u ure mos benecial and sus ain-able. e u ure is no longer some hing mys erious, some hing orcedupon us, some hing we have no say in.

e u ure is here wai ing or us and sooner han we hink,

i will be here and i will be based on our ac ions o oday. Wha we will do is up o us. We can make he choices and we will. Juslike Presiden John F. Kennedy said hal a cen ury ago in his amousspeech on going o he Moon: No because i is easy, bu because i ishard.

We will no only ace easy choices, we will ace difficul ones, oo.Bu in he second decade o he new millennium, humankind is bo hin ellec ually and echnically beter equipped han ever be ore o

ackle even he mos demanding o he challenges and make he righchoices.

We will encoun er a number o big issues, he solving o which willdemand a lo o effor . In many cases, i will also demand re-evalua iono our curren ways and s andard o living. Many hings now aken

or gran ed will no remain he same. In some cases we will be able odecide or ourselves wha is impor an o us and wha is no , in o hercases here will be only one possible and sensible choice.

However, one hing will surely be par o he u ure, wha ever hedirec ion our choices will ake us: he need or energy and, especially,


17/196

1 The challenges of the future 17

he need or elec rici y. In he rip ide o clima e change, popula iongrow h, and dwindling reserves o ossil uels, ullling he need orenergy and elec rici y will be one o he big challenges o he u ure.

Bu here are solu ions o be ound. Jus like he world we areliving in oday, he u ure we will have will be elec ric.

1.2 Facts about the future

ere are a number o issues ha demand global aten ion now and inhe u ure. Some o hese challenges have already been ackled wi h suc-

cess, some o hem are s ill under deba e: wha o do, how o do i , and when. Making decisions concerning a whole plane is no an easy ask, while he search or choices is s ill in progress.

e challenges lis ed below are no placed in order o impor anceor urgency. o sor hem ou would be difficul , i no impossible,

because o heir differen scales and many o hem being igh lyin er wined wi h each o her. Because o his in er wining, hey mighseem o be even more difficul o solve, bu he si ua ion could also be jus he opposi e. Finding a solu ion o one problem could helpnding i o ano her problem, oo.

1.2.1 Population growth

Generally he grow h o popula ion is no a problem because o lack ospace, even hough i is easy o see i ha way. ere is plen y o sur ace

area on Ear h despi e he ac ha more han 70 percen o our planeis covered wi h wa er. e whole popula ion o he world, all he more

Figure 1.1: The estimated size of worldpopulation since 10,000 BC.


18/196


Figure 1.2: The annual growth rate ofworld population since 1950.

han 6 billion men and women, boys and girls, young and old, couldeasily hough no very com or ably on he isle o Corsica or heIsland o Hawaii. And he crowd would be a ar cry rom ha o herush hour in mos me ropoli an subway rains.

is example migh appear as naive, perhaps even surreal, bu ireies he poin : here is room enough or all he people on Ear h.

e real problem is he shor age o resources like ood and resh wa er. e problems rela ed wi h ever as er popula ion grow h has been known or decades. e human popula ion has grown con inu-ously or he pas 600 years ever since he end o he Black Dea h

ha wiped ou more han 20% o he worlds popula ion bu is ar ed o increase rapidly abou a cen ury ago because o advancesin echnology, medicine and agricul ure. e grow h ra e o hepopula ion was he larges around 1970 wi h 2,1% per annum; a hemomen he ra e is 1,2%.

Since hen he o al ra e has been decreasing, bu i is s ill highin La in America, he Middle Eas , and Sub-Saharan A rica. And heannual grow h o he number o humans con inued o increase un il1989, when i was 88 million. A he momen i is 74 million, and i ises ima ed o decline o abou 40 million during he nex our decades.In 2025 he o al popula ion is projec ed o be 8.1 billion, and in 2050abou 9.2 billion, while in 2009 i was 6.8 billion.

o eed a larger and larger popula ion is a con inuous batle be ween posi ive and nega ive effec s. e Green evolu ion in agri-cul ure, caused by he developmen o high-yielding grains, er ilizers,pes icides, and irriga ion sys ems, have helped o cons rain amineand malnu ri ion, bu he number o undernourished people is s illmore han one billion.


19/196

1

2

>3


Figure 1.3: The annual growth rate inpercent.

However, he produc ion o energy needed or he Green evolu-ion has been and s ill is based on ossil uels. And as he ossiluel supply is running low and he produc ion level is s ar ing o

decrease, and, even more impor an , he exis ing reserves are increas-ingly expensive o ge in use, he popula ion grow h linked wi h oodshor age could cause a per ec s orm by 2030, when he es ima eddemand or ood, energy, and wa er will be as much as 50% larger

han oday.Finding new me hods or producing energy, and especially nding

new combina ions o produc ion wi h bo h ossil uels and renewablesources o energy, is o u mos impor ance in ackling he problemsrela ed wi h he world popula ion grow h.

Figure 1.4: The population statistics foreach continent.


20/196

O i l 3

7 %

C o a l

2 5 %


Figure 1.5: Domestic electricityconsumption.

1.2.2 Rising standard of living

Wi h he developing coun ries becoming more and more developed,he s andard o living is rising, and, a he same ime, he demand or

energy is increasing. Higher s andard o living and especially higherlevel o educa ion made possible wi h ha is connec ed wi h declinein popula ion grow h, bu i is also seting new demands on he produc-

ion o elec rici y. e more ma erial prosperi y here is, he larger paro commodi ies are dependan on elec rici y.

e developing coun ries rely heavily on he ossil uels in heir

energy produc ion, so he demands or more elec rici y will increasehe amoun o ossil uels burn o produce i . In many cases, i isdifficul o nd al erna ive sources o energy ei her because o na uralcondi ions or example lack o rivers o harness or hydropower, oral erna ing periods o oods and drough making po en ial hydro-power unreliable he economic si ua ion, or poli ical unres .

e propor ion o renewable energy is increasing worldwide orexample, wind power has a grow h ra e o abou 20% and i isimpor an o main ain he rend because o he increased demand orelec rici y in he developing coun ries. e solu ion is no o res ric


21/196

G a s 2

3 %

H y d r

o 3 %

B i o m a

s s 4 %

N u c l e

a r 6 %


Figure 1.6: The global usage of energy.

ha demand, bu o ry o make he role o ossil uels less dominan .I will be difficul , and i will have o be a common effor .

ere is no universal solu ion, no single and simple answer o beound. All he effor s o help he developing coun ries o adjus heir

produc ion o energy and elec rici y o he higher s andard o livinghas o ake in o accoun he local condi ions. a is he only way oresolve he problem in a sus ainable way, in a way accep able o allinvolved, and in a way ha will have he mos bene s bo h locallyand globally. e s akes are high, no jus or us, bu or he genera-

ions o come.

1.2.3 Climate change

Longer and warmer summer, and milder and shor er win er howdoes ha sound? Perhaps emp ing or people living rom mid- o high-la i udes o he Ear h, bu no so much or people in ropical environ-men s. How abou more searing hea , more severe s orms, and moreca as rophic oods? All o hese consequences will be wi h us in ever-increasing numbers. e clima e is changing globally. And we are o blame. Bu because o ha , we also have means o affec he change.

Figure 1.7: Global average surfacetemperature in 18802009.


22/196


23/196


ere is s ill much scep icism abou clima e change and global warming, bu he sooner we accep he ac s and ake he necessarys eps in rying o slow i down and o adap o he consequences, he beter chance we will have o avoiding a clima e ca as rophe in he

u ure.e excess a mospheric CO2 is causing an enhanced greenhouse

effec , which is increasing he absorp ion and emission o in rared radi-a ion in he a mosphere, hus warming i . e bigges source o hisCO2 is he use o he ossil uels: in indus ry, in energy produc ion, in

raffic. e reserves o ossil uels will even ually be exhaus ed, bu aso he clima e change seting aside he o her problems rela ed wi h

i his will no happen soon enough.Figure 1.9: Variations of CO2 , thetemperature and dust in an Antarctic icecore during the past 450,000 years.


24/196


e clima e change and global warming migh sound like over- whelmingly vas problems and hey are vas bu here is an exampleo ackling a problem on a smaller scale bu s ill a global one wi hsuccess: he ozone deple ion. In he 1970s, i was rs observed o affec

he s ra ospheric ozone layer bo h around he world bu especially overhe polar regions o Ear h.

Ozone is essen ial or li e on Ear h because o i s abili y o absorbharm ul ul raviole radia ion. e deple ion was caused by chemicalcompounds called reons and halons. Bo h o hese had been released

Figure 1.10: Trends in ozone-depletinggases.


25/196


in o he a mosphere as a resul o human ac ivi ies. is made i pos-sible o make an effor o slow down he deple ion by res ric ing heuse o hese compounds. An in erna ional rea y, he Mon real Pro-

ocol, en ering in o orce in 1989 and ra ied by 196 s a es, se goalsrs o decrease and hen nally o end he use o he compounds.Curren ly i is es ima ed ha he ozone layer will recover by 2050.

So here is a chance o nding solu ions, and we should use i .e combina ion o popula ion grow h, rising s andards o living,

clima e change and he use o ossil uels has all he ingredien s or aca as rophe. However, we are aware o his, and we have he means omi iga e he consequences, and hese means will be closely rela ed oenergy produc ion in he u ure.

1.2.4 Increasing importance of electricity

e o al dependence o our socie y on elec rici y is obvious bua he same ime surprisingly easy o orge . e role o elec rici y inmodern socie y is so inheren , ha we do no even hink abou i . Iis sel -eviden ha all he appliances a home and a he office, all hecommunica ions, hea ing, air-condi ioning, ligh ing, many modes o

ranspor a ion, and so onjus work. Bu hey would no i here wasno elec rici y.

e need or elec rici y migh seem o be easily ullled all iakes is o pu a plug in o a socke apprehending wha i akes o

Figure 1.11: This bubble map shows theglobal distribution of electricity outputin 2005 as a percentage of the topproducer (USA 3,979 tera watt hours).


26/196


produce ha elec rici y migh be difficul . Wi h he cordless ech-nology relying on bateries being used all he ime more commonly,

his comprehension is becoming even more difficul .However, elec rici y has o be produced, and or he mos par

i has o be produced now, righ a his momen . Surely elec rici ycan be s ored, or example in he use o hydro power, when large

reservoirs o wa er con ain elec rici y available or he u ure use.However, his a very res ric ed ype o s orage. So in general, s oringelec rici y is possible, bu no very efficien ly, nor or very long periodso ime, nor in large amoun s a leas no in any prac ical way ting

or he main elec ric power needed by modern socie y.I is only during a power ou age ha our almos comple e depen-

dence on elec rici y becomes obvious. Wi hou elec rici y here is noligh , no hea , no warm ood or wa er. ere is no communica ions,no music, no movies. Prac ically no hing we have been used o u ilisea work and in leisure.

Some o he problems brough abou by he lack o elec rici y can be solved wi h solu ions like re or ligh and warm h, bateries orcommunica ions and en er ainmen , cars wi h combus ion engines

or ranspor a ion ins ead o public vehicles like rams, subways, andrains bu all hese are more or less emporary solu ions, and in

many cases even ually dependen on elec rici y, oo. And he developmen is owards an even more pro ound depen-

dence on elec rici y. Elec rical appliances are more and more re-

Figure 1.12: The synchronous powergrids in Eurasia.


27/196


quen ly used or asks nobody would have dreamed o only ew yearsago. While many i no mos elec rical devices are no essen ial

or leading a li e, some o hem are vi ally impor an , wi hou whichpeoples lives would be in danger. is is puting an ever-increasingpressure on reliable power plan s and grids.

1.2.5 Increasing importance of energy ef ciency

e reserves or he ossil uels are limi ed and, wha is more impor an ,i is impossible o make use o all o hose reserves. A he curren ra e

hey will no be exhaus ed or a ew decades, bu hey will become amore and more marginal source o energy. Even prior o ha , he priceo using he ossil uels will subs an ially increase because o he highercos s or acquiring hem and he carbon axes levied on burning o

hem.

ere is a limi or he available amoun o many non-combus ionand renewable energy sources, oo. e rivers sui able or hydropowerplan s are in many coun ries already harnessed or energy produc ion. Wind and sunligh are prac ical only in areas having s rong winds anda lo o sunshine. Nuclear ssion power con ains po en ial risks, in

he long run because o he radioac ive was e and, more imminen ly, because o acciden s. And he si ua ion o he deploymen o nuclear

Figure 1.13: The progress of energyefficiency in Europe since 1996.


28/196


Figure 1.14: The production of energy inthe world in 19891999.

usion power is more or less he same as i has been or he pasdecades: s ill some 30 years in he u ure.

All hese po en ial and real problems mean ha a sus ainablesolu ion or he problem o mee ing he increasing need or energy,and especially elec rici y is impera ive. I is impossible or he solu-

ion o be jus increasing he produc ion o elec rici y wi h po en ialincrease in he severi y o he problems. Wha ever he me hod, hereis no possibili y or an exponen ial grow h. ere are limi s se by

echnology, economics, and resources. An obvious solu ion is o use energy more efficien ly. Much has

already been done. e energy efficiency o elec ric appliances has vas ly improved. Wi h he same amoun o energy or elec rici y heir ou pu is much larger. Because o rising s andard o living

he o al number o appliances in he world will inevi ably andcon inuously increase, so his would also help o decrease he need

or increased produc ion o elec rici y.Energy efficiency and energy conserva ion is also helping us

o lessen he dependence o our socie y on elec rici y. Wi h efficienuse o elec rici y, i is also possible o make he modern socie yless dependen on he ossil uels. is would have a large impacon diminishing he emissions o CO2 in o he a mosphere, whichis essen ial in he effor s or slowing down he clima e change andglobal warming.


29/196


Figure 1.15: The energy consumption pecapita in the world.1.3 Making the connection

1.3.1 Aiming at exibility

e need or exibili y is he key issue in developing u ure power sys-

ems. 65 million years ago, a he end o he Cre aceous Period, a lack oexibili y permanen ly changed he ace and he u ure o he Ear h. An as eroid wi h a diame er o abou 10 kilome res hi he Ear h

wi h a veloci y o ens o kilome ers per second. e impac releasedenergy equivalen o 100 000 000 mega ons o N . In a blink o aneye, a huge explosion engul ed every hing wi hin a radius o hundredso kilome ers in a super ho cloud o vaporized rock. Gigan ic sunamis wi h a heigh o hundreds o me ers washed away all ha was lef oliving hings, every hing ha had survived he blas , on he coas lineso he ancien world. Fur her away, orren ial ores res raged or days, weeks, perhaps even mon hs, spewing smoke and ash high in o hea mosphere along wi h he dus spread wide by he impac i sel . eday urned in o a nigh , and he summer in o a win er ha would las

or years.e si e o impac is nowadays known as he Chicxulub Cra er on

he Yuca n Peninsula in Mexico. e cra er crea ed by he cosmic col-lision is more han 180 kilome res in diame er: i is one o he largesimpac s ruc ures known on he Ear h.


30/196


According o a popular and very plausible heory, his even hadar-reaching consequences. A large par , perhaps as much as 75 percen

o he ora and auna, o he plan and animal species o ha period, became ex inc bo h on land and in he oceans. e ex inc ion was noimmedia e, bu ook some ime because o he gradual collapse o he

ood chains nally affec ing hose on he op o hose chains.e blow was mos severe on he dinosaurs, he dominan super

order o species in he Cre aceous Period. e rulers o ha ancienera were unable o adap o he new condi ions afer he global

ca as rophe: hey did no have enough exibili y. Mos o hem wereso specialized ha hey lacked i comple ely. e dinosaurs vanishedal oge her albei birds are hough o have evolved rom some o heavian dinosauria species making way or mammals.

Despi e he success o he mos prominen o he mammalianspecies,homo sapiens , humani y has been in dire s rai s, oo. Oneo he mos severe pligh s aced by he human race occurred some75 000 years ago. An erup ion o a volcano brough humankind o

he verge o ex inc ion. A supervolcano la er named oba in Suma ra,Indonesia, erup ed, having consequences very similar o hose o

he Chicxulub impac : smoke, ash, and dus hiding he Sun or aprolonged period o ime. e global empera ure plumme ed, aminimum 35 degrees, bu possibly as much as 15 degrees cen igrade.

e erup ion and he phenomena rela ed wi h i severely affec ed heclima e and caused a volcanic win er las ing as long as a decade. Icould have even ini ia ed an ice age.

is chain o even s along wi h a hick layer o ash deposi edover large par s o he Ear h possibly des royed mos o he ood

Figure 1.16; Cosmic collisions have had amajor impact on life of the Earth.


31/196


supplies o humans, which in urn would have resul ed in he humanpopula ion being rapidly reduced o perhaps only 2000 individuals.I migh have also caused he ex inc ion o several o her hominidspecies. According o he gene ic analysis, all humans living oday aredescendan s o his very small popula ion surviving he aferma h oone o he bigges volcanic even s in he his ory o he Ear h. I was a very close call!

However, he oba Ca as rophe, as i is called, was ollowed bya rapid increase in popula ion because o innova ion, progress andmigra ion, possibly lack o compe i ion, bu mos o all because o ,in one word, exibili y.

Figure 1.17: The amount of ash spewedinto the Earth atmosphere by theeruption of Toba was almost 100 timeslarger than that of Mount Pinatubo in1991.


32/196


e exibili y or adap abili y capabili y o adap o changingcircums ances and condi ions has been our secre in he pasmillennia. Firs in ou pacing o her hominid species, he las o hem

being he Neander hals, and la er in he ever-accelera ing process ohe popula ion growing rom mere housands o people o almosseven billion men, women, and children inhabi ing almos everycorner o our plane oday. In only 75 000 years.

is s ory o survival gives us hope or he u ure and ai h in ourcapabili ies. In he beginning o he new millennium, our knowledgeis vas ly superior o ha o all he preceding genera ions, and we havemeans science and echnology o increase ha knowledge as er

han our ances ors could have ever imagined. We are more capableo mee ing he requiremen s o he u ure han ever. I is only up ous o do ha . And jus as exibili y has been a key o our success as aspecies in he pas , i will be an essen ial asse in imes o come.

I no a mega rend, exibili y is cer ainly one o he keywords orhe u ure. For some ime, i has been heard in all areas o li e: educa-ion, employmen , adminis ra ion, echnology People mus adap ,

adjus , con orm.e way o human li e has changed very much in only ew

decades. Children no longer ollow in he oo s eps o heir paren s

Figure 1.18: Lack of exibility caused theextinction of dinosaurs some 65 million years ago.


33/196


when i comes o occupa ion, place o residence, or leisure ac ivi ies. And while i was usual only a couple o decades ago o build a career working or a sole employer, nowadays ha kind o approach oearning ones living is a rari y: par ly because o wha is wan ed by heemployers, par ly because o wha hey wan hemselves.

And he same goes wi h he socie y. e world is changing evermore rapidly, and all he aspec s o modern socie y are prone o hesechanges. e dinosaurs will become ex inc jus like hey did 65million years ago whe her in poli ics, indus ry or echnology.

Energy produc ion is no immune o hese demands orexibili y. When i comes o energy, he world is also changing.Diminishing reservoirs o ossil uels and he impac o heir usageon he clima e change, no o men ion he public opinion o hemand several o her energy sources as well which is some hing hepoli icians and decision makers are compelled o ake more and

more in o accoun will require innova ive approach o ull hegrowing demand or energy and elec rici y. And because o differencircums ances, condi ions, and resources in differen par s o he world, his innova ive approach has o have exibili y as one o i sin rinsic ea ures.

Figure 1.19: Attempts to nd aPhilosophers stone has always beenequally popular and futile.


34/196


1.3.2 Theres no single, simple solution

All hrough he his ory o humani y, he mos op imis ic or greedy na ural philosophers have been rying o nd a me hod o make gold oless valuable elemen s. ese predecessors o scien is s were convinced

ha here mus be a Philosophers s one, an alchemical subs ance, which would be capable o urning more or less wor hless lead in o hashining, yellow, precious me al. ey were wrong.

Anyone hinking ha here is a similar kind o mys ical sub-

s ance, a modern Philosophers s one, o solve he problems we areacing in he u ure, is equally wrong. Despi e he globaliza ion ineconomics, indus ry, cul ure, and so on, in several respec s he condi-

ions in differen socie ies, coun ries, and con inen s are very differenrom each o her.

Wha is good or us, migh no be good or you, and could be bad or someone else. e s rive or exibili y is he key issue also in

he u ure o energy and elec rici y produc ion. A coun ry wi h largeamoun s o hydropower perhaps some o i s ill unharnessed hasdifferen op ions rom hose o a coun ry wi h large amoun s ogeo hermal energy or solar energy o ap.

e same goes or he demands or he produc ion o elec rici y inerms o variabili y according o he ime o day and year. e condi-ions and he demands in he coun ries wi h cold win ers or ho

summers are very differen rom hose in coun ries wi h more or lesscons an wea her and iden ical seasons. All his has o be aken in oaccoun in rying o nd he bes solu ion.

Figure 1.20: The northern andsouthern Europe are climatically verydifferent from each other making alsothe demands for the production ofelectricity very different.


35/196


36/196


a is he si ua ion wi h he problems we all are acing a hemomen and even more so in he u ure. I is na ural o ry o nd ou whos guil y, bu ha s no going o solve any problems. And as wi h

he case o Apollo 13, some o our bigges problems have o do wi hpower, wi h he produc ion and consump ion o elec rici y.

e Ear h as a plane has been a s rong symbol o many hingsever since he rs images o our cosmic home were aken rom heou er space. When i comes o producing energy and elec rici y o heincreasing popula ion o he world, he hree al erna ive u ures can be charac erized by his same symbol in hree differen colors: GreenEar h, Blue Globe, Grey World.

ese scenarios are differen rom each o her in erms o poli ics,economics, echnology, and especially produc ion o elec rici y. Whe her we use he echnology we have oday and will have in he

u ure o diminish he problems or we jus ignore hose problems, is

he main issue: i will make all he difference.o have all he scenarios rela ed wi h our plane , he Ear h, willkeep our ocus on he ac ha we are in his oge her. We are o blame or we are o appraise.

Figure 1.23: The Grey World is heavilydependent on fossil fuels and nuclearenergy.


37/196


1.3.4 Grey World

Te Grey World is ruled by governmen s. Scarci y of resources and energysecuri y are major issues. Governmen s ry o make he scarce supplies las ,leading o considerable changes in socie y. Poli ical ensions run high due

o he uneven geographical dis ribu ion of energy resources. Na ural gasis increasingly impor an energy source, and clima e change has vir uallydropped off he poli ical agenda.

Jus like he color o he Grey World, he u ure i is represen ingis a bleak one. e scarci y o na ural resources and he uncer ain yo he energy securi y are major issues or all he governmen s o he world.

I would be a world based on gas and ruined because o i .o preven or a leas decelera e he clima e change, CO2 , a gas he

increase o which is s reng hening he greenhouse effec , was ried o

be s ored, bu i proved o be an unsuccess ul and u ile effor .Because o he public opinion, severe echnical problems andmajor acciden s, nuclear power is no longer developed and, because o

he li e- ime o he old plan s coming o an end, i is no longer used,


38/196


Biofuels

Firs -genera ion bio uels like e hanol and biodiesel are curren ly produced rom cropssuch as sugar cane, corn and vege able oils.

ese energy sources are con roversial ashe crops could also be used or ood and

animal eed. Second genera ion bio uels areproduced rom a broad range o non-edible

eeds ocks including he cellulose in energycrops, ores ry was e and ood by-produc s.

Bio uels could have a role in improvingenergy securi y, lowering greenhouse gasemissions and suppor ing rural develop-

men . However, i is difficul o assess he impac o rela ed risks, such as de ores amanagemen and ood securi y issues. Bio uels are expensive and primarily sui able oranspor a ion sec or.


39/196


ei her. An impor an energy source is na ural gas. However, becauseo i s uneven dis ribu ion, here is grea unres in he world. Poli ical

ensions are in danger o escala ing in o mili ary conic s.Because o he unreliable supply, he developed coun ries wi h no

resources o na ural gas, rely more on renewable energy sources suchas bio uels, bu in developing coun ries his op ion is less affordable,so hey mus con inue burning coal. I is bad or hem, and i is bad or everyone. e amoun o CO2 in he a mosphere will keepincreasing, and, wi h he accelera ing greenhouse effec , he globalclima e change will make he si ua ion ever worse.

e global average empera ure will keep rising. e glaciers willdisappear, he sea level will rise, he coas lines will become deluged.

e wea her paterns will change, he deser s will expand, he arablelands will shrink, and he ores s will die. Gradually some areas oEar h will become prac ically uninhabi able, making he si ua ion all

he worse in areas s ill having essen ial resources like resh wa er. e world will be grey, i no dark.

1.3.5 Blue Globe

Te Blue Globe is a marke -orien ed, prosperous world. U ili ies power ourlives wi h a focus on large-scale coal and nuclear plan s. Policy is drivenby wo key fac ors: he need for economic grow h and curbing emissions.

Wind powere con inuous grow h o urbine size, developmen o ma erials and advances in eng

make wind power a compe i ive source o energy, especially onshore.However, he vas majori y o he worlds wind po en ial is loca ed ou a sea

he op imal oa ing s ruc ures needed o posi ion wind urbines is s ill a work in in ermitency and he difficul y o orecas ing he winds are also challenging. Diffepaterns affec he availabili y o power, he ques ions being how well his coincides wi h high demand. Ye , wind power is growing rapidly, and global capaci y

ac or is expec ed o be ypically 2030%.


40/196


Carbon cap ure and s orage has become he key solu ion, allowing us okeep using coal in exis ing and new plan s. ranspor a ion has been elec ried and hus ranspor has less impac on he environmen . Te subsequenreduc ion in oil demand has led o a res ruc uring in geopoli ical ne works.

e demands in he Blue Globe scenario are somewha con radic-ory: main ain he economic grow h, bu , a he same ime, curb

emissions. Ever since he beginning o indus rializa ion, economicgrow h has been possible because he environmen al issues were noconsidered impor an . Only afer he awareness o he impendingdisas er or he environmen increased and he public opinion urnedincreasingly in avor o pro ec ing he na ure, did he si ua ionchange. No more pollu ions, no more emissions. A leas no as muchas earlier.

o achieve his goal, here is a our-poin ac ion programme:

Clear caps on greenhouse gas emissions with exibility on how toreach hem. Active development of carbon trading markets. For coal-based power generation, only CCS-capable ultrasuper-

cri ical plan s permited o be buil . Cross-border task force to speed up the commercialization of CCS.

Electric vehicles

Elec ric vehicles (EV) and hybrids as ransi-ion phase can help in solving many prob-lems, bu only i he hear he batery iss rong enough. Elec ric vehicles wi h li hium bateries are energy-efficien , increase energysecuri y and reduce emissions (even houghmos elec rici y is crea ed wi h ossil uels).

ey could also crea e a vir ual s orage orenergy, which allows us o use more renew-ables like wind and solar.

Elec ric vehicles are no per ec ye ,however. ey are s ill expensive, and heymay replace he addic ion o oil wi h anaddic ion o li hium. In addi ion, using heEVs as vir ual energy s orage will requirea billion dollar smar grid.


41/196


Carbon capture and storage

Carbon cap ure and s orage (CCS) rom coal power plan s has considerable po en ial cuting carbon dioxide emissions, as coal accoun s curren ly or abou 40% o global egenera ion.

Making CCS ully unc ional s ill requires much work bo h in he cap uring prand he requiremen s se by i . Challenges in ins alling CCS include massive cos s in ras ruc ure, a po en ial decrease in he efficiency o a plan , an increase in wa

ion and nding sui able loca ions or s orage. I is clear ha scien is s have heor hem in or hcoming years.

Various pilo projec s are in he pipeline and he rs commercial applica ions cseen in 2020.

Main aining economic grow h requires cheap energy, and iis acquired wi h he increased use o coal. e downside o his is

increased emissions, bu hey have been elimina ed wi h carboncap ure and s orage. In addi ion o coal, impor an energy sources arenuclear power and wind energy. oge her hey ull he increasingdemand or elec rici y, which is widely used also in ranspor a ion.

is, in urn, is diminishing he emissions o he vehicles previouslyone o he bigges sources o CO2.

1.3.6 Green Earth

Te Green Ear h scenario is shaped by individual ci izens, consumers andvo ers. Na ural disas ers associa ed wi h clima e change have shown us ha

he consumers mus do some hing abou he changing clima e. Using na ural gas as a ransi ion fuel, focus is on renewables such as wind and solar power.Te world economy grows a a modes sus ainable pace and he geopoli icalsi ua ion is s able. People accep he scarci y of resources and live sus ainably no unwillingly.

On he Green Ear h living is hough anew. e awareness ohe environmen and especially o he reali y and severi y o clima e


42/196


change has made people o change heir way o living and consuming.

Ins ead o s riving or he cheapes possible produc s, people valueenvironmen al- riendly, energy-efficien and sus ainable produc ion. Bo hproduc s and services have li e-cycles less harm ul or he environmen .

apid or exponen ial economic grow h is no longer he key issue orhe ul ima e goal; world economy is s ill growing, bu a a modes and

consequen ly sus ainable pace.Energy-efficiency reduces he demand or cheap energy coal and

he developmen and use o renewable sources oge her wi h mass rans-por a ion and elec ric vehicles reduce demand or oil. Elec rici y is pro-duced in lesser amoun s in big, cen ralized uni s, and in larger amoun slocally wi h wind, solar power and o her renewables. Wi h new smar

echnology, households are capable o op imising heir use o elec rici y,and have a real impac on he marke .

ird world, he coun ries wi h scarce resources o heir own o realizehese demands, will be aided by he Wes ern world wi h echnologyrans er and aid packages. is will emphasize he ac ha i is up o us

all o make he bes possible u ure or us, or our children, and or heirchildren. Everywhere on he Ear h, he Green Ear h.


43/196


Solar power

e Sun is he ul ima e source o energy and li e on ear h. I provides us wi h a po eunlimi ed amoun o ree, albei in ermiten energy wi hou emiting CO2. us ar, exploi ingsolar energy has no been cos -effec ive, bu rapidly expanding supplies o high-gradegrowing produc ion capaci y and new advanced echnologies are making solar energy osolu ions or he global energychallenge.

For large-scale genera ion,concen ra ed solar plan s (CSP)have been he norm bu recen lymul i-megawat pho ovol aic(PV) solar plan s have becomemore common. Wi h echnolo-

gies sui able or bo h large andsmall scale produc ion, solarpower may revolu ionise ourpercep ion o energy.


44/196


45/196


Elec rici y is he very basis o our civiliza ion. Afer he rs uexperimen s i began o permea e socie y. Curren ly we are acia u ure o ever-increasing demand or elec rici y. And his demamus be ullled, keeping in mind he o her big issues o he uFor una e or us, a he momen we are equipped wi h more proscien ic knowledge and beter echnological capabili ies han ever be ore.

Bo h human his ory and he his ory o li e on Ear h in generalled wi h examples o he impor ance o exibili y and especiconsequences caused by he lack o i .

Te s rive or exibili y is he key issue in he u ure o enerelec rici y produc ion.

Tere is no Philosophers S one o solve he problems we areacing in he u ure. And here is no single, simple solu ion. Desphe globaliza ion he condi ions in differen socie ies, coun ries,

con inen s are very differen rom each o her. Tis has o be akenaccoun in rying o nd he bes solu ion or each case.

And here are solu ions o be ound, a se o solu ions o bein differen si ua ions and in differen condi ions. We have o g wha kind o a u ure we are aiming a , and hen make he righ


46/196


47/196

Elec ric energy is a crucial ingredien or crea ing weal hand com or . Demand or elec ric power will here oredras ically increase in he world during he nex decades.Te skill is in producing elec rici y in a sus ainable andeconomic way. Ta is why he search or affordablerenewable resources and efficien processes con inues.Tis chap er discusses he role o elec rici y in heeconomy and he possible sources o primary energy orpower genera ion.

Electricity highly in demand

by Jacob Klimstra


48/196


2.1 The role of electricity in the economy

Elec ric energy crea es weal h in he world by powering ac ories andservices. I is elec rici y ha drives au oma ic manu ac uring processes,resul ing in a wide range o quali y consump ion produc s. Elec ric

ools provide crafsmen wi h ample power, as wi h elec ric drills andsaws, hus dras ically increasing heir produc ivi y. In addi ion, elec ricenergy is consumed because o weal h: i increases com or in homes by powering ligh ing, air-condi ioning, cookers, washers and dryers.For he individual consumer, elec rici y is a unique energy source orpopular en er ainmen as offered hrough elevision, he in erne andmusical ins rumen s. e vacuum cleaner is a simple example o howelec rici y remendously suppor s human beings. Powered by a wokilowat elec ric mo or, a modern vacuum cleaner has abou 40 imes

he power capaci y o a person using a dus pan and brush. Moreover,

cleaning wi h a dus pan and brush has never been un, is no heal hyand no as effec ive as a vacuum cleaner. e elec ric energy needed orhal an hour o vacuum cleaning migh cos only be ween 10 and 30eurocen s. One migh righ ly s a e ha in his case, elec rici y subs an-

ially increases he produc ivi y o he cleaner a very low cos s. Un or-una ely, a his momen abou 1.4 billion people in he world have no

access o elec rici y. A close rela ionship exis s be ween a coun rys elec rici y use and

i s weal h level. Economis s ofen use he Gross Domes ic Produc(GDP) per capi a o express weal h level. e GDP per capi a is by

deni ion he mone ary value o he amoun o goods and servicesproduced per person per year in a coun ry. e US dollar generallyserves as he common mone ary uni when comparing he GDP odifferen coun ries. ere is, however, a complica ion: he buyingpower o he US$ varies considerably rom coun ry o coun ry. Asan example, he price o a s andard bag o groceries i expressed inUS$ is abou ve imes lower in India han in he USA. a is why

he GDP is ofen expressed in he local purchasing power o he US$.is is he so-called GDP in Purchase Power Pari y, he GDP (PPP).e GDP (PPP) per person is a much beter indica or o he s andard

o living han jus he GDP per person. Using he GDP (PPP) as anindica or o economic ac ivi y helps o rela e he GDP o weal h level based on hings, on produc s and services, ra her han on jus moneyexpressed in he US$.

I will be clear now ha a higher GDP (PPP) is connec ed wi ha higher elec rici y supply. Figure 2.2 shows he elec rici y use and

he GDP (PPP) per capi a o a number o coun ries or he year2008. e red line in he gure gives he rend i he average o

Figure 2.1: Productivity increase athome by using electricity.

50 watt

2000watt

Power increase factor 40


49/196

2 Electricity highly in demand 49

elec rici y use and GDP (PPP) or all coun ries in he world (= 9549US$ in GDP (PPP)/capi a and 2782 kWh/capi a in 2008) is linearlyexpanded. Poorer coun ries, wi h a GDP (PPP) lower han 5000US$ per capi a, do no ollow his rend be ween elec rici y use andGDP (PPP). Also weal hy coun ries show large devia ions rom his

rend. is is because elec rici y consump ion per person can berela ively high when primary energy is abundan ly and cheaply avail-able. ela ively high elec rici y consump ion is also he case i localambien empera ures are ex remely high or low. Finland or examplehas long, cold, win ers, opera es energy-in ensive indus ries and useselec rici y ex ensively or hea ing. e Uni ed Arab Emira es are hoand need much cooling power in summer. Coun ries such as urkeyand Argen ina use rela ively litle elec rici y because o good clima esand much income rom rade and services ins ead o heavy indus ry.In very poor coun ries, such as A ghanis an and Pakis an, as well as

A rica sou h o he equa or, elec rici y use per person is close o zero.Sou h A rica is wi h i s 10,900 US$ o GDP (PPP) and 4800 kWh/capi a in 2008 clearly an excep ion on he A rican con inen . In

ussia, elec rici y is cheap, which is why limi ing i s use does no

Figure 2.2: Electricity use in relationshipwith GDP (PPP), data year 2008.


50/196


yield much nancial savings or a cus omer. Con rary o public belie ,China closely s he global rend o elec rici y use versus GDP(PPP). Al hough GDP (PPP) and elec rici y use are no really linearlyrela ed, he posi ive correla ion be ween he wo quan i ies is clear.

e red line in gure 2.2 represen s by deni ion he average elec-rici y in ensi y o he worlds economies. is elec rici y in ensi y can

be expressed in kWh/US$, in kWh/, in kWh/Yuan or wha ever onepre ers. One migh say ha ollowing he red line means ha , on heaverage, puting one ex ra kilowathour (kWh) o elec ric energy in o

he economy resul s in a GDP (PPP) increase o 3.5 US$ (US$ value year 2000). is number applies a leas or he year 2008. e coso elec rici y or indus ries and commercials varies roughly be ween5 and 15 US$ cen s per kWh in he world. e connec ed economicleveraging ac or o elec ric energy is here ore huge, ranging be ween23 and 70.

An example will be used o illus ra e he amoun o energyrepresen ed by one kilowathour (1 kWh). o genera e one kWh, anaverage person has o drive a 100-wat genera or wi h his legs or 10hours. e 100 wat is abou he maximum ha a person can yieldduring such a long ime span. o ex end he example: an annual elec-

Figure 2.3: A person has on the average aleg power of about 100 watt


51/196


rici y consump ion o 8000 kWh averaged per ci izen, common incoun ries such as Japan and Germany, would require abou 10 peopleper ci izen pedalling on a home- rainer genera or permanen ly around

he clock. is illus ra es he large scale o assis ance humankindreceives rom elec rici y. I goes even ur her: nobody can con inu-ously work around he clock. ere ore, wi h a more realis ic eighhours o work per day, a pedalling crew o a leas 30 people would be needed o produce he elec rici y consumed by one person in

hose coun ries. I no o her resources han manpower were available,an average household o our persons in he developed world wouldrequire some 4 30 = 120 energy slaves o produce he elec rici y

or keeping he economy going. And his s ill excludes he o her ormso energy use. I all energy use is included, an average Bri ish ci izenneeds 45 energy slaves working 24/7. is o als 4 3 45 = 540energy slaves per amily o our when he slaves work only eigh

hours per day. I is here ore a huge advan age or humankind ohave non-human energy resources or producing elec rici y and o herenergy needs.

A large par o he elec ric energy supplied in developed coun riesis used or indus rial produc ion processes. In 2008, he worldsindus ries consumed 42% (7.8 PWh) o all elec rici y supplied.

ranspor , primarily elec ric rains and rams, used only 1.5%. eres o elec rici y consump ion was roughly equally divided be weenservices (e.g. hospi als, offices, schools) and he domes ic sec or.

is is in sharp con ras wi h common belie ha households are he

larges consumers o elec ric energy. e patern may o course differsomewha or individual coun ries, depending upon he na ure ohe economy and he clima e. Especially he service sec or bene s

largely rom elec rici y; using compu ers and elec ronic da a exchangecan increase an employees produc ivi y by more han a ac or 1000compared wi h radi ional calcula ion and da a-handling me hods.

Global elec rici y use shows an almos cons an grow h wi hime. Nowadays, mos o his grow h occurs in expanding economies.

Developing coun ries here ore receive an increasing por ion oelec rici y. is is a good sign, since he unequal dis ribu ion o weal h in he world as illus ra ed in gure 2.2 is no air and nosus ainable. In 2008, he OECD coun ries, which cover only 18% o

he worlds popula ion, used 54% o all elec rici y produced. en yearsearlier he OECD coun ries used s ill 62%, so here is or una ely aposi ive rend owards a beter weal h dis ribu ion. Expec a ions andhopes are ha mos people in he world will ul ima ely have access

o a reasonable amoun o elec ric energy. e second reason oran increase in global elec rici y consump ion is popula ion grow h.


52/196


Figure 2.4 shows he developmen in popula ion, in o al GDP (PPP)as well as in elec rici y use in he world and in he OECD coun riesduring he years 1997 o 2008. e number 100 in gure 2.4 coun sas he re erence value or he year 1997. e da a or he world as a whole show again he solid rela ionship be ween GDP (PPP) andelec rici y use. A he end o he pas decade, he OECD coun rieshad an obvious devia ion be ween he rends in GDP (PPP) andelec rici y use. wo effec s caused his. One is he occurrence o

emporarily overvalued economies, especially due o he house-price bubble, which led o exaggera ed values o GDP. e o her is a shifo energy use o coun ries such as China and India o produce goods

or he OECD consumers. I he curren rends in popula ion grow hand in economic grow h do con inue, he need or elec ric energy willcon inue o increase subs an ially.

Figure 2.4: Recent trends in population,GDP (PPP) and electricity use (year1997 = 100).

e Energy In orma ion Adminis ra ion (EIA) o he USAes ima es ha annual elec rici y use in he world will reach 33 PWh by he year 2030, wi h a con inuing upward rend, as shown in gure2.5. is 33 PWh is a subs an ial 65% more han he 20 PWh in 2010.

e In erna ional Energy Agency (IEA), based in Paris, released iden-ical gures, somewha depending, however, on scenarios on how he


53/196


world will develop. A 2011 Exxon scenario predic s global elec rici ydemand o reach 28 PWh by 2030.

For Europe, Eurelec ric, he Union o he Elec rici y Indus ryrepresen ing he sec or on a pan-European level, closely ollows heOECD line as given in gure 2.5. However, or he ur her ex ended

ime span rom 2010 un il 2040, Eurelec ric oresees a grow h inelec rici y use in he EU o 45% in case o heir Baseline Scenario, or

even 60% in case o heir Power Choices Scenario. is means haal hough primary energy demand in he EU migh decrease becauseo efficiency measures, elec rici y use in he EU will ur her growand migh cover 45% (4.8 PWh) o nal energy demand by 2050.Curren ly, in 2010, only 20% (3.1 PWh) o nal energy demand inEurope is covered by elec rici y. is makes i very clear: wi hin a ewdecades, much more elec ric energy will be used and economies willprimarily be powered by elec rici y.

e rend o elec rici y becoming he pre erred and dominanenergy carrier o he u ure has a couple o causes. Firs ly, igh eninglegisla ion or insula ion o buildings makes ha energy demand orhea ing in houses and offices will dras ically decrease. Elec ric heapumps are hen a beter op ion han he now-so-common oil-redand gas-red boilers. Hea demand will simply be oo small o jus i y

he cos s o connec ing homes o a gas grid and inves ing in gas-red boilers. Hea pumps in combina ion wi h solar wa er hea ers andpho o vol aic cells can provide he required com or in an energy-efficien way.

Figure 2.5: Past and projected globalelectricity use in the world accordingto the US Energy InformationAdministration.


54/196


e second reason or an increase in elec rici y use is hepredic ed rapid adven o elec ric vehicles. Oil, curren ly he mainsource o energy or vehicles, will rapidly increase in price because ohigher global demand and decline o easily accessible resources. Nex

o ha , elec ric vehicles do no produce local emissions. Fuel-basedpower s a ions producing he elec rici y or he vehicles will s ill haveemissions, especially greenhouse gas emissions. I carbon cap ureand s orage will work in an economic way, he emission o hosegreenhouse gases could be reduced.

e hird reason or higher elec rici y demand is rela ed wi hsocie ys desire or elec ronic gadge s. All popular communica ion anden er ainmen ac ivi ies run on elec ric energy. Figure 2.6 shows heexpec ed global rends in elec rici y use or elevision, mobile phonesand he in erne . In 2010, already 5% o global elec rici y use wen o

hese communica ion devices. By he year 2030, he elec rici y con-

sump ion o such applica ions is expec ed o reach almos 2000 Wh.Figure 2.6: History and predictionof energy use by electronic gadgetsaccording to the IEA (Gadgets andGigawatts report)

e recen pas already showed a subs an ial grow h in he roleo elec rici y in nal energy consump ion in he world. In 1973,elec rici y was responsible or only 6.5% o nal energy demand, bu

ha doubled o 13% in 2008. Un or una ely, he average energe icefficiency o he elec rici y sec or, including produc ion, ransmissionand dis ribu ion, is s ill only 37%, no wi hs anding improvemen s in

uel efficiency o power s a ions. ere ore, more han a hird o he worlds o al primary energy supply ( PES) is curren ly needed orelec rici y produc ion. Expec a ions are ha by he year 2030, 40%


55/196


o PES is needed or elec rici y produc ion and by he year 2050 upo 50%.

In summary, he consump ion patern o energy will dras icallychange, wi h an increasing dominance o elec rici y. By he end o

he 21s cen ury, only power s a ions and indus ries ha produceer ilisers, plas ics, base me als and chemicals migh use primary uels

direc ly. Elec rici y will cover almos all o her energy needs. ismeans ha he role o he elec rici y sec or will con inue o growsubs an ially in impor ance in he global economy.

Figure 2.7: Personal communicationdevices and electricity use, situation2010.

kilo k Thousand 1000

mega M Million 1 000 000 giga G Billion 1 000 000 000tera T Trillion 10 12 peta P Quadrillion 10 15exa E Quintillion 10 18zetta Z Sextillion 10 21 yotta Y Septillion 10 24


56/196


2.2 Production of electricity

Famous names such as omas Alva Edison, George Wes inghouse andNikola esla are orever connec ed wi h he adven o elec ric energy. Around 1890, some small power s a ions s ar ed o produce elec rici y, which was dis ribu ed via ne works o limi ed size. eciproca ing s eamengines and gas- uelled in ernal combus ion engines generally provided

he driving power or he genera ors. Dis ribu ion grids were no in er-connec ed, had differen requencies and some imes used direc curren(dc) ins ead o he now common al erna ing curren (ac). Gas urbinesand combined cycles, where he ho exhaus gas o gas urbines is used

o produce s eam or s eam urbines, only became common prac icelong afer he Second World War.

An in eres ing example o an early power plan is he neo-classical building in he Inner Harbour o Bal imore, MD, USA. is coal-red

plan was buil be ween 1900 and 1909 and served ini ially as a powersource or he ci ys elec ric s ree railways. La er, i supplied elec ricFigure 2.8: Former glory: an example ofan early power plant in Baltimore, MD,USA .


57/196

Nuclear

Hydro

GasOil

Coal


energy in o he local grid and provided s eam or hea ing o nearby buildings. e plan became obsole e in he 1970s, was rs urnedin o a nigh club and is now a bookshop.

Coal has always been he dominan energy source or elec rici yproduc ion, as is shown in gure 2.9. In 1973, he share o coal was38%; in 2008, i was abou 40%, albei wi h a much higher amoun o

energy. e role o na ural gas is rising. In 1973, gas covered only 12%o uel use in power plan s and was primarily burned in s eam-basedpower plan s. By 2008, na ural gas covered 21% o he uel supply orelec rici y while gas- urbine-driven combined cycles are s a e-o - hear . enewable sources such as wind, solar PV and biomass coveredonly 3% o global elec rici y produc ion in 2008, no wi hs andingall effor s o s imula ing sus ainabili y. Hydropower showed a rising

rend ill 2000 bu s ayed airly cons an aferwards. Finding newsi es or large hydroelec ric plan s is no easy due o social andenvironmen al cos s. e ree Gorges in China is an in eres ingexample o big new hydropower projec ha was nished by 2011. I smaximum ou pu is 22.5 GW, and i can produce 100 Wh per year.Building his power plan was a huge en erprise, aking abou 15 years

or comple ion. I can cover 3% o Chinas curren elec rici y demand, which is abou 0.5% o global demand. e projec s cos s were heequivalen o abou 23 billion or sligh ly more han 1000 per kWo capaci y. When he plan is in ull opera ion, he capi al inves menis said o be recovered in 10 years ime.

Figure 2.9: Electricity production byprimary energy source, interpolateddata for the years 1973, 1997 and 2008.

( d a t a I E A )


58/196


e Chinese ree Gorges hydro plan was much cheaper o build han a modern nuclear power plan . An example o a newnuclear projec is he 1600 MW Olkiluo o 3 plan in Finland.Because o environmen al concern o ci izens, i needed a huge lead

ime or ob aining he necessary permi s. e process ook eigh years his ar: hree or planning and ve or building. e es ima edinves men cos s o he plan o 3750 /kW are qui e high, bu somesee his as a learning process. Expec a ions are ha u ure nuclearplan s o his ype will cos abou 3000 /kW, depending however on

he echnology used. Nuclear plan s are based on a s eam cycle: heiruel efficiency is generally aken as only abou 36%. In comparison,

gas- uelled combined cycle plan s cos abou 750 /kW. Somesources s a e ha coal-red plan s wi hou carbon cap ure migh cosabou 1500 /kW bu o her re erences men ion gures as high as2700 /kW.

2.3 Elements determining the kWh costs

In a compe i ive elec rici y marke , he produc ion cos s per kWhde ermine he oppor uni ies or pro o a power plan . ese produc-

ion cos s are he sum o cos s origina ing rom capi al inves men s, ueluse, opera ion and main enance, insurance, nal demoli ion, as well asemission (NO X , CO2) dues. Elabora e models exis o de ermine heproduc ion cos s. Chap er 4 will go in o more de ails abou he cos s.

For a decision maker o a new power plan projec , proper long-

erm projec ions o developmen s in capi al cos s and uel cos s are very impor an . Eurelec ric expec s ha he price o na ural gas canriple in 40 years ime, while he price o coal migh only increase

by 40% during ha ime. O her sources predic ha abundanresources o gas, especially wi h he curren produc ion possibili ieso unconven ional gas sources, will keep he gas price rela ively s able. A problem wi h coal is i s high CO2 emission per kWh. In manycoun ries, policy makers in roduced CO2 rading o s imula e powergenera ion wi h low greenhouse gas emissions. In addi ion, hey haveconsidered caps on carbon emissions as well as axes. I carbon cap-

ure and seques ra ion does no work ou or coal-red power plan s,he emission cos s migh be so high ha coal use will no be he

righ op ion. is uncer ain y migh cause pre erence o be given onuclear power plan s, no wi hs anding heir high inves men per kWand uncer ain ies abou long- erm s orage o nuclear was e. Nuclear

uel cos s only abou 1 /GJ, al hough his price could go up wi hincreasing demand. I will be clear ha reaching he righ decisionregarding inves men s in new power plan s will no be easy, especially


59/196


Figure 2.10: The Three Gorges hydropower dam.

since he payback ime and re urn o inves men s can exceed 25 years.Business leaders and policy makers migh go or he shor - erm solu-

ion, ignore he u ure and re ire as soon as reali y s ar s o differ romexpec a ions. A reliable and affordable elec rici y supply is essen ial

or he economy, and, here ore, i is crucial ha he bes long- ermdecisions are aken.

e overview o curren uel resources and heir expec ed declinein gure 2.12 par ly explains he reason or uncer ain y wi h respec

o uel prices. Oil has a high volume ric energy densi y, which makesi very convenien as a uel or ranspor a ion purposes. Demand oroil could easily ou pace produc ion, especially since he more easily


60/196

Seal

Gas source rock

Gas reservoir (sandstone)


accessible resources are dwindling. ecen s udies show ha demandor oil migh s ill increase rom he curren 70- 80 million barrels per

day, o 110 million barrels per day in 2030. e ex ra demand or oil isespecially coming rom China, India and oil expor ing coun ries. eamoun o 110 million barrels per day is equal o 220 EJ o energy per

year. Na ural gas can par ly replace oil, e.g. in ranspor a ion and asa eeds ock or he chemical indus ry, bu i s resources are also ni e.e adven o rela ively easy accessible unconven ional gas has now

increased he sum o proven and newly o be ound global gas reserveso an es ima ed 17,000 exajoule. a could cover global gas demand

deep in o he 21s Cen ury, a leas i he curren consump ion levelis main ained. Unconven ional gas consis s o shale gas, igh gas andcoal-bed me hane. Shale gas is rapped in easily rac ured shale layers.

igh gas si s in hard rock orma ions and coal-bed me hane is oundin coal layers. One has o ake in o accoun ha grea uncer ain iesexis abou he amoun o economically recoverable unconven ionalgas. e o al es ima ed gas reserves are also shown in gure 2.12.

e World Energy Ou look 2010 o he IEA predic s a possibles eady increase in gas use rom 3100 Gm3/year in 2010 o 4500Gm3/year (= abou 160 EJ/year) in 2035. e Exxon 2010 scenarioes ima es gas use a 5000 Gm3/year already by 2030. Mos o hegas resources are in he Middle Eas (30%), ussia (20%) and Nor h America (18%). Many rapidly developing and indus rialised coun ries

Figure 2.11 : The various elementsdetermining the costs of electricity.


61/196


in he world will compe e or his gas. Areas wi h indigenous gasresources will have he huge advan age o possessing a reliable andrela ively clean energy source. ere is however a risk ha because o

he large gas resources, many developmen s aimed a replacing ossiluels will be ei her reduced or pos poned. One has o bear in mindha renewable resources such as wind and solar power are in ermi -en in charac er and ofen need back up rom uel-based genera ors.

Saving he gas reserves or use as a back-up uel is a beter op ion han burning i all as quickly as possible.

2.4 Renewable energy sources

2.4.1 Solar radiation

Wi h he exclusion o nuclear and geo hermal energy, mos energyresources on and in his world origina e rom he sun. e sun can beseen as a huge nuclear reac or wi h a radia ing power o 300 millionexawat. When his is ully writen ou , i is 300 000 000 000 000 000000 000 000 wat. e sur ace o he ear h, being jus a very small parin he o al radia ion sphere o he sun, receives only abou a hal o a billion h o his energy, equalling some 160 PW. In he year 2008, he

o al primary energy supply o he worlds economies was 12,267 mega-onne oil equivalen , equalling 514 exajoule. Averaging his amoun o

energy over a ull year means a con inuous energy ow o 16.3 erawat( W). is is only 0.01% o he 160 PW o energy ha he sur ace o

he ear h receives rom he sun. Suppose ha wi h a air dis ribu iono weal h, all habi an s o he world would use he same amoun o

Figure 2.12: Estimated reserves of themajor fossil fuels in the world and theirdepletion.


62/196


energy as he average US ci izen uses oday. In ha case, he o al pri-mary energy inpu o he world should be our imes as high as oday.

a would mean ha cap uring sligh ly less han 0.05 % o he energyradia ed rom he sun o he sur ace o he ear h would be sufficien orproviding everyone wi h plen y o energy. e ac is ha cap uring hisamoun o energy is no easy. Geologis s have calcula ed ha i ook heear h some million years o build up he ossil uel resources ha areused now in one year. e curren use o ossil uels resembles a rapiddischarge o he ear h as a batery, while charging i ook an aeon.

Vege a ion has a low efficiency o cap uring solar energy. Fores sand whea have a cap uring efficiency o only 0.25%, while s raw isrela ively much beter wi h abou 2%. Everybody will agree ha even2% is s ill a very low number since one canno cover he world wi hs raw producing plan s. As an illus ra ion, i all grain produced in he world would be conver ed in o liquid bio uel, i would cover only

10% o all curren pe rol use. In his respec , pho o vol aic cells wi hheir solar-energy cap uring efficiency o 10 o 15% per orm much beter han mos plan s. However, plan s will reproduce, whereassolar cells mus be replaced regularly. A major problem in producingelec rici y rom direc solar radia ion is he unpredic abili y and vari-abili y o sunshine. Coun ries in he higher la i udes, such as Canadaand Finland, lack he necessary sunshine a hose imes o he dayand year when elec rici y is needed mos . For una ely, in areas suchas he Middle Eas and Mexico, he peak in solar radia ion prac icallycoincides wi h he maximum need or cooling buildings.

ranspor ing elec ric energy via high vol age lines rom sunshinecoun ries o darker and colder coun ries is s ill prohibi ed by herequired massive inves men s. Le us use an illus ra ive example. edis ance rom he sunny Sahara o nor herly Finland is some 5000kilome er. An ac ransmission line o his leng h would be uns able because o he phase shif be ween vol age and curren and wouldin roduce energy losses o abou 10% per 1000 km. An emergingal erna ive is using high-vol age dc lines. Such dc lines lose abou


63/196


64/196

Pumped hydro storage

dc transmission lines

PV cells Sahara


i o herwise peaking power had o be ins alled or covering day imepeaks around noon. Expec a ions, or a leas hopes, are ha due o

echnological developmen s and compe i ion, he price o PV cells will drop o below 1000 /kW (peak). In Spain, he annual averagesolar radia ion in ensi y is abou 5100 Wh/m2 per day (see gure2.15). In London and Helsinki, he number drops o abou 3100 Wh/(m2day). e correla ion be ween ligh in ensi y and he season ingure 2.15 is obvious. In he darker seasons, he irradia ion rom hesun is subs an ially lower han in summer. In December in London,

only 1000 Wh/(m2

day) is received versus 5800 Wh/(m2

day) on asummer day. In Helsinki, he difference is even larger. e daily pa -ern in solar irradia ion resul s in an averaged level ha a maximum

reaches roughly 30% o he peak level. In prac ice, he variabili y insolar irradia ion including cloud effec s make ha he capaci y ac oro a PV cell a he men ioned loca ions will never reach a value higher

han 20% over he year. In coun ries wi h a la i ude higher han 50,a capaci y ac or o 10% or less is a more realis ic gure.

Ano her op ion or cap uring solar energy is using solar radia ionor s eam produc ion. is echnology is called Concen ra ed Solar

Power and uses mirrors o concen ra e he solar radia ion rom overa large area on a small plane o crea e a high empera ure. Par o hehea cap ured will be used direc ly or s eam- urbine driven genera-

ors o genera e elec rici y, while ano her par will be s ored in specialmol en sal s or use when he sun is no shining. is means hasuch a concep could also produce elec rici y during he nigh . Issuesare s ill presen wi h capi al cos s o a leas 4000 /kW and wi hreaching a good efficiency.

Figure 2.14: Investments per kW forgenerating electricity for Finland withphotovoltaics in the Sahara.


65/196


Figure 2.15: Typical characteristicsof solar energy irradiation at threedifferent locations + solar power inMadrid on sunny days.

2.4.2 Wind power

Wind, a renewable energy source indirec ly caused by solar radia ion,also has problems o variabili y. A an op imum loca ion, generallyoffshore, a wind-mill-driven genera or will only run a i s nominal(= name pla e) power during 30% o he ime, while a mos land-basedloca ions ha will ake place may be 20% o he ime. An exampleo he dependence o he ou pu o a wind urbine on wind speed isgiven in gure 2.16. Because wind speed varies in ime, he ou pu o

a wind park can have a dis ribu ion during he year as shown in gure2.17. A capaci y ac or o 25% o 35% is he bes ha can be expec ed.Figure 2.16 reveals ha during a large par o he year, individual wind

urbines have no ou pu a all. ere ore, wind parks always needs back-up power. Al hough 24-hour wind level orecas s are qui e accura e, wind speeds can change quickly and unpredic ably so ha he back-upcapaci y should have he abili y o reac very as . able 2.1 compares

he wind speed expressed in m/s wi h kno s and he Beau or scale,since he later scale is more amiliar or mos readers.

Difficul si ua ions arise especially when a wind park is opera inga i s nominal ou pu and he wind speed suddenly increases o values where he wind urbines have o be shu down o preven damage.

a happened or ins ance in Denmark on January 8, 2005. As aresul , elec rici y produc ion by wind power dropped rom 2000 MW

o abou 200 MW in a very shor ime. Such an even happened ona smaller scale in he Nor h Plain o Germany on Augus 23, 2010, when a severe s orm passed by. e arrays o wind mills were ini iallyspinning a maximum capaci y when hey had o be s opped due o


66/196


Table 2.1: Comparison of wind speed units wind descrip ion beau or kno s m/scalm 0 01 00.5

ligh air 1 13 0.51.5ligh breeze 2 46 23gen le breeze 3 710 3.55modera e breeze 4 1116 5.58

resh breeze 5 1721 8.510.5s rong breeze 6 2227 1113.5near gale 7 2833 1416.5gale 8 3440 1720s rong gale 9 4147 20.523.5

s orm 10 4855 2427.5 violen s orm 11 5663 2831.5hurricane 12 63 ++ 31.5 +++

Figure 2.16: Output of a modern windturbine adapted for high wind speedsdepending upon wind speed, with anominal output of 2 MW.


67/196


Figure 2.17: Typical power outputdistribution of a wind-mill-drivengenerator at an optimum location (blue)and a standard location (red) during a year (= 8760 hours).

he high winds. A he same ime, i became dead dark so ha ligh inghad o be swi ched on in a wide area, meaning a subs an ial increasein elec rici y demand. Such even s require a subs an ial amoun orapid back-up genera ing capaci y.

2.4.3 Solid bio fuels

In 2010, abou hal o he world popula ion, roughly 2.7 billion people,s ill used bio uels or preparing meals, ofen wi h pollu ing s oves inpoorly ven ila ed hu s. I is es ima ed by he IEA ha more people die

rom his pollu ion han rom malaria. Cow dung, wood rom he oresand residues rom agricul ural crops are he uels hose people com-monly use. Bio uels are es ima ed o cover abou 10% o all energy usein he world. eir con ribu ion o elec rici y produc ion is s ill neg-ligible. Al hough he solar energy

smart power generation 4th edition

Documents